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CHAPTER 3
COMMAND AND CONTROL OF AIR POWER
Air warfare cannot be separated into little packets; it knows no boundaries on land
and sea other than those imposed by the radius of action of the aircraft; it is a unity
and demands unity of command.
Lord Tedder
Introduction
Effective command and control is fundamental to the efficient application of any form
of military power. Therefore, an understanding of the essential elements of the
command and control of air power is an essential component of air power doctrine.
This understanding applies in equal measure to planners and practitioners from air and
other environments. The aim of this chapter is to examine the essential elements of
command and control, to highlight the component command model and to describe the
position of mission command within this structure in a joint and multinational context.
Elements of Command and Control
Command or direction is retained at the highest level necessary to achieve unity of
purpose. This is combined with the delegation of authority to achieve military
objectives at the lowest level appropriate for the most effective use of military forces.
Command requires a combination of responsibility and accountability. Control, the
second essential element, is one aspect of command. Both the commander and his staff
share the execution of control.
The UK hierarchy of command and control is described in British Defence Doctrine.
The terms are explained in Chapter 13. The current strategic environment may
increasingly challenge formal NATO-agreed command states. For combined and
multinational operations, the key requirement is unity of effort.
The detailed relationship between the levels of warfare and the levels of command and
control for the tasking of British air power at the operational level is contained in JWP
0-10 and in the RAF Air Operations manual.
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Defence Crisis Management
The procedures which underpin decisions on the intervention of British military forces
at the strategic level are described in British Defence Doctrine. The planning
considerations for joint and multinational operations are contained in JWP 0-10. The
Ministry of Defence retains its role as both a department of state and a military
headquarters, formulating policy and guidance and providing military advice to
Ministers and commanders. The Ministry of Defence is the focal point for advice, liaison
and military direction to other Government departments, allies and international
organisations. In the event of a crisis, the Ministry of Defence operates the Defence
Crisis Management Organisation (DCMO), which focuses the Ministry of Defence’s
response to crises and conflicts under the guidance of the Deputy Chief of Defence Staff
(Commitments) who reports to the Chiefs of Staff. The Permanent Joint Headquarters
(PJHQ) plans and directs operations under the direction of the Chief of Joint Operations.
During the initial stages of a crisis, in consultation with the Chiefs of Staff, the Ministry
of Defence and the PJHQ will appoint a Joint Commander (Jt Cdr) and a Joint Task Force
Commander (JTFC). Component commanders will be nominated soon thereafter.
During a crisis, the single-Service Commanders-in-Chief will generally operate as
supporting commanders to provide forces for joint and multinational operations.
In the early stages of a crisis, timely information exploitation to aid the decision making
process underpins all crisis management and crisis response. Air power has a vital role
to play in helping to provide information - further details are in Chapter 4. While
Chapter 2 explained the utility of air power in the context of modern warfare, military
organisations remain structured around command levels. Below the Jt Cdr and the JTFC,
the UK has adopted the component command principle. It is thus important that all
commanders and planners understand how air power is commanded and controlled
within this framework.
Command and Control of Joint Forces
UK forces for deployed operations are directed by the PJHQ. The PJHQ will assist the
nominated Jt Cdr in framing his requirements and beginning the campaign planning
process. The JTFC will delegate command and control of the environments of land, sea
and air to component commanders. For the air environment, the component
commander is the Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC), who may exercise
command afloat in an appropriately equipped and staffed command and control vessel,
ashore in a rear area, forward in theatre, or airborne in a suitably configured aircraft.
Location will depend on the scenario and position of main effort within the campaign,
but there may be practical advantages for the JFACC to collocate with the JTFC.
