Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980
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Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980 KAGAWA Takashi Kyoto University of Education KOGA Shinji Ritsumeikan University NEDA Katsuhiko Nara University of Education Abstract Already more than 30 years have passed since the IGC was held in Tokyo. In that time, Japan’s cities have gone through major transformations, but that is in large part due to having experienced the appreciation of land values during the bubble economy of the late 1980s. In urban cores during the bubble, land rushes drove prices to appreciate, and that spilled over into the suburbs as well. The supply of residences in suburbs grew, and this facilitated the expansion of business and commercial functions into the suburbs. However, the drop in and stabilisation of land prices following the collapse of the bubble prompted the supply of tower ― type condominiums in the surrounding areas of CBDs and also had a tremendous impact on the expansion of business function and retail sites. This paper tackles what urban geography involves and what it explains about environmental changes in urban areas of Japan. After the collapse of the bubble, people were impacted on a global scale by synchronised terrorist attacks, the Lehman Shock and other events. The various activities of people living and working in cities often became the focus of urban geographical studies, and that continues to this day. This paper sheds light on that trend in Japan’s geography circles. Key words : urban geography, residences, offices, retailing, 1980s and later, Japan I Introduction This paper assesses trends in urban geography since “Geography of Japan”（Association of Japanese put together at the time of the Tokyo IGC in 1980. Abe, K.（1996a, 2008）and Taira, A.（2008）have already summarised trends in urban geography in Japan, so in this paper a list of literature not covered in sufficient detail has been put together to discuss trends in urban geography since the 1980s through analysis of same. In view of the wide range of study subjects, which is a characteristic of urban geography, the focus has been divided broadly into the three areas of ‘living and residences’, ‘business functions and offices’ and ‘buying （selling） and commerce’. Takashi Kagawa was in charge of Abstract, Chapter 1 （‘Introduction’）, Chapter 2 （‘Living and Residences’）and Chapter 5（‘Conclusion’） , Shinji Koga was in charge of Chapter 3（‘Business Functions and Offices’）, and Katsuhiko Neda was in charge of Chapter 4（‘Buying（Selling）and Commerce’）. The Geographers, 1980）was ― 25 ― 498 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） three authors have been working on this paper in order of assignment serving for the past five years as chair of the Metropolitan Area Study Group of the Human Geographical Society of Japan （Neda is currently serving）. For editing convenience, the authors have each worked on their respective categories and made the minimum adjustments necessary, such as making the writing style consistent. Additionally, there is a very large amount of literature covered, so the three authors worked together to come up with a user ― friendly format. Nevertheless, the characteristics of the three aforementioned areas differ, so the authors were unable to unify the appearance of the Tables in each chapter. There were also many works that could not be selected because their themes deviated slightly from the categories above. Specifically, there are more than a few omissions of articles on urban geography methodology and urban systems. There were also articles that were introduced in two or more of the three areas covered in this paper. Moreover, the journals selected by each of the authors when searching for literature also differ slightly. It is true that there are excellent studies in journals that were not included in the search, and independent volumes （books） without English titles have been carefully selected in the subsequent chapters. Incidentally, studies related to urban systems stand out among those published in the 1980s and later related to Japanese urban geography （excluding textbooks, lecture books and commemorative collections）. Examples include Tanabe, K. ed.（1982） , Yamaguchi, T. ed.（1985）, Morikawa, H.（1990）, （1991, 1996b, 2001） （1991a, 2004, 2007）. This is because at a time when urban and Hayashi, N. Abe, K. restructuring was moving forward on a global scale, the results of urban geography in Japan were summarised by mid ― level researchers and above. Additionally, there were many works that provided a close ― up of internal structures in cities that were studied. Examples of these include Todokoro, T.（1986）, Narita, K.（1987）, Hayashi, N.（1991b, 2003）, Hattori, K.（1992）, Takahashi, N. and T. Taniuchi, eds.（1994）, Narita, K.（1995）, Tomita, K.（1995）, Ito, S.（1997）, Ishikawa, Y.（2008） and Inagaki, R. （2011）. These are study results that were in no small part reflected in urban redevelopment and suburban transformations. Additionally, that Abe, K.（2003, 2011）summarised trends in 20th century Japanese urban geography that is another major achievement. It is hoped that the reader will put in a little extra effort to make up for the disunity and inadequacies in the paper arising from having multiple authors. The authors are very pleased to be able to share this review of Japanese urban geography in the 1980s and later with the world, but no job is ever perfect, and there is always room for improvement. Nevertheless, the authors have spared no effort in their earnest attempt. The reader is encouraged to examine the results. II Urban Geographical Trends Related to Residences and Residency Selected Journals and General Trends The journals covered in this chapter are the major five, namely “Geographical Review of Japan”, “Japanese Journal of Human Geography”, “Annals of the Japan Association of Economic Geography”, “Quarterly Journal of Geography” and “Geographical Sciences” along with “Urban 1 Geography of Japan”, which specialises in urban geography,. These journals share something in common in that they have a peer review system. Many of the journals publishing study papers on urban geography are those published by local societies and university bulletins, but this chapter limits its focus to the above six journals in order to maintain clear criteria for selection. However, with respect to “Geographical Review of Japan”, the Series B English version and digital version were also included. By limiting the scope to peer ― reviewed journals, some quality papers ― 26 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 499 will undoubtedly have been omitted, but the authors believe that this is actually better for discussing study trends. On the other hand, as can be seen in Tables 1 to 3, studies on residences and residency are a field within urban geography that has been growing remarkably in recent years. For that reason, there are still not many studies that compile the results. In fact, it is no exaggeration to say that Yui, Y. （1999） is the only one. However, more and more young researchers are involved in residential studies, so it is very likely that the number of studies will increase in the near future. Discussed in this chapter below are study trends in the five fields in question, whether the region covered is domestic or overseas and trends in the regions of study divided into three categories based on an urban structural perspective. These categorisations are the author’s own, but those that span multiple fields and regions are double counted. Therefore, the composition ratios discussed in the following sections sometimes exceed 100%. There are three period classifications : the 1980s in Table 1, the 1990s in Table 2, and 2000 and later in Table 3. Trends in Study Fields Fields of study related to residences are wide ― ranging, but this paper has placed them into five categories for expediency. Those categories are : residential supply, residential structure, residential mobility, residential policy and residential disasters. Based on Tables 1 to 3 and looking at study trends by time period, one can see that studies related to residential supply have the most stable composition ratio. The reason that the ratio drops in the 1990s is that the residential supply was in an abnormal state during the economic bubble, and it took time to ascertain the movement. After the collapse of the bubble economy, land prices in urban cores and other places dropped, and residential supply areas became diverse. A prime example of that are the condominiums supplied in urban cores and surrounding areas of CBDs. Studies on such residential supply can be found here and there among the studies of 2000 and later. Studies on residential structure steadily claimed a higher ratio as time went on. What kind of people and households live in what parts of the city defines the urban structure. Furthermore, because the majority of residences in Japanese cities are built around nuclear family life, when children become independent and look for a place to live, more often than not a new residence is needed. Additionally, in mature suburban residential areas, household sizes shrink as children become independent, and in the course of time, communities form that are mostly elderly. These things are part of the driving force behind changes in urban structure. It is expected that the number of studies on residential structure reflecting these societal changes will continue to increase. Studies on residential trends are also a field of remarkable growth. Behind the increase in such studies are things like the greater selection of residential areas following the collapse of the bubble and the growing prevalence of double income families（DINKs）diversifying the residential submarket. That studies touching on the relationship with population structures are manifested regardless of the time period is indicative of the establishment of studies in the intermediate zone between urban geography and population geography. It is noteworthy that as fields of study fragment, integrated fields grow. The number of studies on residential policy decreased in the 1990s following the collapse of the bubble, but since 2000, they have been on the rise again. In the past, geography has emphasised past and present analyses, but the possibility of connecting it to recommendations ― 27 ― 500 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） Table 1. The list of articles for housing in Japanese major geographical journals（from 1980 to 1989） H R Main theme and field of article M P D J F C S ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ 83 ― 83 ○ 83 ― 83 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 84 ― ― ― ― ― ― U Y are omitted.） ○ 80 Kato, Y. ‘A study of intra ― urban migration in Kobe Metropolitan Area’ Kitamura, Y. et al. ‘The Influence of the city planning act to the urbanization ― 80 area ’ ― 80 Mori, N. ‘Residential pattern and Mobility in Toyonaka City’ Murayama, Y. ‘Dameges of residential area in Sendai and its vicinity caused ○ 80 by ’ Ueno, H. ‘An analysis of out ― migration from Osaka City to the suburban ― 80 zone’ Yamamoto, K. ‘Spatial segregation of the “Gastarbeiter population” in ― 80 Munich’ ○ 81 Fujii, T. ‘Keihanshin Metropolitan Area and satellite cities’ ― 81 Izaki, Y. ‘The residential correspondence between Japanese and other ethnic ’ Kitabatake, J. ‘Housing development in the northwestern hilly part of the ― 81 Nara Basin’ 81 Numano, N. ‘Trends of residential location in a small city’ ― ― 81 Ueno, K. ‘Residential structure of Tokyo during Taisho Era（1920） ’ Matsubara, H. ‘A study of large ― scale residential development by private ― ○ ― 82 railway ’ ○ ○ ― 82 Matsubara, H. ‘The development of large ― scale residential estates by private ’ Mizuuchi, T. ‘Formation and development of the inner city in Osaka during ○ ― ― 82 the ’ ― ― ○ 82 Saito, K. ‘Social and economic structure of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area’ ― ― ○ 82 Takayama, M. ‘Inner city housing problem in the Osaka Metropolitan Region’ ○ ○ ○ 82 Ueno, K. ‘A review on the study of urban residential structures’ ― ○ ― 83 Akagi Y. and Furuta T. ‘The development of large residential sites in the ’ ○ ― ― 83 Hasegawa, N. and Yanase, T. ‘Re ― examination on emptying phenomenon of ’ Hashizume, N. ‘Urbanization