Module II: Issues in Sport History and Sport’s Foundations
The first module introduced many issues in sport and society and introduced several
intellectual tools for understanding them. Module two continues to develop the basic
concepts and core background information that will provide the framework for us to
analyze, understand and manage issues in sport and society. We explore sports and society by looking at a brief history of sport and the key related ideas of sportsmanship,
gamesmanship, and character.
Learning Objectives and How They
Can Be Achieved:
After completing this module you should
know and be able to do the following:
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Provide examples of how sport
and society are linked throughout
history [examples are found below, in the video and in several
of the readings for this module]
Identify core concepts of sport,
sportsmanship, gamesmanship
and character.[discussion of each
issue found below and in the
readings]
Identify socially and ethically interesting issues in the history of
sport [video programs highlight
several examples]
Analyze sport related situations
in history using stakeholder
analysis [examples can come
from the readings or below and
you will demonstrate your ability
to do stakeholder analysis in the
opportunity post for this module]
Identify management issues in
sport that effect society [video
programs focus on several examples]
Critically think about issues in
sport by applying SAGE to both
historical and recent issues in
sport [web activities in this mod-
ule assist the student in meeting
this objective]
1. Module Specific Information:
A Brief History of Sport and Society:
(loosely based on a timeline from Jay
Coakley , Sport in Society, 4th edition,
1990)
This is a very brief synopsis of important
dates and events in the history of sport in
the western world and the relation of
sport and society. The class web site
provides links to more detailed explanations of many of the items listed below.
Our purpose in this section is to provide
an historical and conceptual framework
for looking at sport and society. By noticing how sport was used in other societies we may gain perspective on how
it is used in our own.
Pre-sport Era: before 1000 B.C.E.
History records that games were played
as part of religious events and sometimes
as part of religious rituals. Since most
societies were formed around their religious beliefs, sport played an important
part in their society in the expression of
their relationship to the universe. Often
the games themselves were ‘practice’ for
skill useful in society such as the defense
of their society or the conduct of war.
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Homeric Greek Sport: 1000 – 550
B.C.E.
Continuing the link of sport to religion,
this period builds upon it and sport becomes part of religious festivals and
Greek mythology. The expansion of
games includes women having their own
games at Olympia. Most of the games
were played by the wealthy. Most
games were ‘practice’ for skills used in
defending society or conducting war.
The Golden Period of Greek Sport: 550100 B.C.E.
In this period permanent structures for
hosting games were constructed at
Olympia, where the games were tied to
religious festivals at the shrine to Zeus.
Winning at Olympia had many benefits
including prestige and wealth. Some
athletes were hired by communities to
represent the community at the games.
The athletes often were criticized as
overspecialized and ignorant. The
philosopher Plato was a wrestler and
found it a hard choice to chose between
his career in philosophy or a career in
wrestling.
The Roman Early Period: 100 B.C.E to
100
During this period the games were used
to train soldiers as well as provide entertainment for the many now in cities
throughout the Roman world. Those in
control used sport to influence society in
ways that would benefit the ruling class.
Sport often was seen more as a diversion
of attention rather than a direct contest
among combatants.
Imperial Rome: 100-400
Early In this period gladiators and circuses emerged in the same venues where
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foot races, chariot races and so on were
conducted. Leaders still used sport to
achieve their interest in controlling society. Later in this period entertainment
predominates and spectacles are created
to amuse the masses. Fights to the
death, animal slaughter and even fights
were among the criminal classes including Christians. The end of this
period coincides with the fall of the
Roman Empire dated conveniently at
400.
The Middle Ages: 400-1400
With the dispersion of cities into the
countryside, games were played locally.
For the most part, peasants played games
and it served as a diversion from a difficult life. The local royalty of knights,
nobles and aristocrats competed in jousts
and other tournaments that were generally endorsed by the Church as a good
physical pastime. Women’s participation
was limited to non-existent.
Renaissance Period: 1400-1500
The creation of the idea of a scholarathlete is a notable development. With
the rise of education and the development of colleges, many aspire to the
Jesuit motto of a strong mind in a strong
body.
Reformation: 1500-1700
With the rise of Calvinism and Puritanism sport was seen as a frivolous use of
time that was better spent in worship and
industry. The poor often were restricted
from playing games and competing in
contests. The wealthy were less affected
by the restrictions.
Enlightenment Period: 1700-1800
Most governments gave support to
games and competitions and leisure
activities gained legitimacy in society.