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Command and Control in Multinational Operations
If the UK were to commit forces, it would probably be in one of three broad
circumstances: national operations; multinational operations as the lead or framework
nation; or multinational operations as a participating nation. In NATO operations,
NATO command states will apply. Details are contained in NATO doctrine, particularly
AJP 1-A, Allied Joint Operations Doctrine. For non-NATO operations, NATO procedures
may still be applied if Alliance members are in the majority. Alternatively, ad hoc
arrangements may need to be developed. As a general rule, particularly for air power,
complex command and control arrangements should be avoided and higher authority
sought for variance from agreed arrangements. In coalition operations, recent
experience suggests full command will be retained by national contingent commanders.
Component Command
The concept of component command is central to the joint command and control of the
British armed forces on operations. The Jt Cdr will assign each component commander
an area of operations or joint operational area where he is responsible for planning and
conducting all operations. These boundaries may need to be revised as the operation
develops. Air power may be tasked across component boundaries. Component
commanders can be national, service or functional.
Further details are contained in JWP 0-10 and the RAF Air Operations manual.
Supported and Supporting Commanders
The terms supported and supporting commander are used to clarify potentially complex
command and control arrangements which can result when the assets commanded by
one component are controlled and tasked by another. The concept of commanders
supporting or being supported by each other is closely allied to the concept of
component command.
Support is the function performed by the forces of one or more components to assist the
forces of another component. The commander of the supported force will give details
of the mission requirements to the supporting commander or commanders. The
supporting commander will fulfil those requirements of the supported force which fall
within the capability of the supporting forces. Usually, joint or agreed coalition
procedures are used but, if these have not been agreed, the supporting forces will use
national single-Service tactics and procedures.
In a given theatre of operations, the JTFC determines the supported and supporting
relationship. At different phases of an operation or campaign it is usual for one or
another component commander to be appointed the lead or supported commander
while other component commanders are required to support his operations.
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The Supporting Relationship
The relationship between supported and supporting commanders must be defined,
possibly through a directive, and the following characteristics must be identified:
●
The forces and other resources allocated to the supporting effort.
●
The time, place, level and duration of the supporting effort.
●
The relative priority of the supporting effort.
●
The authority delegated to the supporting commander.
It is the responsibility of the supported commander to ensure that the supporting
commander(s) understands the assistance required and that the assistance required is
provided when it is needed. A supporting commander exercises general direction over
the supporting effort using his normal tactics, methods and procedures to deliver the
supporting effort.
The very flexibility of air power and the multi-role versatility of air power platforms
mean that a JFACC could be supporting more than one commander and may be a
supported commander at the same time. Individual aircraft may carry out supported
and supporting tasks during a single mission.
Mission Command
Mission command is the philosophy in which commanders tell their subordinates what
to achieve and why, rather than what to do and how. The British Armed Forces apply
the principle of mission command. At all levels, mission command is articulated
through a statement of the commander’s guidance and intent, together with the
articulation of his subordinates’ missions in the context of the overall plan. In a fluid
situation, despite the complexity of air operations, the effective application of air power
may require the exercise of mission command. The JFACC can exercise mission
command by offering guidance, intent and effect sought to the next level to avoid
‘reachdown’1 and mission prescription. In a cascade process, the Wing or Group level
commander can delegate mission command to the squadron or package commander.
For example, an Air Tasking Order (ATO) does not need to prescribe in great detail what
a Composite Air Operations (COMAO) aircraft package should do, but rather what effect
the mission is to achieve. The aircraft package commander then exercises mission
command in the execution of the mission. Thus, mission command can be practised in
the air. Similarly, mission command can be exercised on the ground by a flexible
approach to campaign planning and the ATO process.
Reachdown’ is a descriptive term to describe the phenomenon where senior commanders employ modern
technology to reach down below their level of responsibility. Reachdown, if unchecked, can interfere with the
integrity of the command chain.
1‘
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Realities of Mission Command
The realities of resource scarcity demand that limits are placed on mission command.
This has led the UK to accept that the authority for apportionment decisions rests at the
JTFC level, empowering and resourcing the Component Commanders to carry out their
missions. The JFACC exercises air mission command on behalf of the JTFC by issuing an
Air Operations Directive (AOD) to his Air Operations Centre (AOC). The AOD directs
what to achieve and why, but not how - that is left to subordinate levels of command.