and greenery conservation policy in Yachiyo ― ○ ― 83 City, ’ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― 84 ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ― ― 84 84 ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― Author’s name and article’s title （Sub title is omitted. In the case of long title, below 84 Ishizawa, T. and Kuwajima K. ‘Regionalization on age composition by ’ Kaneshiro, M. ‘Changes factors of age composition in New Town Districts’ Takayama, M. ‘Some consideration on aging in Osaka Metropolitan Area’ Tanaka, S. et al. ‘Large ― scale landform transformation due to the urban ’ Kagawa, T. ‘Location of multi ― storied residential buildings in the urban central area’ Katase, K. et al. ‘Residential movement of emproyees of large factory and housing ’ Kitabatake, J. ‘The transformation of the hilly region in the Osaka Plain into ’ Kuwajima, K. ‘Vertical growth of CBD of Sendai and Fukushima’ Mizuuchi, T. ‘Densely inhabited districts of poorer people and renewal projects in ’ 84 Yui, Y. ‘The housing estates in Hiroshima City’ Bito, A. ‘Regional structure of Metropolitan Tokyo as seen from the ○ 85 distribution ’ 85 Kozu, H. ‘Characteristic analysis for structure of residential location in Tokyo ’ ― 85 Matsubara, H. ‘Locational characteristics of multistory apartment houses by ’ ― 85 Ueno, K. ‘The residential structure of Tokyo in the 1910s（the Taisho Era） ’ Yamashita, K. ‘The residential segregation of Chinese district groups in ― 86 Singapore’ ― 86 Yui, Y. ‘Residential buildings in Hiroshima City’ ― 87 Kagawa, T. ‘The areal distribution of aging phenomenon in the city’ Murayama, Y. ‘The urbanization and the formation of frequently inundated ― 87 areas ’ Nakabayashi, I. ‘The change of social structure and urban development in ― 87 Tokyo ’ Youn, J. ‘The study of residential segregation by ethnic group in Incheon, ― 87 Korea’ Yui, Y. ‘Residential mobility of high ― risebuilding dwellers in Hiroshima City, ― 87 Japan’ ― 88 Chiba, A. ‘A study on municipal rules of the development of residential land’ ― 88 Kagawa, T. ‘Changes within the surrounding area of CBD as affected by the ’ Nawfhal, A. S. M. ‘The spatial perspective of ethnic residential patterns of ― 88 Kandy ’ ― 88 Onjo, A. ‘Neighborhood’ Tomita, K. ‘Geographical studies on structural changes in Major ○ 88 Metropolitan ’ ― ― 28 ― T Journal’s specifications V pp. L H 32（1） 072 ― 083 JE A 53（7） 463 ― 474 JE H 32 （5） 452 ― 465 J Q 32（1） 001 ― 010 JE H 32（6） 530 ― 542 J H 32（3） 214 ― 237 JE H A 33（1） 062 ― 077 54（3） 116 ― 126 JE EJ A 54 （8） 437 ― 447 JE Q H 33（1） 001 ― 008 33（5） 385 ― 404 JE JE A 55（3） 165 ― 183 JE E 28（4） 279 ― 295 JE H 34（5） 386 ― 409 JE H H A S Q 34（4） 34（1） 55（10） 38（3） 35（2） 363 ― 377 052 ― 068 715 ― 734 120 ― 132 053 ― 062 J JE JE JE JE A 56（6） 345 ― 355 JE Q H E A 35 （2） 35（2） 29（3） 56（4） 063 ― 072 171 ― 181 182 ― 203 262 ― 281 JE J JE JE H 36（4） 362 ― 375 J E 30（2） 112 ― 129 JE A Q 57（10） 703 ― 719 36 （2） 119 ― 130 JE JE H 36（4） 290 ― 311 JE H 36 （2） 152 ― 179 JE A 58（9） 559 ― 576 JE E E B 31（2） 146 ― 160 31（1） 081 ― 097 58（1） 024 ― 048 JE JE EJ B 59（2） 083 ― 102 EJ H H 38 （1） 056 ― 077 39（4） 370 ― 384 JE JE Q 39（3） 147 ― 160 JE E 33 （4） 256 ― 269 JE H 39（3） 279 ― 293 J A 60（12） 775 ― 794 JE E A 34（3） 158 ― 169 61（4） 350 ― 368 JE JE B 61（2） 225 ― 247 EJ H 40（3） 273 ― 285 J H 40（1） 040 ― 063 J Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ◆ 7 2 47 6 40 54 27 14 4 90 12 60 58 19 ← 21 28 14 ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― 88 89 89 89 Yano, K. and Kato, F. ‘Canonical trend surface analysis of residential structure ’ Matsubara, H. ‘Private developers and the city’ ― Nakabayashi, I. ‘Transformation of Tokyo Metropolitan Region and change of ’ ― Saino, T. ‘On the spatial pattern of aging in Nagoya City’ Yano, K. ‘A ge disaggregation intra ― metropolitan migration in Tokyo ○ 89 Metropolitan ’ ― 89 Yui, Y. ‘Residential mobility of high ― rise building dwellers’ 31 30 10 ← 501 H S S Q 40（1） 44（3） 44（3） 41 （2） 020 ― 039 161 ― 166 167 ― 174 110 ― 119 JE J J J A 62（4） 269 ― 288 JE H 41（2） 101 ― 121 JE Total number of several column Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : Main theme, field of article and publishing year H : housing supply ; R : residential structure ; M : movement of household or person ; P : housing policy ; D : housing disaster J : Japan ; F : foreign countries or area C : central area of the city ; S : suburban area of the city ; U : urbanized area or metropolitan area Y : publishing year Journal’s specifications T : journal’s title ; V : volume and issue ; pp. pages of article ; L : language Journal’s title（Common with all tables） A : Geographical Review of Japan（Including Ser. A of this journal）; B : Geographical Review of Japan（Ser. B） E : Annals of the Japan Association of Economic Geography（English title was changed in 1985） H : Japanese Journal of Human Geography（English title was changed in 2003） Q : Quarterly Journal of Geography（Englosh title was changed in 1992） S : Geographical Sciences ; U : Urban Geography of Japan（First published in 2006） The alphabet of language column means as follows ; First one : Main language in the article ; Second and third one : Summary J : Japanese ; E : English ; F : French ; G : Germany through policy studies has emerged. This can be seen as a positive development for increasing the presence of urban geography. Studies on residential disasters are few and far between through every period. In geography, it is becoming common for the environments where disasters strike to themselves be covered in the field of physical geography, so even in 1995, the year of the Great Hanshin Earthquake, there was not much discussion in the field of urban geography. Considering the social contribution of study results, this situation will become a major weakness of urban geography, so it needs to be remedied as soon as possible. Domestic and Overseas Fields For purposes of expediency, in Tables 1 to 3, ideological studies that do not specify a particular region are marked both domestic and overseas. However, the majority of studies focus either on domestic or overseas areas. Looking at Tables 1 to 3 in order, it is clear that the ratio of domestic studies is on the decline, while the ratio of overseas studies is on the rise. Especially since entering 2000, the number of studies focused on overseas locations has increased. It is true that the establishment of internationalisation has played a part, but it is also thought that the 2006 launch of “Urban Geography”, which includes many overseas studies, played a major role. In any case, urban geography needs to contribute to sustainable development of cities by clarifying the differences and similarities between cities in Japan and other countries. To go into a little more depth with studies on cities outside Japan, it is not uncommon for these studies to stop at an introduction of data gathered within that country. If analysis and review is neglected, it is simply a parroting of what was learned. It is hoped that while being Japan ― based researchers, they will make it a habit to examine things in depth just as they do with studies focused on cities within Japan. Trends in Areas of Study In this section, the areas of study have been broken down into the three categories of urban cores and surrounding areas of CBDs, suburbs, and metropolitan areas. Looking at Tables 1 to 3, ― 29 ― 502 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） Table 2. The list of articles for housing in Japanese major geographical journals（from 1990 to 1999） H R Main theme and field of article M P D J F C S U Y ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ○ ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ 90 Kagawa, T. ‘Ageing and population change in Kanazawa City’ Kagawa, T. ‘Condominiums in Nagoya City and their locational 90 characteristics’ 90 Nakagawa, S. ‘Changing segregation pattern by age groups in the Tokyo ’ Saino, T. ‘Some geographical considerations on ageing of population of 90 Sapporo ’ 90 Taira, A. ‘La Transformation des Communautés et la Dépopulation dans le ’ 90 Tanabe, H. ‘The inhabitants and the citizens of Tokyo’ 91 Yui, Y. ‘Differentiation of residents according to housing supply type’ 92 Fujitsuka, Y. ‘Burgeon of gentrification in Nishijin, Kyoto’ 92 Hiromatsu, S. ‘Urban policies and Gentrification’ 92 Kitabatake, J. ‘The distribution of public housing in Osaka with regard to ’ Saino, T. ‘Some geographical considerations on ageing of population of 92 Fukuoka ’ Takeda, I. ‘A study of urbanization in a post ― war land reclamation 92 community in ’ Yamada, H. ‘Charactoristics of residential mobility in the suburban area of 92 the ’ 93 Kagawa, T. ‘Supply structure of condominiums in Osaka Metropolitan Area’ 93 Yamamoto, K. ‘Spatial segregation of ethnic minorities in German cities’ 93 Yui, Y. ‘Charactoristics and transformation of public housing dwellers in ’ 94 Chiba, A. ‘An economic ― geographical study of development of large housing ’ 94 Fujitsuka, Y. ‘Gentrification’ 94 Hara, S. ‘Social network and social space’ 94 Katayanagi, T. ‘Land use change and zoning system in the urban fringe’ Shimizu, M. ‘Residential mobility of foreign pre ― college students in the 94 Tokyo ’ 94 Takano, T. ‘Recent changes of the urban residents and residential structure in ’ Ezaki, Y. ‘Value ― orientation of inhabitants in terms of evaluation of 95 residential ’ 95 Kagawa, T. ‘Damage to Toyonaka City caused by the Earthquake in the ’ 95 Narita, K. ‘A new viewpoint on the ethnic minorities in the world cities’ 95 Shimizu, M. ‘Residential relocation and friendship association of overstay ’ 95 Takano, T. ‘Changes of residents and residential structure in Sapporo City’ Tani, K. ‘Intra ― urban residential mobility in Ichinomiya City, Aichi 95 Prefecture’ 96 Fujioka, T. ‘Types of slope disaster resulting from the 1995 earthquake in ’ 96 Matsuoka, K. ‘The location and trend of high ― rise building in Sendai’ Mizuuchi, T. and Wata, K. ‘The study of historical development of 96 prewardays ’ Sugiura, T. ‘Settlement processes of the Japanse and the changing structure 96 of ’ 96 Tahara, Y. et al. ‘Life space and residential preferences of the elderly in the ’ 96 Taniguchi, M. ‘Transformation of country town’ Yui, Y. ‘Changing characteristics of public housing residents in Koto Ward, 96 Tokyo’ 97 Chiba, A. ‘The development process of large ― scale residential areas in the ’ 97 Hasegawa, T. ‘The residential development by a private railway enterprise’ Kawaguchi, T. ‘Analysis of the household relocation process in a suburban 97 setting’ Tanaka, G. ‘Spatial structure of inhabitants’ evaluation of residential 97 environment ’ 97 Tani, K. ‘An analysis of residential careers of metropolitan suburbanities’ Chiba, A. ‘The development process and some features of large ― scale 98 housing ’ 98 Kagawa, T. ‘Cultural conflicts caused by style of residential houses’ 98 Nishi, R. ‘The effect of elderly people’s residential space on their lives and ’ Yamamoto, K. ‘The situation in a ‘Ghetto’ community of foreigners in the 98 1990s’ 98 Yui, Y, ‘Changing characteristics of residents in public housing’ Hasegawa, T. ‘Housing management and provision of issued and owned 99 houses ’ 99 Hirai, M. ‘Characteristics of in ― migration of the elderly in a suburb of Tokyo’ 99 Ito, T. ‘The areal characteristics of the residential landscape and its formation ’ 99 Onodera, J. ‘A mechanism of urban formation in developing Asia’ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ 18 28 15 4 2 42 8 28 36 37 57 31 8 4 86 16 57 74 10 ← ― ― ― 5 ← Author’s name and article’s title （Sub title is omitted. In the case of long title, below are omitted.） Total number of several column Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : see Table 1 ― 30 ― T Journal’s specifications V pp. L Q 42 （2） 089 ― 104 JE S 45（1） 001 ― 019 JE B 63（1） 034 ― 047 EJ Q 42（2） 105 ― 110 J A B S H H A 63（11） 63（1） 46 （4） 44 （4） 44 （2） 65（5） 701 ― 721 120 ― 132 242 ― 256 495 ― 506 219 ― 241 419 ― 432 JF EJ JE JE JE JE Q 44（1） 029 ― 036 J Q 44（4） 227 ― 244 JE A 65 （11） 847 ― 859 JE A B A Q H A Q 66（11） 66 （2） 66（11） 46（1） 46（5） 67（10） 46（2） 683 ― 702 127 ― 155 663 ― 682 019 ― 036 496 ― 514 701 ― 722 107 ― 125 JE EJ JE JE JE JE JE A 67（3） 383 ― 392 JE A 67（!1） 753 ― 774 JE A 68（3） 168 ― 179 JE A E B Q 68（8） 41（4） 68（2） 47（1） 550 ― 562 308 ― 329 168 ― 184 013 ― 033 JE JE E JE A 68（12） 811 ― 822 JE A Q 69（7） 518 ― 530 48（4） 276 ― 292 JE J S 51（1） 034 ― 054 JE H 48（1） 001 ― 027 JE H H 48（3） 301 ― 316 48 （3） 285 ― 300 JE JE Q 48 （4） 255 ― 275 JE E H 43（1） 001 ― 017 49（5） 465 ― 480 JE J A 70（2） 108 ― 118 JE Q 49 （3） 137― 150 JE A 70 （5） 263 ― 286 JE Q 50（1） 013 ― 032 JE S E 53（3） 174 ― 180 44（3） 208 ― 223 J JE H 50（6） 589 ― 605 JE H 50 （1） 043 ― 060 JE E 45（2） 100 ― 119 JE A A B 72（5） 289 ― 309 72（6） 357 ― 380 72 （2） 111 ― 121 JE JE E Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 503 Table 3. The list of articles for housing in Japanese major geographical journals（from 2000 to 2011） Main theme and field of article H R M P D J F C S U ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ◆ ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ◆ ― Author’s name and article’s title Y （Sub title is omitted. In the case of long title, below are omitted.） 