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Industrial Revolution: 1800-1880
With the growth of cities and work in
factories there was little time for most
workers to participate in sport or leisure
activities. Some religious traditions regarded work as a virtue and play as a sin.
•
Modern Age of Sport: 1880-present
With economic improvement and the
growth of a middle class and the development of leisure time, sport has seen
significant development in this period.
Sport has been linked to character development, economic productivity, and
social solidarity. Commercial sports
have developed and in many cases have
thrived creating an immense new economic force. During the last 75 years,
sport has been instrumental in social
change. Issues in society regarding
character, race, gender and disability
have been publicly focused on the world
of sport.
2. Key Terms and Concepts
2.1 In our explorations into the history of
sports practices and the historical record
of the ethical standards in the early days
of American sports practices, we do so
by encountering people involved in the
study of the history of sports practices
and ethics.
When we hear their claims about sports
we should
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identify their concerns, represent
their concerns in relation to other
similar and perhaps better known
issues in today’s world.
•
evaluate the practice according to
the norms and standards in place
in that period of society.
evaluate the standards that are in
place in our present society,
consider, suggest and evaluate
changes in practices and standards applied in present day
sports.
We should first consider a point of logic
and methodology central to our approach. From a practical point of view,
note that there are several stances we can
take as we encounter sports people and
their issues. We can take their claims
and experience as though they are mentors, or guides, and simply accept their
statements and positions at face value.
This friendly and somewhat reverential
approach may be a first step. Secondly,
we can try and incorporate their statements into our own beliefs and the beliefs and statements of others whom we
encounter and respect. In our course of
encountering divergent opinions, we will
find that these claims and experiences
may not agree with our own beliefs and
experiences, or may not agree with the
statements and experiences of others we
respect, and a decision will need to be
made as to how we should regard these
claims. In some cases we may find that
new distinctions need to be made in representing the issues, or that more information is needed in order to make an
evaluation of the statements at issue, or
we may find that the standards of
evaluation themselves may be in need of
examination and/or change.
The intellectual steps described above
are the familiar steps that each of us take
as we undergo any learning process. It is
a way of advancement in any science or
industry and will be our path as we ex-
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plore and learn about the interrelationships of sports and society. Improving
our skill in taking each of these intellectual steps is a central part of our activity in exploring sports and society.
2.2 The concepts of sportsmanship and
gamesmanship are central to sports and
sports management.
Dan Doyle said “sportsmanship is not
only playing within the rules but within
the spirit of the rules” and “gamesmanship, as defined by many dictionaries,
involves winning by unsportsmanlike
conduct yet within the rules.”
Scott Kretchmar said “Sportsmanship
has two aspects to it. First it involves a
duty to treat others in the sport environment with respect, including opponents
and game officials. . . . The second part
of it would be a refusal to seek unfair
advantage over opponents in the contest.”
3. Brief Summary of Voices in Sport
and Society Reading Materials
READ: Voices in Sport and Society interviews with Michael Oriard, Ph.D., pgs
22-26; Franz Dwachter, Ph.D., pgs. 3537; Richard Lapchick pgs, 55-57; Panel:
Is it only a Game, pgs 38-44; interview
The Honorable Alan Page, pgs 11-12.
For your convenience, the following are
student summaries of most of the readings. It is not, however, a substitute for
the original, this is just for review.
3.1 Notes from Interview: Michael
Oriard, Ph.D
According to Dr. Oriard…
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Dr. Bill Shelton said, “Our committee
defined the role of sportsmanship in this
manner: sportsmanship creates the moral
framework, ethical content and balanced
perspective for winning and losing.”
Note how undefined, or at least open to
interpretation, ethical concepts of “fairness”, “respect”, “moral framework”,
and “spirit of the rules” are used to define sportsmanship and gamesmanship.
Rather than seeking out those incidents
which are on the borderline of these
concepts, we should focus on examples
of sportsmanship and gamesmanship
which are clearly inside or outside of the
concepts. Perhaps in this way we will
better be able to make decisions about
cases that fall close to the line.
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He wrote his dissertation on
American sports fiction and considers himself to be in the first
generation to study sports seriously
Purpose of his work is to answer
the question of what football has
really meant to the American
people over the years
Origins of Football
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Began in 1880’s-1890’s in a
handful of northeastern universities
Considered just an extracurricular activity
Newspapers were the only form
of mass media
Cities with no football teams often did not cover football in their
sports pages
1920’s-1950’s
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Daily newspapers become more
developed and the creation of a
separate section of the paper
strictly for sports evolves
Becomes primary reason many
men buy newspapers
1920 brings the emergence of
radio broadcasts of local college
football games
1920’s gives rise to silent movies
based on plots about football
1930 the newsreels played in
theaters devote up to 20% of
their film to sports
3.2 Notes from Interview: Franz
Dwachter, Ph.D.