The fusion of command, control, communications, computers, intelligence,
surveillance, target acquisition and reconnaissance systems is carried out at the AOC
level for formation-level operations. Depending on the context, the JFACC may wish to
devolve the detailed tasking of certain missions to lower levels of organisation, such as
that of a deployed wing or squadron. No single model will work for all scales of
operation and for all scenarios. Therefore, the component command model may have
to be modified to suit the circumstances.
United Kingdom Combined Air Operations Centre
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Centralized Control, Decentralized Execution
A central theme of the history of air power has been ‘centralized control and decentralized
execution’, which enables unified air action and ensures that scarce air assets are used in
the most effective way. This maxim suggests that command and control should not be
devolved to a lower level than that at which the commander has the ability to
communicate his guidance, intent and mission directives to lower formations.
The following key principles should be applied:
●
Centralize Control. Centralized control promotes an integrated joint and
multinational effort and enables air power assets to be employed to meet the priorities
of the JTFC. It also allows air assets to respond to the changing demands of the
operational situation and be concentrated at the critical place and time to achieve
decisive results.
●
Centralize Planning. Centralized planning of air assets is essential to ensure an
integrated effort to meet the overall objectives of the campaign. It will preclude air
assets being divided into small and ineffective packages which could inhibit flexibility
and hinder rapid concentration of force. Thus, the employment of limited air assets
can be concentrated to meet the demands of the campaign as a whole at the critical
time and place to achieve decisive results.
●
Exercise Control at the Highest Practical Level. Unity of air effort may be best
achieved when authority for command and control is exercised from the highest
practical level, depending on the objectives, forces available and command and
control arrangements. As command and control systems become faster, more reliable
and inter-active, the options for location available to commanders will increase. For
example, the JFACC may choose to be collocated with the JTFC or could elect to
collocate with another component commander. Location will depend on the scale
and intensity of operations and the wishes of the joint commander and JTFC.
●
Decentralize Execution. No single commander can direct personally all of the
detailed actions of a large number of air units or individuals. Therefore, decentralized
execution is essential to mission success. It is accomplished by delegating
appropriate authority to execute tasks and missions. Decentralized execution allows
subordinate commanders to exercise mission command.
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The Decision-Making Cycle
Effective command and control of military forces depends on the processing of
information faster than an opponent. The effective application of air power is dominated
by the need to obtain and exploit high quality information quickly if the decision/action
cycle is to remain within that of an opponent. This process is described in detail in
Chapter 4. Command and control, information management and target selection
processes are inextricably linked. The stages in the decision making process are:
●
Direction. The commander will carry out an initial analysis of what is required of
him, the time by which any decision has to be made and the priorities for execution.
●
Consultation. If time allows, consultation is carried out with higher, adjoining and
subordinate commanders. The consultation process should not, however, detract
from the commander’s instinct and military judgement.
●
Consideration. Before reaching a decision, the work of the staff generated by the
‘direction’ phase will have to be evaluated in the light of any consultation carried out.
The pressure of time may condense the process and demand concurrent activity. Rarely
will there be sufficient air resources to meet all demands, and tasking priorities will have
to be set. The setting of priorities in terms of apportionment is a key function for the
JFACC. In overall campaign planning terms, the apportionment will have to be
approved by the Joint Targeting Coordination Board (JTCB), which will be chaired by
the JTFC or his nominated representative. In the event of dispute over apportionment
or targeting details, the forum to resolve dispute will be the JTCB which will typically
meet on a daily basis. In addition to the apportionment decision, the JTCB approves the
Joint Integrated Prioritised Target List (JIPTL). The JTCB therefore plays a crucial role in
overall campaign coordination, and preparation for and attendance at the JTCB may
consume a great deal of the JFACC’s time. Further Details are contained in JWP 0 - 10
and the RAF Air Operations manual.