00 Abe, Y. ‘The exclusion of Chinese worker and the decline of their residential ’ Chiba, A. ‘The development process and some features of large ― scale ○ ○ 00 housing ’ Hirose, T. ‘Transformation of urban land use and the characteristics of ― ― 00 residents ’ ― ― 00 Kagawa, T. ‘Location of residential houses in the sorrounding area of CBD’ ― ― 00 Kageyama, H. ‘Gendered space in the 1930s’ Tanaka, K. ‘A preliminary analysis of spatial trajectories of residential ○ ― 00 migration ’ ○ ― 00 Taniguchi, M. ‘Planning and development of Canadian country towns in the ’ ○ ― 00 Yui, Y. and Yano K. ‘Housing problems for single ― parent families and the ’ ○ ― 01 Ito, S. ‘Residential choice process of households living in Chiba New Town’ ― ○ 01 Nakazawa, T. and Kawaguchi, T. ‘The residential careers of people from the ’ Sugiura, T. ‘Redevelopment process in an ethnic urban territory and its ― ― 01 changing ’ Taguchi, J. ‘Changes in residential mobility and commuting patterns caused ○ ― 01 by ’ ○ ― 01 Wakabayashi, Y. et al. ‘Residential choices of single women in the Tokyo ’ Fukumoto, T. ‘Life space of “new ― commer” foreign residents in Osaka ○ ― 02 Prefecture’ Hasegawa, T. ‘Housing supply by the Japan Workers Housing Association ○ ― 02 and ’ Jung, M. A. ‘Spatial migration patterns and explanatory factors of Bundang ○ ― 02 New ’ ○ ― 02 Tani, K. ‘Changes in the links between home and work after marriage in the ’ ○ ― 03 Inagaki, R. ‘Migration behavior of the suburban second generation’ Ito, T. ‘The phisical and social changes in the urban residential areas ― ― 03 redeveloped ’ Matsuda, A. ‘Development of residential suburbs and the strategy of the ○ ― 03 private ’ Naganuma, S. ‘Aging of population and ousing renewal in the inner areas of ― ― 03 Tokyo’ ○ ― 03 Nakazawa, T. ‘Residential choices of women working uin the CBD of Tokyo ’ ― ― 03 Nazrul, I. M. ‘Slum eviction and housing rights in Dhaka City ; 1975 ― 2001. Sakakibara, S. et al. ‘Characteristics of condominium residents in the center ― ― 03 of ’ ― ― 03 Yabe, N. ‘Population recovery in inner Tokyo in the late 1990s’ ― ― 03 Yoon, H. ‘Recent East Asian immigrants and their contribution to multi ― ’ ○ ― 03 Yui, Y. ‘Housing ploblems of single parent families in Japan’ ○ ― 03 Yui, Y. ‘Housing purchase by single women in Tokyo’ Fukumoto, T. ‘Changes in Korean population concentrations in Osaka City ― ― 04 from ’ Ito, T. ‘Areal differentiation of renewal in the urban residential area in ○ ― 04 Germany’ ○ ― 04 Miyazawa, H. ‘Living environment evaluation by persons with lower ― limb ’ ○ ― 04 Miyazawa, H. ‘The urban environment and inaccessibility’ Motooka, T. ‘The locational process of Hanshin ― Awaji Great Earthquake ○ ― 04 recovery ’ Murata Y. ‘Has a male architect been able to in corporate a gender ○ ― 04 perspective ’ Musha, T. ‘Development policy of residential areas in Matsumoto City and ○ ― 04 the ’ Otsuka, T. ‘Regeneration of the marginal area to the central commercial ― ― 04 district ’ ― ― 04 Wakamatsu, T. ‘Public housing under the Dowa Assimilation Projects and ’ ○ ― 05 Doi, H. ‘Residenrial development and its implication on land ― use change of ’ ― ― 05 Miyazawa, H. and Abe, T. ‘Recovery and changes in the socioeconomic ’ ― ― 05 Naganuma, S. ‘The progress in the aging of population with the assets ’ Nishi, R. ‘Research on aging and residential continuity of single elderly ― ― 05 people Otsuka, T. ‘Condominium supply and residential preference in the central ― ― 05 urban ’ ○ ― 05 Yui, Y. ‘Urban development in Gurgaon, India’ Chiba, A. ‘The development and regional problems of large scale residential ― ○ 06 areas ’ Ito, S. ‘Population aging and the change in age structure in residential estates ○ ― 06 in ’ Kamiya, H. et al. ‘Analysing single women’s residential choice in Tokyo by ○ ― 06 using ’ ○ ― 06 Kohara, T. ‘The development of real estate businesses by the private railway ’ ― 31 ― Journal’s specifications T V pp. L A 73（9） 697 ― 714 JE Q 52（2） 099 ― 117 JE Q 52（2） 118 ― 130 JE Q H 52 （1） 035 ― 047 52（4） 321 ― 340 JE JE B 73（2） 119 ― 128 E H S A A 52（4） 55（2） 73（10） 73（12） 357 ― 371 071 ― 098 585 ― 598 686 ― 708 JE JE JE JE Q 53 （3） 139 ― 159 JE A 73（6） 305 ― 324 JE S 56（2） 065 ― 087 JE S 57（4） 255 ― 275 JE E 48（3） 238 ― 252 JE A 75（13） 791 ― 812 JE A A 75（11） 623 ― 643 76（8） 575 ― 598 JE JE E 49 （3） 197 ― 217 JE H 55 （5） 492 ― 508 JE A 76 （7） 522 ― 536 JE S H 58 （1） 003 ― 021 55（6） 574 ― 589 JE JE Q 55（2） 087 ― 106 JE H H A Q 55（3） 55（3） 76（9） 55（3） 271 ― 292 293 ― 304 668 ― 681 143 ― 161 JE JE JE JE H 56（2） 154 ― 169 JE A 77（5） 223 ― 240 E A H 77（3） 133 ― 156 56（1） 001 ― 020 JE JE H 56（6） 633 ― 648 JE A 77（7） 463― 482 JE A 77（7） 421 ― 440 JE E 59（2） 118 ― 138 JE H A A E 56（2） 78（12） 78（13） 51（1） 186 ― 204 727 ― 759 893 ― 912 116 ― 130 JE E JE JE A 78（1） 048 ― 063 JE A 78（4） 202 ― 227 JE Q 57（2） 079 ― 095 JE U 1 019 ― 030 JE A 79（2） 097 ― 110 JE A 79（12） 619 ― 628 E E 52（3） 174 ― 192 JE 504 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ◆ ― ― ○ ― 11 ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 11 ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 11 ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― 11 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― 11 ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― 11 Miyazawa, H. ‘The changing face of suburban new towns in large metropolitan areas’ Nakazawa, T. ‘Residential locations of working women in the Tokyo ’ Nakazawa, T. ‘Reformation of the Japanese housing policy and its influence on ’ Wakabayashi, Y. ‘Residential choices of single women in Tokyo Metropolitan area’ Yamagami, T. ‘The relationship between metropolitan size and the population ’ Yui, Y. ‘Purchases of condominiums by single women and their backgrounds in ’ Aramata, M. ‘Que faul ― il concerver dans un quartier historique : développement ’ Kagawa, T. ‘Supply trends and characteristics of private ― sector condominiums in ’ Motooka, T. ‘Background and disappearance of ‘Barrack Towns’ in post ― war Kobe ’ Nakazawa, T. et al. ‘First generation aging, second generation on the move’ Yamaguchi T. ‘Landscape type sin a prewar suburb’ Yui, Y., Funck, C. and Kawada, T. ‘Bürgerbeteiligung in der Stadtentwicklung in ’ Ito, T. ‘Difference of age structure in private residential estates of detached houses’ Kubo, T. ‘Decision ― making process on residential choices of condominium ’ Naganuma, S. et al. ‘Population aging and sustainability of residential areas in ’ Tsutsumi, J. and K. O’connor ‘Changes in Melbourne due to the rapid increase in ’ Yabe, N. ‘Global money flow into the asset backed securities market and real ’ Yabe, N. ‘Impacts of real estate securitization on land price changes in the inner ’ Horiuchi, C. ‘The population growth and the supply structure of condominiums ’ Ito, T. ‘Urban reconfiguration through urban renewal policies in Mnich’ Kirimura, T. ‘Changes in residential structure in 20th ― Century Kyoto City’ Nishihara, J. ‘Introduction ton cities : Toronto’ Ogata, N. and Inagaki, R. ‘Identification of the Development of suburban new ’ Yamamoto, T. ‘Landform transformation by development of Kozoji New Town’ Yui, Y. ‘The change of housing colony in an industrial area’ Fukumoto, T. ‘Changes in spatial segregation of foreigners in Tokyo and Osaka’ Ito, S. ‘Population aging in residential estates of detached houses in Sendai City’ Kirimura, T. ‘A study on transformations of residential characteristics in Kobe’s ’ Kubo, T. ‘Decision ― making processes in residential choices of condominium ’ Kubo, T. et al. ‘Mixed development in sustainability of suburban neighborhoods’ Nakazawa, T. ‘Process of suburbanization and the changes of neighborhoods ’ Nishiyama, H. ‘Characteristics of the small ― scale residential development in a ’ Oda, T. ‘Governance of preserving and rebuilding an ethnic neiborhood in San ’ Tadauchi, K. and Nishihara J. ‘The lives of local residents under a land ’ Yui, Y. Complexity of recent urban landscape in India’ Kagawa, T. ‘Expansion of residential function and changes in traditional ― style ’ Kagawa, T. ‘The separation of parents and their adult children in an ageing ’ : Kajita, S. ‘Dynamics of segregated housing complexes for heavy industriy ’ Kamura, S. ‘Relation between daily travel and the local transportation environment’ : Koizumi, R. et al. ‘New dimensions of housing acquisition in the Tokyo Bay Area ’ Kubo, T. and Yui, Y. ‘Diversification of the condominium supply in central Tokyo’ Oshima, N. ‘Living environment changes in Ulaanbaatar’ Tsutsumi, J. and O’conor, K. ‘International students as an influence on residential ’ Yui, Y. ‘The urban development in peripheral industrial areas’ Total number of several column ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 06 ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― 06 ○ ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 06 ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 06 ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― 06 ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― 07 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 07 ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 07 ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ○ 07 ― 07 ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― 07 ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 08 ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ― 08 08 06 ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― 08 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 08 ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 08 ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 09 ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― 09 09 09 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 09 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 09 ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― 09 ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― 10 ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 10 ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― 10 ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 10 ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― 10 ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ 10 10 ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ― 10 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― 10 10 11 11 11 ― ○ ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― 38 55 40 16 0 68 23 55 56 6 ← 42 60 44 18 0 75 25 60 62 7 ← Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : See Table 1 ― 32 ― E 52（4） 236 ― 250 A 79（12） 595 ― 607 E E 52（1） 001 ― 018 JE JE A 79 （12） 608 ― 618 E H 58（1） 056 ― 072 JE A 79（12） 629 ― 643 E 033 ― 045 JF 59（1） 057 ― 072 JE H 59（2） 130 ― 150 JE H A 60（2） 144 ― 162 80 （9） 525 ― 540 JE JE U H U 2 046 ― 056 JG S 63（1） 025 ― 037 JE A E 81（2） 045 ― 059 54（4） 310 ― 326 JE JE H 60（4） 323 ― 340 JE E 54 （4） 292 ― 309 JE A 81 （5） 383 ― 403 E E 55（3） 193 ― 214 JE A H U 82（2） 118 ― 143 61（6） 528 ― 547 4 088 ― 089 JE JE J U 2 4 020 ― 027 JE U 4 051 ― 061 JE U 4 062 ― 070 JE A 83 （3） 288 ― 313 JE A 83（5） 510 ― 523 JE A 83（2） 151 ― 175 JE H 62（1） 001 ― 019 JE B 83 （1） 047 ― 063 E S A 65 （1） 059 ― 081 83（4） 383 ― 401 JE JE Q 62（1） 012 ― 027 JE U U U H H 5 5 6 63（3） 63 （1） S 66（1） 020 ― 040 JE A 84（6） 592 ― 609 JE A 84（5） 460 ― 472 JE U B U 6 026 ― 040 JE 041 ― 049 JE 001 ― 018 JEF 209 ― 228 JE 060 ― 077 JE 035 ― 046 84（1） 016 ― 026 6 053 ― 062 JE E JE Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 505 one can see that studies on urban cores and surrounding areas of CBDs and studies on suburbs are countervailing in the 1980s and in 2000 and later. Furthermore, in the 1990s there is a difference in the composition ratios, with studies on suburbs being predominant. Additionally, studies on metropolitan areas gradually dropped in composition ratio. The situation in the 1990s attests to the fact that, affected by the bubble economy, land prices in urban cores and the surrounding areas of CBDs skyrocketed, while residential supply in the areas in question stabilised. In other words, it was particularly difficult in the first half of the 1990s to clearly grasp and review the new regional changes. That many of the studies on urban cores and the surrounding areas of CBDs also used suburbs as a comparison provides evidence that it was difficult to conduct studies that featured close ― ups of urban cores and surrounding areas of CBDs by themselves. This situation changed in 2000 and later. Condominiums supplied in urban cores and surrounding areas of CBDs gradually became the focus of studies, and as a result, this brought about an increase in the number of studies on urban cores and the surrounding areas of CBDs. On the other hand, suburbs had entered a mature phase, and community transformations came to the surface, so there was an increase in the number of studies on things like household division and parent ― child habitation. Studies on metropolitan areas gradually decreased in overall ratio. It is not that the total number of papers decreased dramatically but that the ratio decreased. In other words, the total number of papers in 2000 and later was 1 . 