According to Dr. Dwachter….
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Progress in sports from Ancient Greece
to modern day
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Race Issues in Football
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1920’s-1950’s race is not a major
issue in football
The south was still 100 % segregated
Only 1-2 black players per team
in the northeastern college teams
1939 UCLA sets a precedent
with 4 black athletes on their
team
Many intersectional games were
played between northern and
southern teams. However, the
black players were benched during these games to accommodate
the beliefs and preferences of the
southern teams
Zero black athletes in the NFL
from 1933-1945
Odds on becoming a pro athlete
Michael Oriard states that it is okay to
dream of and pursue a carrier in sports,
but since your chances of becoming a
pro are miniscule you better get an education in the process.
The main issues of her interviews
is to address how sport functions
act as a mirror of today’s modern
society
There is a shared link because
both strive to obtain progress and
the fascination of perfection for
the body
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The Greeks were only concerned
with competition and they were
not concerned with any records
whereas today we have progressed to be aware and concerned about records
Cheating in Greek sports was socially acceptable
Greeks just wanted a winner regardless of how he won
Concerns for modern sports
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Dwachter is afraid that sports is
turning from an industry which
strives for achievement and
quality performances to an industry which focuses on fun, entertainment and of course revenue
Sports is becoming too commercialized
Rules have changed to accommodate television
Morals and ethics are being lost
Little relationship between sports and
character
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Sporting field is only artificial
and separate from real life
Sports figures may play the game
fairly but then go home and cheat
on their taxes or even their wife
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Message to students
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Always keep your pride. Your
sense of competence stems from
your pride
There is a much bigger chance
that you will not always succeed
so remember to always have respect for winners and losers
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3.3 Notes from Interview: Richard
Lapchick, Ph.D.: Director of The Center for the Study of Sports in Society at
Northwestern University
crimes, be less intelligent and
lazy
When one athlete gets in trouble
society stereotypes all athletes
into one category
In a survey conducted to describe
public opinion on athletes most
respondents used adjective to describe physical attributes but
many also used the words; violent, rapist, dumb, and drug-user
Although the media focuses on
crimes committed by sports figures, regular everyday people
commit countless crime that go
unheard of
Lapchick believes that anyone
who crosses the social norm
should be banned from the game
3.4 Notes from Interview: The Honorable Alan Page
According to Dr. Lapchick…
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According to Mr. Page…
Purpose of studies is to work
with athletes to attempt to counteract violence, particularly involving domestic violence
Mike Tyson, Tonya Harding, and
Latrell Sprewell are examples of
why violence in sports needs to
be stopped before it spills over
into society
Fans are beginning to be afraid to
let their kids watch sports for fear
of violence erupting
Remember, adults look at athletes differently than kids do
Stereotyping athletes and in particular
black athletes
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According to Lapchick, many
white people still consider the
black population to be more
likely to use drugs, commit
The interview provides a deeply personal look at Mr. Page’s life in sport and
society. He gives advice to the many
stakeholders in sport with respect to resolving some of the difficult issues in
sport today.
3.5 Panel Discussion: Is it only a Game
Brenda Light Bredemeier:
Brenda Bredemeier offers the idea that
sport is a microcosm of society. Sport in
a distorted way serves to exaggerate
problems reflected in society. The ways
in which society and sport are similar is
that both have a government, legal system, educational system, and socializing
mechanisms. As also seen in society,
sport contains social problems such as
racism and sexism. Conversely sport can
also be viewed as part of society and not
a model of it, as the definition of a microcosm would imply. What happens in
the world of sports has an effect of society and vice versa.
In sports there is an emphasis on winning. There exists two ways that the pursuit of victory is achieved, one being
gamesmanship and the other sportsmanship. Gamesmanship as defined by
Bredemeier is the desire to win through
any means necessary. Sportsmanship on
the other hand is the pursuit of victory
while showing respect for competitors
and the values of sport. The collective
norms, which guide a person’s behavior,
seem to emphasize gamesmanship at the
professional level according to
Bredemeier.
Dan Doyle:
Dan Doyle presents the definition of
sportsmanship and gamesmanship.