Strategy-to-Task and the Joint Estimate
Following receipt of strategic guidance, the JTFC and his staff conduct campaign
planning at the joint operational level, which results in the production of a campaign
plan and the issue of orders or directives. Central to the process is the completion of a
joint estimate.
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The Joint Estimate
The Joint Estimate is the central process for the formulation and modification of military
plans and action during a joint campaign. There are five key stages in the estimate
process:
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Mission analysis.
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Evaluation of factors.
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Consideration of courses of action.
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Development of an outline Concept of Operations.
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Recommendation of a course of action and the commander’s decision.
Further details are contained in JWP 0-10, AJP 1-(A) (NATO Allied Joint Operations
Doctrine) and the RAF Air Operations manual.
The Air Estimate
The Air Estimate is the tool through which the air component influences the air input to
the joint estimate. It cannot be carried out in isolation. The process closely mirrors the
joint estimate but concentrates on the specific integration of air matters into the joint
plan. A concept of operations is developed and a course of action is selected. It serves
to validate the air component commander’s mission and offers advice on air matters to
the joint estimate.2
Strategy-to-Task
It is vital that component commanders ensure their actions fit within the framework of
the overall campaign plan and are synchronized across all components. This process
requires all tasks to fit within the overall strategy or objective within the campaign and
is known as ‘strategy-to-task’.
JFACC Air Operations Planning
Targeting and Planning for Joint Air Operations
Accurate and timely advice on targeting is a key issue for the successful execution of air
operations. When following national joint or NATO doctrine, targets may be selected
and approved in a JTCB. Notwithstanding the caveat covered in Chapter 1 that overall
targeting strategy may well be retained at the highest level, the JTCB receives advice on
the targets both from higher commanders and Board members. The Board determines
2
Full details of the Air Estimate are given in the RAF Air Operations manual.
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the priorities, the effect sought and the weight of effort which must be given to all
operations to achieve mission success. A key requirement of the JTCB process is to
ensure the synchronization of lines of operation across all components. In large scale
operations, the complexity of this task - particularly if component commanders are not
collocated - should not be under-estimated. Nevertheless, with the use of technology
such as video conferencing, conflicts of interest between the various component
commanders can be resolved in the JTCB forum. It is, therefore, essential that potential
and future air component commanders understand both the targeting process and JTCB
procedures. Further details of the UK targeting process are contained in JWP 0-10 and
the RAF Air Operations manual.
The JFACC is responsible for joint air operations planning, using the assets assigned to
him, and for promulgating a joint air operations plan. As air power can be used in so
many different ways, the Commander may well undertake both supported and
supporting operations within the JTFC’s campaign plan. The Theatre Commander
ensures that all air operations in his area of responsibility (AOR) are coordinated, by
appointing an Airspace Control Authority (ACA). This is usually the JFACC, but may be
delegated to another component should the operational situation dictate. The ACA
consults with the other component commanders to produce an Airspace Control Plan
(ACP). This plan will consider, among other items: the boundaries of the airspace
control areas; integration of air defence operations; existing air traffic control zones;
transit and recovery procedures; and emergency and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF)
procedures. When the plan has been approved by the JTFC, the plan is implemented
through the medium of an Airspace Control Order (ACO). The proliferation of manned
and unmanned air breathing systems across the battlespace makes airspace
coordination a priority for the synchronization of any joint campaign. Increasingly,
remote or out-of-theatre systems such as cruise missiles put a great premium on
coordination and synchronization to avoid fratricide.
The JFACC may also be appointed as the Area Air Defence Commander (AADC) - further
details are in Chapter 5.
Assignment of Air Power
In keeping with the flexible nature of manoeuvre warfare, the JTFC may need to move
air support between areas and operations so that the various component commanders
can have the support they need where and when they need it. The planning process for
assignment is based on the NATO assignment process and consists of a series of actions
known as allotment, apportionment and allocation, as set out on the next page:
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Air Operations Directive
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