8 times higher than in the 1990s, so the relative status dropped. When it comes to metropolitan areas as the focus of studies, the scope is broad, so there are necessarily more study results derived from statistical analysis and experience than from field work. That studies on metropolitan areas have decreased in relative status based on the entry of young researchers into residential studies and the accumulation of study results in individual case study areas is not at all unnatural. It would be premature to think that studies on metropolitan areas have waned. Summary In this chapter, a brief summary has been put together on trends in urban geography studies looking at residences and residency. In the field of urban geography, residences and residency were anything but a major area of study, but today they account for a large weight of the urban geography section of academia. This means that residences are attracting attention as the base of daily activities. As the number of urban geography studies on residences and residency increases, it will undoubtedly help Japan make the transition from being an economic power to being a living power. III Studies on Business Functions and Office Location Selected Journals and Study Classifications In this chapter, a review will be performed on studies focused on offices, such as those studies on regional placement of central business functions in the post ― industrialisation era of the 1980s and later, those on office locations which are concrete expressions of that, and those on urban systems and internal structures of urban areas as indication of spatial distribution. The journals covered are the six picked up in the previous chapter minus Urban Geography of Japan. The focus will be on published papers besides ‘review papers’. Studies based on an economic geographical approach deeply related to administrative office location, such as plant locations ― 33 ― 506 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） and theory of industrial agglomeration, fall outside the author’s purview and so have been excluded as much as possible. However, some of these studies are difficult to separate due to the characteristics of the study area to be reviewed and have therefore been included. The main study themes have been broken down into the four classifications of office location （office building location）, networks or linkages of corporations, internal structures of urban areas, and urban systems. Because there is a comparatively large amount of studies on urban systems reflecting on the situation over all of Japan and in regional blocks, the areas covered have been put into four classifications in contrast to the previous chapter. For the most part, whether the location is inside or outside Japan and the time period classifications follow the classification method from the previous chapter, and the results are shown in Tables 4 to 6. In this chapter, three stages are used, namely the 1980s, 1990s and 2000 and later, to deal with the time characteristics of research focusing on offices. Studies from the 1980s Except in certain countries where office decentralisation is permitted like the United States and Germany, the head and branch offices of private manufacturing companies tend to be concentrated in specific central areas of large cities. In Japan, following a period of rapid economic growth in the 1960s, offices began to converge on Tokyo, Osaka and other large cities in the form of new plants built in conjunction with business expansion and head offices tasked with overseeing and managing them. In the post ― industrialisation era of the 1980s and later, particularly after the experience of two oil shocks, the number of studies focused on office convergence as a major urban function for that kind of centripetal growth in central city areas increased（see Table 4）. This is because it was recognised in Japan, as it was in other developed countries, that the convergence of offices would facilitate urban growth both in terms of scenery and function as it led to hiring of large numbers of white collar workers and construction of huge high ― rise office buildings. Throughout these three time periods, there were many studies looking at the location of offices and office buildings, but the distinctive characteristic of the 1980s is that the number of studies to understand urban systems in Japan based on the number of large company offices by city increased. Particularly in the early 1980s there were many studies that attempted to gain an understanding of regional structures in Japan based on the locations of financial institutions, which have a high rate of being located in central city areas. The results were summarised in Chiba, T. et al. eds.（1988）. After that, there was an increase in the number of studies looking at things like the developmental process of branch office networks distributed over broad geographical areas as bases for selling products and office location divergence within a particular city. The cities covered were generally ‘branch economy cities’ that grew as high speed transportation networks, including bullet trains and expressways, were prepared, such as the regional central cities of Sapporo, Sendai, Hiroshima and Fukuoka, as well as cities with populations of over a million. Additionally, in order to understand the changes in internal urban structures, the majority of studies during this period focused on the central areas of the above cities forming the core from the perspective of land use. In other words, the 1980s were a time when material was put together to inductively attempt generalisation using the results of studies on these cities. ― 34 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 507 Table 4. The list of articles for office activities in Japanese major geographical journals（from 1980 to 1989） Main theme, field and publishing year N S U J F C S U R Y ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 80 80 80 80 80 ○ L ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 80 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 81 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― 81 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 81 ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 81 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 81 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 81 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 81 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― 82 ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 83 ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ○ ○ 83 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ 84 ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 84 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 84 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 84 ― ― ― ― ― ― ― 81 ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― 84 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 84 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― 85 ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― 86 ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 86 ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ 88 ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 88 ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 88 ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 88 ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 88 ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 89 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 89 ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 89 87 ○ 87 ― 87 88 Author’s name and article’s title （Sub title is omitted and a long title omitted its part.） Yoshizu, N., ‘The development of banking networks in Japan’ Abe, K., ‘Les réseaux des filiales bancaires du Japon, 1896 ― 1940’ Fujita, N., ‘An analysis of the regional structure of Japan’ Tanikawa, N., ‘The regional structure of financial institutions in Hokkaido’ Chiba, T., ‘Banking networks of regional banks and its money flow’ Yamasaki, T., ‘The spatial pattern of branch office movements in Hiroshima city’ Fujioka, H., ‘Changes in locations of import ― export firms and their relevance to the ’ Kawabata, M., ‘Consideration on the location of drag wholesaler’ Fujioka, H., ‘Unpublished landscape map of Great Kobe city about 1935 and investigation ’ Abe, K., ‘Le développment de réseaux de filiales bancaires dans le Japon moderne’ Kato, Y. and Yamazaki, T., ‘Changes in the office location of the CBD of Kobe’ Kuwajima, K., ‘Wholesale agglomeration in cities’ Umebayashi, I. and Abe, T., ‘Development of built ― up area and urban core in Morioka, ’ Suzuki, K., ‘The intensity of land ― use in the central zone of the city’ Tomita, K., ‘Location of information services and advertising services in city of Osaka’ Hino, M., ‘The spatial pattern of marketing networks organized by principal copy ― machinery ’ Hino, M., ‘The locations and market areas of establishments of local sales companies ’ Matsubara, H., ‘Locational characteristics and functions of office buildings of private ’ Abe, K., ‘Head and branch offices of big private enterprises in major cities of Japan’ Tomita, K. and Shibamori, H., ‘Locational changes of economic activities in the inner area ’ Masumori, Y., ‘The changes of location pattern of business buildings and characteristics of ’ Takahashi, S. and Shiokawa, M., ‘Locational changes of wholesale establishments within cities’ Kuwajima, K., Vertical growth of CBD of Sendai and Fukushima’ Suzuki, A., ‘Suburbanization of wholesale establishments in connection with the setup of a ’ Hino, M., ‘The location of branch offices of enterprises and the hierarchy of cities ’ Ishimaru, T., ‘Land use patterns in the former built ― up area of Hiroshima city’ Yamashita, M., ‘Characteristics of spatial use in Osaka’s CBD’ Fujita, N., ‘The location of headquarters of large corporations in Japan’ Chiba, A., ‘A study of agglomeration of “Branch Office” in Sendai’ Terasaka, A. et al., ‘The transformation of regional systems in an information ― orientred society’ Ishimaru, T., ‘Land use change of the surrounding areas of the CBD in Fukuoka city’ Abe, K., ‘Urban system of modern Korea from the standpoint of economic management ’ Han, J., ‘The spatial organization of marketing networks by electro ― domestic manufactures ’ Yanai, M., ‘On locational characteristics of big banks in Japan’ Takahashi, S., ‘The Vertical differentiation of urban functions in high ― rise buildings in ’ Hayashi, N., ‘Location of buildings and agglomeration of establishments in the central area ’ Hayashi, N., ‘Advencement in industrial structure and spatial changes of establishment ’ Abe, K., ‘Urban system of West Germany from the standpoint of economic management ’ 21 12 14 17 35 3 23 5 2 17 ← Total number of