Sportsmanship is playing within the
rules but also within the spirit of the
rules and gamesmanship is winning
through unsportsmanlike conduct yet
within the rules. As the Executive Director of the Institute for International
Sport, Doyle has been involved in research projects involving sportsmanship
at the intercollegiate level. The results of
his studies show a trend for Division I
and III women to hold on to sportsmanship values in a greater manner than
Division I and III men’s basketball.
Doyle discusses how a coach once
cheated to win a game and how this display of gamesmanship led him to the
creation of National Sportsmanship Day.
The objective of this day is to discuss
issues in the hopes that good things will
result.
Scott Kretchmar:
Scott Kretchmar is a teacher for the program in philosophy of sport, ethics of
sport at Penn State. He begins his discussion by stating that there no longer
exists a tension between gamesmanship
and sportsmanship. Kretchmar’s definitions of gamesmanship and sportsmanship are similar to Bredemeier’s.
Sportsmanship is defined as treating others with respect and refusing to participate in any activity that offers an unfair
advantage over competitors. Gamesmanship is trying to win through morally
questionable yet legal techniques. Ethical tension, according to Kretchmar, existed in two places: disrespecting your
competitor and violating the spirit of the
rules. Nowadays tension is observed in
the idea that sport is mutually gratifying,
which it is not if it is taken too seriously.
He seems to contradict himself when he
lists where he observes that ethical tension still exists and is exemplified by the
media. Disrespect for officials, opponents and the game are all observable.
Kretchmar concludes that tension between gamesmanship and sportsmanship
has dwindled because the foundation for
the tension has dissipated.
Bill Shelton:
Bill Shelton, President of Eastern Michigan University, has been a chair on the
NCAA Committee. At a convention in
1990 the NCAA discussed academics,
welfare, institutional responsibilities as
well as sportsmanship. Shelton defines
sportsmanship as the moral framework,
ethical content and balanced perspective
for winning and losing. He goes on to
present reasons why sportsmanship can
be difficult to obtain. First, it is impossible to legislate ethics and sportsmanship.
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Secondly, there is a great amount of
variation in defining behavior that is
sportsmanlike. Lastly, stated position of
values differed from past actions. In order to manage sportsmanship issues the
convention wrote a report to reflect the
values of sport. The major obstacle preventing sportsmanship was decided on
the goal of winning. Bill Shelton points
out the five major changes that have
taken place to put the emphasis on winning instead of values. The five changes
involve commitment, competitiveness,
consequences, commercialism and
media.
4. Brief Summary of Video programs
including the DVD
Here are brief summaries of the video
material provided for this module.
4.1 Video Program Three: Sports in
Context: How Good Were the Good
Old Days?
This program is designed to introduce
recent historical and ethical concepts and
introduce how the concepts are useful
for understanding and making decisions
regarding sports and society issues. The
multiple perspective approach to ethics
issues is very helpful in understanding,
managing and making decisions regarding issues in sports and society.
We focus on sport issues through historical and ethical perspectives provided
by (look up their brief biographies in the
back of this book to appreciate the backgrounds of each contributor):
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Richard E. Lapchick, Ph.D.
Michael Oriard, Ph.D.
Michael McNamee, Ph.D.
William E. Shelton, Ed.D.
Todd Boyd, Ph.D.
The goal of this video is to help you
compare and contrast selected past and
present sports ethics and management
issues.
Summary—“Sports in Context: How
Good were the Good Old Days?”
Recent ethics and management issues in
sport take on a different appearance
when viewed within a larger historical
and philosophical context. When we
identify some of the big picture, philosophical questions raised by sports, and
when we review some key moments in
the cultural history of American sports,
it becomes clear that many of the problems that we face today emerge from
fundamental questions of long standing
and from decisions made by sports managers long ago. By placing sports in this
larger cultural context, we realize that
our pressing ethical and management
issues in sports emerge from choices and
conditions which began years ago and
have been undergoing continuous transformation throughout recent times. How
good were the good old days in sport?
Not as good as we might like to believe.
The facts of the matter are that many aspects of sport seem much improved over
what went on early in the history of
American sport. As Dr. Sperber pointed
out, it was the excesses and evils in unregulated collegiate sports that brought
about the NCAA, and the NCAA itself
has a history that includes the tolerance
of many activities which now seem intolerable.
Dr. Oriard and Dr. Boyd stressed that
sports for most of us is a purely mediated activity. Sports is experienced by
most of us through media relays or
media reporting and as the media grew
in capability from as early as the 1880s
to today, Dr. Oriard found that sports
broadcasting and sports reporting grew
in importance both in the media and in
society.