several column 55 32 37 45 92 8 61 13 5 45 ← Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : Main theme, field（of article）and publishing year ― 35 ― T Journal’s specifications V pp. L E E E E E 26（2） 26（2） 26 （2） 26（2） 26 （4） 057 ― 077 078 ― 091 092 ― 105 106 ― 117 257 ― 269 JE JF JE JE J S 34 017 ― 023 JE JE A 54（1） 034 ― 045 H 33（1） 041 ― 054 J H 33（2） 168 ― 178 JE E 27（2） 097 ― 115 JF E 27（3/4） 169 ― 186 JE Q 33 （1） 009 ― 021 JE Q 33（3） 160 ― 170 J Q 33（3） 171 ― 177 JE E 28 （4） 314 ― 324 J E 29（2） 069 ― 087 JE Q 35（4） 169 ― 182 JE A 57（7） 455 ― 476 JE B 57（1） 043 ― 067 EJ H 36 （1） 039 ― 051 J H 36（6） 527 ― 543 J Q 36 （2） 105 ― 118 JE Q 36 （2） 119 ― 130 JE H 37（6） 552 ― 569 JE E 32（3） 182 ― 197 JE S 41（2） 099 ― 111 JE H E Q 39（1） 054 ― 069 33（1） 045 ― 056 39 （4） 316 ― 326 JE JE J B 61（1） 159 ― 173 EJ H 40 （2） 099 ― 117 JE E 34（1） 042 ― 055 JE E 34（3） 145 ― 157 JE E 34（4） 291 ― 305 JE Q 40（2） 126 ― 138 JE A 62（8） 566 ― 588 JE H 41 （5） 393 ― 411 JE E 35（2） 144 ― 155 JE 508 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） L : Location of offices or office buildings ; N : Networks or linkages of corpolations ; S : Internal structure of urban area ; U : Urban systems J : Japan ; F : Foreign countries or area C : Central area of the city ; S : Suburban area of the city ; U : Urbanized area or Metropolitan area ; R : Some cities of region or country Y : publishing year Journal’s specifications T : Journal’s title ; V : Volume and issue ; pp. Pages of article ; L : Language Journal’s title A : Geographical Review of Japan（including Ser. A of this magazine）; B : Geographical Review of Japan（Ser. B） E : Annals of the Japan Association of Economic Geographers（English title was changed in 1985） H : Japanese Journal of Human Geography（English title was changed in 2003） Q : Quarterly Journal of Geography（Englosh title was changed in 1992） S : Geographical Sciences The alphabet of language column means as follows ; First one : Main language in the article ; Second one : Summary（J : Japanese ; E : English ; F : French） Studies from the 1990s The distinctive characteristic of this period is that in the shift towards service within the Japanese economy, there was an increase in the number of spinoffs and spinouts from large companies and the number of professional service, research and information and other producer service companies in charge of outsourced tasks, and so the number of studies focused on such offices grew（see Table 5）. There was also an increase in the number of studies attempting to shed light on the situation in the increasingly over ― concentrated central area of Tokyo and the cities and suburbs of the Tokyo metropolitan area affected by its growth as construction of the office buildings planned during the bubble economy of the late 1980s and early 1990s was completed in rapid succession. The background behind this was efforts to determine what kinds of changes the growth of ‘World City Tokyo’, which attracted global attention in the 1980s, was having on the urban system in Japan and what kinds of differences there were between the urban system in Japan and those of other developed countries. A compilation of these was put together by Abe, K.（1991, 1996b）and Hino, M.（1996）. While there were many studies like the above aimed at understanding urban systems from the number of office locations, the approach from the corporate side determining whether to open or close offices became less prominent overall. This is when studies guided by the internal placement of departments within large private companies（not just the highest decision ― making bodies like the board of directors but also planning, finance, general affairs, sales, PR and other departments）, in other words, studies looking at location/relocation mechanisms from the perspective of corporate behaviour, began to appear. Over the past 30 years, the greatest number of studies was done in the 1990s, and the focus of the studies became more diversified. The fact that the number of overseas ― focused studies also increased is testament to the deepening of studies in this field during this time period. Studies from 2000 and Later This period was one in which corporate streamlining and organisational restructuring further progressed due to the extended recession following the collapse of the bubble economy. Overconcentration of offices in the Tokyo metropolitan area continued, but the number of office locations in Osaka and other cities besides Tokyo shrank or plateaued, and the number of studies decreased proportionally （see Table 6）. Additionally, as land prices in central areas dropped, land use shifted from offices to condominiums, retail shops and other facilities. In other words, the impact of offices, which had accounted for a large percentage of buildings in central city areas, began to decline in cities outside the Tokyo metropolitan area, and so the number of studies focused on provincial cities decreased in response. However, it would be wrong to say that studies in this field lost their importance. In Japan, ― 36 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 509 Table 5. The list of articles for office activities in Japanese major geographical journals（from 1990 to 1999） L Main theme, field and publishing year N S U J F C S U R Y ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 90 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ 90 ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ 90 ― 90 Author’s name and article’s title （Sub title is omitted and a long title omitted its part.） Abe, K., ‘The status of Tokyo in Japan from the standpoint of high ― order urban function’ Takahashi, N., ‘Recent trends in the activities of financial institutions of Tokyo’ Morikawa, H., ‘Regional urban systems in Japan’ Fujitsuka, Y., ‘Spatial changes in the central area of Kyoto city’ Kawabata, M., ‘The influence of informationization on the location of wholesalers’ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ 90 ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ 90 Ishimaru, T., ‘Trends in the location of producer services in Japanese cities’ Tomita, K. and Kouno, T., ‘Recent changes in regional structure based on ― 90 socio ― economic ’ Nishihara, J., ‘The development of intra ― corporate branch networks and the ○ 91 Japanese ’ Yamashita, H., ‘The changing central business districts of Hachioji and ― 91 Machida, satellite ’ Morikawa, H., ‘The present aspect of urbanization and structural change of ○ 91 urban systems ’ Hino, M., ‘The locational patterns of branch offices of multi ― locational ○ 91 enterprises in the ’ Ikezawa, H. and Hino, M., ‘The locational patterns of branch offices of ― 92 enterprises in ’ Matsumura, K., ‘La distribution et le processus d’agglomération des fonctions ― 92 CBD ’ Ishimaru, T., ‘The spatial characteristics of manufacturing cities and service ○ 92 cities in Japan’ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ◆ ◆ ○ 92 Kitagawa, H., ‘Development of multi ― locational enterprises in Japan’ Taira, A., ‘Location patterns and attributes of Japanese companies in the ― 93 Chicago ’ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ― 92 Koga, S., ‘Office location in the central area of Takamatsu’ Chiba, A., ‘The locational changes of branch offices in Kagoshima city and 92 their territories’ ○ 93 Abe, K., ‘On the hierarchy of cities in Japan’ Suda, M., ‘The location of branch offices of manufacturing industries in ○ 93 Japan’ Yamashita, H., ‘The Growth of the suburban core cities in the Tokyo ― 93 metropolitan area’ ○ 94 Nishihara, J., ‘Inter ― urban linkages and systems of cities’ Ikezawa, H., ‘The geographical distribution of buiness contacts seen in ○ 94 branch offices in ’ Morikawa, H., ‘Regional structures of economic linkages between Japanese ○ 94 cities based ’ Tsubomoto, H., ‘Activities of private developers and office location in the ― 94 central region ’ T Journal’s specifications V pp. L B 63（1） 017 ― 024 EJ B 63 （1） 025 ― 033 EJ H H 42 （2） 097 ― 117 42 （5） 466 ― 476 JE J E 36 （2） 095 ― 115 JE E 36（4） 289 ― 303 JE S 45（2） 060 ― 076 JE A 64（1） 001 ― 025 JE A 64（4） 280 ― 295 JE A 64（8） 525 ― 548 JE Q 43（4） 245 ― 263 JE A 65（7） 529 ― 547 JE A 65（12） 889 ― 910 JF H 44 （2） 284 ― 298 JE H 44（6） 663 ― 688 JE E 38（3） 194 ― 210 JE E 38（4） 282 ― 302 JE B 66（2） 173 ― 182 EJ H 45（5） 534 ― 545 J E 39（3） 195 ― 206 JE S 48（1） 001 ― 019 JE A 67（6） 357 ― 382 JE A 67（7） 461 ― 482 JE H 46（2） 166 ― 186 JE H 46（4） 418 ― 434 JE 94 Ito, K., ‘The location of manufactures’ head offices in the city of Nagoya’ Suda, M., ‘A model of optimal spatial allocation of branch offices from the 94 viewpoint of ’ H 46 （4） 435 ― 448 JE H 46（5） 515 ― 527 JE Kawabata, M., ‘Progress in the information network system and locational changes in ’ Laulajainen, R., ‘Corporate geography relaunched’ Tanaka, K., ‘The development of an enterprise and the location of corporate headquarters’ Hino, M., ‘The agglomeration of branch offices and their recent changes in major Japanese ’ Suda, M., ‘Joint location between offices and plants of manufacturing industries in Japan’ Kato, K., ‘The regional circular flow of information services and “Mono ― polarization in Tokyo” ’ Ishikawa, Y., ‘The trend of multinucleation and the characteristics of suburban nucleations ’ Kitada, K., ‘Location of central managerial function and classification of main cities in Korea ’ Morikawa, H., ‘Present features of branch offices of wholesale trades and producer services ’ Tsubomoto, H., ‘Trends in office supply and the growth of business districts in the Tokyo ’ Tanaka, K., ‘The locational structure of corporation and the regional structure of finance’ A 68（5） 303 ― 321 JE ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 95 ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 95 ○ ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 95 ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 95 ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 96 ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 96 ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 96 95 96 96 96 ― 37 ― B 68（2） 185 ― 197 E H 47（5） 417 ― 438 JE E 41（3） 192 ― 207 JE E 41 （4） 364― 376 JE A 69（2） 102 ― 125 JE A 69（6） 387 ― 414 JE A 69（8） 651 ― 669 JE H 48（3） 209 ― 229 JE H 48（4） 341 ― 363 JE E 42（1） 020 ― 043 JE 510 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 96 ― ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ○ 97 ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― 97 ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― 97 ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 97 ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ 97 ○ ― ○ ― ― ◆ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ 98 ― ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ○ 99 ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ○ ○ 99 26 21 13 19 45 11 19 7 96 96 ○ 97 98 99 11 30 ← 50 40 25 37 87 21 37 13 21 58 ← Kuwatsuka, K., ‘The built ― up precess and the land ― use changes in the urban core of Naha ’ Morikawa, H., ‘Firm activities and urban systems in Japanese main cities based on the ’ Matsuoka, K., ‘The location and trend of high ― rise buildings in Sendai’ Goto, Y., ‘Characteristics and trends of spatial forms of city centers in Japan’ Park, J., ‘The international urban system between Korea and Japan in terms of transactions ’ Ito, K., ‘The spatial reorganization of office functions by rationalization’ Nogi, D., Recent evolution of the central business district in Naha city, Okinawa prefecture’ Kitada, K., ‘Location of central managerial function in main cities in Korea after the 1960s’ Kato, K., ‘The location of Producer services and the hierarchy of cities in Japan’ Kuwatsuka, K., ‘Industrial restructuring and the development of office spaces in Singapore’ Haga, H., ‘International expansion of Japanese banks in the post ― world war II period’ Paku, C., ‘Interfirm alliances between Korea and Japan and linkages between Seoul ’ Taira, A., ‘Localization processes of Japanese ― affiliated companies in the Chicago ’ Paku, C., ‘Inter ― urban linkages between Korea and Japan of foreign market enterprise entry’ S 51（2） 067 ― 080 JE S 51（2） 081 ― 090 JE Q A 276 ― 292 48（4） 70（10） 625 ― 641 J JE A 70（10） 661 ― 675 JE H 49（2） 121 ― 141 JE H 49（3） 276 ― 288 JE S 52（3） 177 ― 194 JE S 52（4） 222 ― 237 JE H 50 （4） 317 ― 339 JE E 44 （2） 116 ― 134 JE A 72（3） 143 ― 165 JE A 72（8） 508 ― 535 JE H 51（2） 183 ― 199 JE Total number of several column Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : see Table 4 more than 20 million people, or 40% of all private workplace employees, work in offices. Going into the 21st century, more and more office buildings are high ― rises, and corporate reorganisation and personnel reassignment continues. Therefore, studies on offices are indispensable for understanding urban structures and the current state of things in cities in Japan as a whole. The author believes that this will continue to be an important area of study in urban geography for years to come. It is also noteworthy that the research results of this period include the publishing of Abe, K. （2001） , which revealed the urban systems of developing countries, Ishimaru, T. （2000） and Hayashi, N.（2005）, which looked at the development process of offices in the service industry, Yamasaki, T.（2001）, which generalised office distribution patterns within cities, and others based on case studies that accumulated in the 1990s. Summary This chapter chronologically discusses the results of studies concerning urban geography which focused on the business functions, or corporate offices, out of all the economic functions of cities, which also include commercial and industrial functions. In the area of geography in Japan, there are many empirical studies but few theoretical ones. That trend can also be seen in the field reviewed. It is hoped that in the future there will be studies that logically systemise the accumulated results of studies on offices. On the other hand, offices continue to be over ― concentrated in Tokyo, and this is being driven by the shift to high ― rise office buildings. Based on the objective of improving amenities in central city areas, there is also a shift towards multi ― purpose buildings in which retail shops, restaurants, hotels and other facilities occupy the same buildings as offices. It is expected that the number of studies on office relocation within cities in relation to the construction of such buildings and other urban redevelopment will increase. In the years ahead, corporate globalisation will most certainly continue to progress. Companies ― 38 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 511 Table 6. The list of articles for office activities in Japanese major geographical journals（from 2000 to 2011） Main theme, field and publishing year L N S U J F C S U R ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ Y Author’s name and article’s title （Sub title is omitted and a long title is omitted its part.） （Sub title is omitted and a long title omitted its part.） ○ 00 Paku, C., ‘Foreign direct investment in Fukuoka by a Korean business group and the roles ’ Abe, K., The Japanese urban system from the standpoint of large private ○ 00 firm’s head offices ’ Kuwatsuka, K., ‘Installing regional offices in Singapore and their roles within ○ 01 the corporate ’ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ◆ ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ― ○ ◆ ◆ ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ○ ◆ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ― ― ○ ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ○ ○ ○ ― ― ― ― ○ ― ◆ ― ○ ― ― ― ○ ― ― ◆ ◆ ― ― ― 16 7 7 6 25 5 15 7 7 01 Sato, H., ‘The suburbanization of office location in the Tokyo metropolis’ Taira, A., ‘The spatial characteristics and strategies of Japanese ― affiliated 01 companies ’ Hashimoto, K. and Arai, Y., ‘Informatization of business activities and 01 changes in branch ’ Taira, A., ‘Spatial Characteristics and Strategies of Japanese ― Affiliated 02 Companies in the ’ 02 Hanibuchi, T., ‘The Japanese urban system’ Lee, J., ‘Factors and costs associated with office relocations from central to 02 suburban Tokyo’ Aritome, J. and Ishikawa, Y., ‘Telework and location of dispersed offices in 03 the Tokyo ’ Matsumura, K., ‘Spatial development of urban functions in the center of 03 Koriyama city’ Satoh, H. and Arai, Y., ‘Residential selection behaviors during the 03 suburbanization of office ’ Sato, H. and Arai, Y., ‘The suburbanization of the office location due to 03 progress in ’ Fujimoto, N., ‘The influence of the reration between administration agencies 03 and business ’ Hamada, H., ‘Office agglomeration and its functional change in Makuhari 03 new city’ Paku, C., ‘Japanese urban hierarchy in terms of location of establishments of 04 businesses of ’ Abe, K., ‘Major cities and the urban system of Japan from the standpoint of 04 large private ’ Kajita, S., ‘Spatial patterns of main office locations of civil engineering 05 companies in ’ 05 Kikuchi, Y., ‘Transformation of office locations in Maebashi ― Takasaki region’ ― 05 Kawahara, D., ‘Locational changes of large enterprises in Osaka in the 1990s’ Ushigaki, Y., ‘Land use transition and built ― up areas encircling the central ― 06 business district ’ Koga, S., Spatial change in the business district of central area of Kyoto due ― 07 to office ’ Satoh, H., ‘Relationship between urban development and office mobility in ― 07 the Yokohama ’ Matsubara, H., ‘Reorganization of Japanese urban system and internal ○ 07 structures of urban ’ 07 Tsubomoto, H., ‘restructuring business spaces in Tokyo after the 1990s’ ― 07 Tsutsumi, J., ‘Office location in Sapporo city, Japan’ Shiraishi, Y., ‘Factors in expansion of low ― use and unused land in core areaa ― 07 of regional ’ Yokura, Y., ‘Global network formation and knowledge linkages by Japanese ○ 10 firms’ ― 12 ← 57 25 25 21 89 18 54 25 25 43 ← Journal’s specifications T V pp. L A 73（10） 761 ― 775 JE B 73（1） 062 ― 084 E A 74（4） 179 ― 201 JE H 53 （4） 353 ― 368 JE E 47（3） 196 ― 214 JE S 56 （1） 001 ― 020 JE A 75（12） 730 ― 749 E H 54（4） 389 ― 404 JE H 54 （5） 452 ― 470 JE A 76（1） 044 ― 055 JE A 76（5） 312 ― 332 E A 76（6） 450 ― 471 JE H 55（4） 367 ― 382 JE E 49（1） 041 ― 055 JE S 58（4） 253 ― 267 JE E 50（1） 063 ― 078 JE E 50（2） 139 ― 161 EJ A 78（13） 162 ― 177 JE E S 51 （2） 104 ― 118 60（2） 028 ― 047 JE JE A 79（10） 527 ― 541 JE A 80（3） 138 ― 151 JE A 80（14） 907 ― 925 JE E 53 （5） 443 ― 460 EJ E E 53（5） 461 ― 477 53（5） 478 ― 489 EJ EJ S 62（2） 065 ― 078 JE A 83（6） 600 ― 617 JE Total number of several column Proportion（%）in the several categories（double counted in part） Notes : see Table 4 that are beat out in international competition are forced to close their doors, and office employment dwindles as a consequence. Although higher ― level office functions like decision ― making departments are likely to remain in Japan, from the standpoint of exchange rate fluctuations and cost competitiveness, back ― office departments, such as those in charge of labour management and benefits, will shrink, even at large companies, which are said to be performing favourably. By extension, it is an undeniable possibility that hiring by such ― 39 ― 512 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） departments will decrease. Moreover, the further advancement of the information society is certain to lead to the expansion of Internet ― based commercial transactions and management. These issues are inherent in corporate management theory beyond the social structural framework of the shrinking population in Japan. There are many issues that need to be studied, including changes in urban structure through companies pursuing this kind of economic rationality and their distribution. As Japan faces the challenges of a global economy and a depopulating society, studies are needed to contribute to policy proposals that address correction of the issue of overconcentration in Tokyo from the standpoint of aspiring to create appropriate urban systems and pleasant urban living environments as well as preventing disaster, Japan being the earthquake ― prone country that it is. IV Studies on Urban Retailing General Trends of Retailing In Japan, up to the 1950s, commercial geography focused on the international movement of products like agricultural produce and industrial goods. At the end of the 1950s, retailing and wholesaling were recognised as indicators for analysing the spatial structure of cities. Trade area studies related to retail/wholesale distribution patterns and their sales and stocking came to be included in commercial geography（Higuchi, S., 1963）. Hayashi and Hino（No. 8 in Table 7, and so forth.）summarised the changes in distribution systems in Japan up to the first half of the 1980s and reviewed related geographical studies. This section partially overlaps with this study but reviews retailing studies related to cities in the 1980s and later. Studies on consumer activities, overseas studies on retailing and historical geographical studies are not touched on here. In retail geography of Japan during 1980s, quantitative analysis was generally used to look into retailing distribution and changes from a purely academic standpoint. However, in the latter half of the 1990s and later, urban retail geography gave rise to the following three new fields : 2 distribution geographical studies, studies on machi ― zukuri, and retailing studies by cultural and social geographers. Studies in these three fields did not emerge independently but should rather be understood as a series of changes reflecting changes in distribution systems, Japanese policy and geography. During the recession of the 1990s, large ― scale retailers engaged in scrap ― and ― build measures to reorganise their networks of stores. That sometimes had an enormous impact on urban and metropolitan retailing systems. Next, store location development by major corporations and the appearance of new retail types can be said to have given rise to studies that did not rely on central place theory. Furthermore, the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act in Japan regulated new locations of large ― scale retail stores and protected small and medium ― sized retailers. However, when the regulations of the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act were deregulated in the 1990s, the decline of traditional urban retail areas emerged as a social issue. The Three Laws of Urban Regeneration （Act on the Measures by Large ― Scale Retail Stores for Preservation of Living Environments（Large ― Scale Retail Store Location Act）, Act on Improvement and Vitalisation in City Centres and Revised City Planning Act） were enacted in 1998, which eliminated protections for small and medium ― sized retailers and was intended to revitalise central shopping areas in particular by regulating the location of large ― scale retail stores in urban planning. Since the late 1990s, geographical studies focused on ― 40 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） Table 7. Number Theme Year 513 The list of articles for urban retailing in Japanese major geographical journals Author’s name and article’s title（Sub title is omitted and a long title is omitted its part.） Volume pp. L Geographical Review of Japan 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 1 3 3 2 1 82 84 84 85 85 87 7 3 88 8 6 88 9 3 91 10 11 2 3 92 94 12 2 95 13 14 15 16 2 5 3 3 95 96 97 97 17 4 98 18 4 03 19 4 05 20 4 06 21 4 06 22 3 10 23 3 11 Itoh, O. ‘Distribution and spatial structure of retail trade in metroplises’ 55（9） 614 ― 633 Isizawa, T. ‘Hierarchy of regional urban systems organized by retail activities in Miyagi Prefecture and ’ 57（7） 439 ― 454 Suzuki, A. ‘An application of centrographic techniques to the study of urban spatial structure’ 57A（8） 549 ― 570 Neda, K. ‘Distribution of retail districts and its change in the City of Sendai’ 58A（11） 715 ― 733 Kawaguchi, T. ‘Spatial structure of retail activities in the Tokyo Commuting Area’ 58A（11） 744 ― 753 Ishizawa, T. ‘Changes of retail central place system in Miyagi Prefecture’ 60A（7） 455 ― 465 Ishizawa, T. ‘The location patterns of branch shops and qualitative changes in the central shopping 61A（11） 816 ― 829 street in ’ Hayashi, N. and Hino, M. ‘Spatial patterns of the distribution system in Japan and their recent 61B（1） 120 ― 140 changes’ Yamashita, H. ‘The changing central business district of Hachioji and Machida, satellite cities in the 64A（4） 280 ― 295 Tokyo ’ Hashimoto, Y. ‘Transformation of the central place system in Miura Peninsula’ 65（9） 665 ― 668 Sadahiro, Y. and Okabe, A. ‘Method for describing spatial hierarchical structure of urban facilities’ 67A（4） 225 ― 235 Ishikawa, Y. ‘The trend of multinulceation and the characteristics of suburban nucleation in the 69A（6） 387 ― 414 Keihanshin ’ Ishizaki, K. ‘Spatial competition and marketing strategy of fast food chains in Tokyo’ 68B （1） 86 ― 93 Fujitsuka, Y. et al., ‘Reopening for business after the Great Hanshin ― Awazi Earthquake’ 69A（2） 126 ― 135 Neda, K. ‘Urban retailing system in Kushiro City’ 70A（2） 69 ― 71 Neda, K. ‘Recent trends on the retail location in the urban retailing system’ 70B（1） 41 ― 56 Kagawa, T. and Yamashita, H. ‘Basis for the continued existence of traditional ― style commercial 71A（7） 515 ― 526 streets’ Suyama, S. ‘Landscape reconstruction in Zuisen ― ji Temple Street, Inami, Toyama Prefecture’ 76（13） 957 ― 978 JE JE JE JE JE JE 78（11） 661 ― 687 JE Takano, S. ‘Municipal political power structure in urban development projects’ Naniwada, T. ‘Transformation of the main shopping area in a company town by rationalization of the local ’ Musha, T. ‘Redevelopment of the central area of Matsumoto City’ Komaki, N. ‘Locational trends of large ― scale retail stores and their effects in the Tokushima Urban Region’ Khosaka, H ‘Identification of retail agglomeration places from NTT Townpage Database ’ JE E JE JE JE JE E JE JE E JE JE 79 （7） 355 ― 372 JE 79（1） JE 1 ― 25 83（2） 192 ― 207 JE 84（6） 572 ― 591 JE 33（3） 33（2） 35（3） 34（1） 35（5） 35（4） 39（3） 40（3） 40（1） 42（6） 4656） 45（5） 45（2） 46（2） 210 ― 230 97 ― 118 210 ― 232 1 ― 20 465 ― 476 289 ― 310 216 ― 233 263 ― 272 40 ― 63 522 ― 544 618 ― 633 465 ― 490 192 ― 205 203 ― 213 JE JE JE JE J JE JE J J JE J JE J J 47（4） 335 ― 358 JE 48（5） 48（4） 49（6） 50（4） 51（4） 52（3） 54 （1） 58（5） 60（5） 61（2） 468 ― 481 378 ― 397 598 ― 611 363 ― 382 396 ― 409 300 ― 315 40 ― 55 504 ― 520 443 ― 461 139 ― 156 J JE J JE JE JE JE JE JE JE Satoh, T. ‘Rigional economy and retail policy in Kanagawa Prefecture’ 27（3/4） 202 ― 213 Uchida, K. ‘Locational processes of family restaurants in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area’ 27 （2） 116 ― 134 Ishizaki, K. ‘The geographical development of fast food stores in Tokyo City Area from the viewpoint 36（2） 129 ― 140 of ’ JE JE Japanese Journal of Human Geography 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 4 3 2 2 3 4 4 2 2 2 4 2 6 3 81 81 82 82 83 83 87 88 88 90 93 93 93 94 38 4 95 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 4 2 4 6 3 3 6 4 4 3 96 96 97 98 99 00 02 06 08 09 49 50 2 2 81 81 51 2 90 Todokoro, T. ‘Changes in purchasing behavior caused by the opening of big stores’ Morikawa, H. ‘Central place system within the urban area of Hiroshima City’ Fujii, T. ‘The locational change of retail functions in the Keihanshin Metropolitan Area’ Tsugawa, Y. ‘Recent structural changes within the Keihanshin Metropolitan Area’ Nakaguchi, T. ‘The commercial structure in Sizuoka City’ Todokoro, T. ‘Two types of central shopping streets from the viewpoint of vertical growth’ Kagawa, K. ‘The influence of big stores expansion into small cities on retail trade ’ Neda, K. ‘Changes in the business organization of retailing in the north ― eastern sector of the Tokyo ’ Tomita, K. ‘Geographical studies on structural changes in major metropolitan areas in Japan’ Fujii, T. ‘Review of recent studies in the structure of the Metropolitan Area’ Naruse, A. ‘Daikanyama : downtown as a commodity’ Toyoda, T. ‘The spatial structure of commercial rents by retailing and the changes of land value’ Nakamura, S. ‘A case study of noodle stalls in Kyoto City’ Araki, T. ‘The locational pattern of convenience stores in Kyoto City’ Matsuda, T. ‘The establishment and management of cooperative department stores in the Tonami Region, ’ Igarashi, A. ‘Structural changes of the central commercial district in Toyama City’ Kuzutani, H. ‘Tertiary industrialization and structural change of the Osaka Metropolitan Area’ Ibuki, J. ‘Suburban “towns” in the Osaka Metropolitan Area, Esaka and Senri ― chuo’ Neda, K. ‘Review of studies on the urban retailing system’ Sugiyama, K. ‘The amusement quarter in the night constructed as social space’ Mizoo, Y. and Sugawara, Y. ‘A study of commercial development and conservation of the kurazukuri ’ Tsuchiya, J. ‘Geographical studies of chain store development and its cost structure in UK retailing’ Kohara, T. ‘The formation and the change of the area around Osaka Station from the viewpoint of ’ Kawaguchi, N. ‘How street fashion is shaped in Horie, a commercially regenerated area’ Iwama, N. et al. ‘The dietary life of the elderly in local cities and food desert issues’ Annals of the Japan Association of Economic Geographers ― 41 ― JE 514 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） 52 53 54 55 56 4 1 6 6 6 91 93 97 97 98 57 6 98 58 59 60 2 6 5 99 01 01 61 4 04 62 3 05 63 64 65 66 67 68 5 4 4 4 2 5 06 06 07 07 07 07 69 5 09 70 71 72 73 74 1 1 1 2 5 80 81 84 87 89 75 3 91 76 1 97 77 4 01 78 79 4 4 04 04 80 1 84 81 3 93 Matsuda, T. ‘Small ― scale retail stores in central Kyoto under the Large ― Scale Retail Store Act’ Morikawa, H. ‘The locational pattern of large scale stores in Japan as seen from the urban system ’ Ishihara, T. ‘The roles of retailing in the changing communities’ Todokoro, T. ‘Structural changes in commercial centers and new concept for urban space’ Hashimoto, K. ‘How marketing deregulation affects the regional economy’ Hashimoto, K. ‘Re ― construction of the information system by a mass merchandiser, and re ― organization of ’ Yasukura, R. ‘Changes in the locational behavior of large ― scale retailers due to the deregulation of the ’ Neda, K. ‘A review of empirical studies on the spatial structure of retailing at the macro ― scale level’ Tsubota, K. ‘The impact of spatial agglomeration of large ― scale retail stores on the local economy of ’ Otsuka, T. ‘Regeneration of the marginal area to the central commercial district related to condominium ’ Araki, T. ‘The development of urban planning after enactment of Large ― Scale Retail Store Locating Law ’ Miyazawa, H. ‘The changing face of suburban new towns in large metropolitan areas’ Yamashita, M. ‘Approaches to revitalization in small cities’ Musha, T. ‘Local governance and the central city redevelopment in a provincial city’ Yasukura, R. ‘Decline of the central commercial street and practice of its renovation by volunteer ’ Ito, K. ‘Unequal improvement of regional economies in the “vigorous” Tokai Region, central Japan’ Chiba, A. ‘The reconsideration of regional inequality and the approach to regional problems’ Yukawa, N. ‘A geographical analysis of the external effects of a large ― scale shopping center on neighboring ’ 37（4） 334 ― 353 39（2） 116 ― 135 43（1） 37 ― 47 43（1） 48 ― 58 44（4） 282 ― 295 JE JE JE JE JE 44 （3） 187 ― 207 JE 196 ― 216 45（3） 47 （2） 101 ― 120 47（2） 122 ― 133 JE JE JE 50（2） 118― 138 JE 51（1） 73 ― 88 JE 52（4） 52（4） 53（5） 53（2） 53（4） 53 （4） 236 ― 250 251 ― 263 490 ― 506 173 ― 197 327 ― 346 347 ― 368 JE JE E JE JE JE 55（2） 121 ― 136 JE 32（1） 11 ― 20 33（4） 224 ― 228 36（3） 151 ― 160 39（1） 16 ― 33 41 （3） 148 ― 159 JE J JE JE JE Quarterly Journal of Geography Ishizawa, T. ‘Change of retail area and structure of shopping street on some cities in Yamagata Basin’ Kuwajima, K. ‘Agglomeration of retail establishments in the Japanese cities’ Ishizawa, T. ‘Spatial pattern of the development of retail activities in Miyagi Prefecture’ Etsuki, H. ‘Recent locational trends of large ― scale retail stores in the Tokyo Metropolitan Region’ Neda, K. ‘Change of sub ― central shopping street after the opening a big shopping store’ Takano, T. and Suzuki, F. ‘Reconsideration on the analytical and interpretational method for the urban retailing ’ Ishizawa, T. and Okabe, N. ‘Changes in the retail central place system in Yamanashi Prefecture’ Matsuoka, K. ‘Location of superstores and changes of the commercial areas during 1990s in Matsuyama’ Takano, S. ‘Changing spatial structures of the inner cities in Japan’ Yasukura, R. ‘Location process of large ― scale retail stores from the viewpoint of the operation of ’ 43（2） 139― 154 JE 49 （2） JE 54 ― 104 53（2） 127 ― 131 J 56（4） 225 ― 240 56（29） 146 ― 162 JE JE 39（3） 113 ― 130 JE 48 （3） 200 ― 208 J 27 ― 43 53（1） 60（2） 65 ― 89 61（4） 258 ― 268 62（2） 65 ― 78 63（2） 80 ― 93 JE JE JE JE JE 39（2） 38（4） 1 ― 16 1 ― 22 JE JE 62（1） 1 ― 15 JE 1（2） 2（1） 128 ― 141 1 ― 16 JE E Geographical Sciences 82 83 84 85 86 4 4 5 4 3 98 05 06 07 08 87 88 5 4 91 91 89 2 04 90 91 6 2 08 09 Kagawa, K. ‘Regional development of big ― stores in Japan’ Hayashi, N. ‘Change of commercial system in the metropolitan peripheral area : the case of Kasugai ― shi, ’ Yasukura, R. ‘Urban redevelopment and spatial change of the central shopping area in Sakai City ’ Kohara, T. ‘The social significance of urban redevelopment’ Araki, T. ‘A study of roadside shops in rural ― urban fringe roadside areas’ Shiraishi, Y. ‘Factors in expansion of low ― use and unused land in core areas of regional centers’ Araki, T. ‘The locational pattern of large ― scale retail stores in Okayama City’ New Geography Ida, H. ‘A geographical study on the form of setting ― up retail shops in the suburban area’ Ushiyama, M. ‘Transformation of commerce in the small local cities’ Komaki, N. ‘Functional structure of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area based on the analysis of commuting and ’ Geographical Space Neda, K. ‘Note on the trends and issues of “retail geography” in Japan’ Iwama, N. ‘The change of Japanese department stores’ cultural facilities during one hundred years’ Notes : Theme 1. Studies on national or regional urban system 2. Studies on three metropolitan areas 3. Studies on urban retailing system 4. Studies on central shopping area 5. Studies on outlying retail area 6. Others L : Langage JE : in Japanese with English abstruct, E : in English retailing have become to identify the decline of urban retail areas as an urban problem and had 3 the purpose of encouraging city planning to protect and revitalise retail areas（No. 90）. That was different from the studies that were conducted up to the 1980s, which sought only to objectively describe the facts. ― 42 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 515 Studies on Urban Systems There are a great many studies reviewing urban systems of national and regional scales with cities as the unit of analysis. These studies considered retailing an important element of urban systems and attempted to explain hierarchy between cities based primarily on central place theory（Kuwajima（No. 81）and Morikawa（No. 53））. Studies on urban systems in the three major metropolitan areas（Tokyo, Nagoya and Kyoto ― Osaka ― Kobe） are a major field of urban geography in Japan. In the latter half of the 1970s and later, studies on urban systems using retailing in the three major metropolitan areas focused particularly on the suburbanisation and decentralisation of retailing（No. 32）. In the Kyoto ― Osaka ― Kobe metropolitan area, following the rapid decentralisation of the population in the 1960s and later, retailing was becoming decentralised, but in contrast to metropolitan areas in the USA, central cities（Osaka, Kyoto and Kobe）maintained an predominance as central shopping areas（No. 26 and 27）. However, retail areas in the inner cities of metropolitan areas fell into decline. In the Tokyo metropolitan area, the central city of Tokyo also maintains predominance, but suburban cities with major railway stations acquired a status just below it（No. 5 and 9）. In suburban cities, large ― scale supermarkets were built in front of major railway stations, and they became new shopping cores（No. 24）. In the 1990s, Fujii（No. 33）studied that looked into whether metropolitan areas in Japan were undergoing counter ― urbanisation or multi ― nucleation. He pointed out that Japanese metropolitan areas were not undergoing counter ― urbanisation like their American counterparts and that super regional shopping centres exceed the scale of central shopping areas of central cities were not being built in the suburbs. On the other hand, Ishikawa （No. 12） analysed shopping behaviour patterns as smaller unit of analysis than city area and pointed out that shopping cores were forming in the suburbs that had power to attract shoppers on compare with those of central cities. As mentioned above, the three major metropolitan areas of Japan maintain a hierarchical structure which has central cities at the top based on central place theory. The reason for that is that dependence on public transit is high in Japan’s metropolitan areas. It was pointed out that the agglomeration of eating and drinking establishments and personal service facilities on central cities has brought the development of service ― oriented economies（Ikuta, M., 1991）. The situating of large ― scale retail stores in the suburbs resulted in the formation of some retail areas specialised in specific shopping goods（No. 41）. These trends differ from those up to the 1980s, and mean that retail structure in the three major metropolitan areas that cannot be explained according to a hierarchical structure based on central place theory. Following the relaxing of the regulations of the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act in the 1990s, many large ― scale shopping centres were built on the previous factory sites and greenfields in the suburbs of the three major metropolitan areas. At the same time, smaller stores in traditional central shopping areas of suburban cities tended to close（No. 66）. As a result, shopping cores not dependent on public transit were formed in the suburbs. This means that the scrap ― and ― build strategy of large ― scale retail chains were one factor behind the changes of retail spatial structure in these three major metropolitan areas（No. 58）. Studies on Intra ― Urban Retailing Systems In the 1970s and later, studies on the intra ― urban retailing system classified retail areas quantitatively. For the most part, these studies used central place theory as the theoretical ― 43 ― 516 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） framework, and more than examining retail activities and consumer purchasing behaviour themselves, they considered retailing as indicators for proving central place theory（e. g., No. 25）. In the 1980s, many studies examined the three types of retail areas as presented by Berry, B. J. L.（1963）in Japanese cities（No. 1, 28 and 4, Neda, K., 1999）. Neda（No. 3）and Suzuki（No. 4）looked at changes in urban retailing systems and showed that while shopping goods and services were dispersed throughout the whole city, there was an even greater convergence on central shopping areas. In the latter half of the 1980s and the 1990s, an attempt was made to classify retail areas without relying on central place theory in order to get an overall picture of retailing （No. 75）. Sadahiro and Okabe（No. 11）also pointed out that urban hierarchical structures were a random model rather than a Christaller’s one. Since the end of the 1990s, studies on intra ― urban retailing were strongly influenced by distribution geography and policy. In regards to the Three Laws of Urban Regeneration, Araki （No. 62 and 86） pointed out that zoning control was poorly designed and that large stores had comparatively more freedom to set up shop. Komaki （No. 22） showed that there were cases in which local governments actively courted large ― scale retail stores for the purpose of redevelopment despite the strengthening of regulation under the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act of the 1980s. Additionally, studies on the economic, social and environmental impact of retail stores on cities and regions began to emerge in the late 1990s and thereafter. Iwama et al. （No. 48） reviewed the food desert phenomenon, which is a social impact of retail stores （Iwama, N. ed., 2011）. These studies do not analyse the retail store patterns arising as a result of retail store location strategies but rather show the fairness of retail stores with respect to cities and consumers. By so doing, these studies can contribute to retail store location policy that determines how many retail stores can be located where and how large they can be. Studies on the Structure of Retail Areas （a）Central Shopping Areas In Japan, there are a very large number of empirical studies on the structure of and changes in central shopping areas. Researchers have looked into land use in retail areas and the distribution of stores by trade type. They have also examined the streetscape of shopping streets and multi ― level land use resulting from the spread of high ― rise buildings following the construction of arcades in central shopping areas and redevelopment of the 1970s and later （No. 29）. In Sakai City, commercial buildings constructed as part of the Urban Redevelopment Project prospered, traditional central shopping streets comprised primarily of low ― rise buildings fell into decline （No. 32）. In the 1980s and later, small and independent retailers in Japan consistently decreased in number while the number of large ― scale retail chain stores increased. The number of national chain stores grew rapidly in central shopping areas in the 1970s and later and that they contributed to improve the landscape of shopping streets and enhance consumer choice by providing a range of shopping goods（No. 7 and 15）. Matsuda （No. 52） showed that when regulations were strengthened in the 1980s, the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act had the effect of increasing the number of local chain stores with less than 500 m2 of floor space, which were not subject to the restrictions of the law, in central areas of Kyoto while decreasing the number of small independent stores. Moreover, Matsuda（No. 33） ― 44 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 517 closely examined the process of small independent stores constructing cooperative department stores. In the latter half of the 1990s and thereafter, geographers paid attentions the policy evaluation, the behaviour and recognition of retailers and their organisation in central shopping areas （Yamakawa, M., 2004） . In the core of city centre, rent was high and many retailers were not property owners but had high motivation. In contrast, in the inner cities, many retailers were property owners but few new businesses entered into there （No. 39）. Naniwada （No. 20） focused on vacancies in declining central shopping areas of local city and showed that part of the reason that entry demand was decreasing and not many stores were coming in was that the property owners did not want to rent out. Also contributing to this situation is the fact that there are no regulations restricting from the retailing to other uses in the central shopping areas of Japan. In the 1990s and later, there were studies on central shopping areas conducted from the perspective of social and cultural geographies. Takano（No. 19）and Musha（No. 21 and 65）focus on the roles of actors playing a part in revitalising central shopping area. These studies looked at the behaviour of local government and small and medium ― sized retailers and redevelopment processes of central shopping areas and showed that existing retailer organisations in central shopping areas moved to protect their own vested interests and were unable to actively accommodate redevelopment plans. Additionally, as central shopping areas declined, new organisations widened their appeal（No. 66）. It was pointed out that mixed use in combination with residential functions was effective for revitalising the fringe of central shopping areas（No. 61） . There were also studies that showed that retailers played an important role in preserving the historical streetscape of central shopping areas （No. 18 and 44）. Traditional streetscape is an important resource that contributes to the development of tourist areas. Next, there are also studies on the role of central shopping areas as places of consumption and what impact they have on the local society. Naruse（No. 34）examined the commercialisation of Daikanyama, Tokyo and Sugiyama （No. 43） and Kawaguchi （No. 47） looked at the trends in shopping street consumption by young people. These studies consider retail areas to be social spaces and places of consumption, so in that respect they seem to study from the same 4 perspective as ‘new retail geography’ in the UK in the 1990s. （b）Outlying Retail Areas In Japan, large ― scale retail stores of up to 10 , 000 m2 in size were built not only in commercial areas as defined in the City Planning Act but also in industrial areas and some residential areas until 2006. In the 1980s, when the regulations of the Large ― Scale Retail Stores Act were being strengthened, retail stores less than 500 m2 in size agglomerated along major roads at the fringe of urban areas, and retail areas known as ‘roadside type retail areas’ in Japan were formed. These areas consisted primarily of national and regional chain stores and included category killers and other new formats（No. 85 and 87）. In traditional neighbourhood retail areas scattered about urban areas, many existing independent stores closed and they were sometimes replaced with chain stores（No. 16）. Chiba （No. 67） pointed out that neighbourhood retail areas centred on convenience goods faced different challenges depending on whether they were located near central urban areas, in subcentre areas or suburban residential areas. ― 45 ― 518 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 64 ― 6（2012） Geographical Studies on Urban Retailing of the Future The status of central shopping areas in central cities has not fallen in Japan’s three major metropolitan areas. In other words, the hierarchical structure placing the central shopping area of central city at the top in metropolitan area has been maintained. At the same time, retail areas of inner cities went into decline. However, in suburban cities, large ― scale retail stores have decentralised to the fringe of urban areas from locations in front of stations. It may be that dependence on automobiles has increased in the suburbs of metropolitan areas in Japan and a new metropolitan retailing system is emerging. However, there have been no studies on retailing system in the metropolitan area since 2000. Even on a city scale, there have been no studies on citywide retailing systems since 2000. In the USA, Berry pointed out that categories of retail area in existing city planning did not match up with the actual retailing system suitable for an era of suburbanisation（Berry, B. J. L., 1963）. It is necessary to find a retailing system suitable for contemporary Japanese cities which are re ― urbanising and shrinking. It is also necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of the economic, social and environmental effects of retail stores on cities and consumers and determine the effectiveness and fairness of retail stores from the standpoint of cities and consumers. It will be possible to develop policies to determine how many retail stores to put where and what size they should be. Following the enactment of the Three Laws of Urban Regeneration in 1998, there were many studies on regeneration of central shopping areas in the field of urban geography. However, in geographical studies since the 1990s no systematic framework of study has been developed to provide a comprehensive understanding of retail areas. V Conclusion This paper has assessed trends in urban geography, one of the most influential fields of Japanese geography（Noma, H. et al., 2012）, from the perspective of three different areas since the 1980s. As stated at the beginning, there are undeniably some omissions and inconsistencies in some fields, but it should still provide a general understanding of the current trends in Japanese urban geography. There is also a change in study trends from ‘of the city’ to ‘in the city’ as pointed out by Abe, K.（1996a）. Like in other developed nations, the urban population increased year after year in Japan following the end of World War II. While facing various urban problems, cities in Japan have increased in importance as a life stage. The daily experience of living, working and shopping in the city will continue, and the importance of urban geography will grow further. As that happens, the standing of geography in general will undoubtedly be determined by how strong a presence can be made not just in geography but where various peripheral fields meet or, more specifically, how significant a role urban geography can play when it comes to various decision ― making forums within the city. Acknowledgement Part of this study was supported by the Grant ― in ― Aid for Scientific Research（A）by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science（2012）, No. 24242034, headed by Hino Masateru. ― 46 ― Research Trends in Japanese Urban Geography since 1980（KAGAWA, KOGA and NEDA） 519 Notes 1. 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