Drs. Lapchick and Coakley exemplified
why it would be misleading to say that
the ethical situation of sports today is
worse than it has ever been in history.
However, Bonnie Blair and Alan Page
both illustrate why, in particular circumstances, we may claim that ethics has
deteriorated in sports.
Just as sport takes on a different look
when we are aware of its history and
culture, the social and ethical conflicts
within sports and society take on a different appearance when we consider
sports management decisions in light of
the ethical perspectives developed in
philosophy over the last 2500 years.
Let’s consider some of the theoretical
ethical perspectives which were discussed at The Summit on Sports.
Sports, as with other aspects of society,
may be characterized in Aristotle’s ethical theory as a virtue laden, or virtue
lacking, activity. Yet there are many decisions in sports management that may
be best seen as decisions employing the
utilitarian ethical principle of seeking the
greatest good for the greatest number of
people. In utilitarian decisions, an option
is chosen when the total happiness,
pleasure or utility resulting from that
choice exceeds that of any other available option. The rule based ethics of
Kant and others stress the proper selection and application of rules and the
establishment of duties for all participants and in all activities.
using the language of virtues and the
values which they embody. It also became clear that we could apply the language and ethical theory of utilitarianism
and attempt to bring about the greatest
good for the greatest number. AND, it
was clear that we could apply the language and ethical theories of rules and
responsibilities to the situation. The important insight from this experience is
this: When we use each of these three
ethical theories to frame a sports management or societal situation, we are apt
to capture more of the ethical aspects of
the situation than if we were to limit our
considerations to a single ethical viewpoint. When our management problem is
framed in a more inclusive way, with
greater sensitivity to the ethics of the
situation, we are better prepared to manage ethically and make a superior
decision.
Sports has come a long way in
America—from the itinerant college
athletes of the1920s, the deaths on the
football playing fields, and the fixed
championship games, to complex systems of values and rules intended to
maximize utility. But we can ask, Whose
happiness is being maximized? Who
gets to set the rules? Are things getting
better, and if they are, getting better for
whom? Putting sports in historical and
ethical context creates a larger framework which may help us make better decisions and apply the best criteria to
evaluate the outcomes of our actions. If
sport in the past were more unethical
than we previously thought, then perhaps
obtaining a sense of history and an ethical perspective will help us create a
more ethical sports environment for the
future.
It became clear at The Summit that
every sports situation can be described
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In summary, are sports beyond our control? How did sports develop within society and what can or should we do to
direct sports development? We examined the early days of modern sport
where athletes’ deaths in early sports
contests caused the rise of governing associations to insure safety. We also considered modern sports, national and international sports associations, and professional sports leagues. Examples from
the U.S. football experience and from
the Olympic movement demonstrated
the tension between sports as an isolated
personal activity and sports as economic
engines and social practices.
4.2 Video Program 4: Sportsmanship,
Gamesmanship and Character: Do
Good Sports Make Good People?
This program is designed to illustrate
how fundamental concepts such as
sportsmanship and gamesmanship contain ethical and societal assumptions
which often go unstated and result in
ambiguity and confusion regarding specific responsibilities for sports managers,
athletes and institutions. The issues of
character, sportsmanship, and gamesmanship are central to several other issues in sports and society discussed in
the series including issues related to
coaching, education, and life skills.
Explore relationships between character
and sportsmanship in sports and society
with:
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Dan Doyle
Bill Curry
Scott Kretchmar, Ph.D.
William E. Shelton, Ed.D
Brenda Light Bredemeier, Ph.D.
Jan Boxill, Ph.D.
Larry Hinman, Ph.D.
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Michael McNamee, Ph.D.
The goal of this video program is to help
you appreciate the relationship between
sports participation, sportsmanship and
character development.
Summary—“Sportsmanship, Gamesmanship and Character: Do Good Sports
Make Good People?”
We ask the questions, “What is sportsmanship and how does it differ from
gamesmanship? and what is the relationship between sportsmanship, an athlete’s
character and society?” We will consider
how to draw the line between sportsmanship and gamesmanship and determine the ethical and social aspects of
drawing the line in different places.
After considering some suggestions on
how to manage gamesmanship, we will
consider what sports does for character
when sport is done well.
There is clearly a problem in determining the ethics of gamesmanship as well
as the obligations of good sportsmanship. Athletes, coaches, fans and institutions alike often have differences of
opinion regarding appropriate or necessary behavior.
Dan Doyle shared his unsettling experience with gamesmanship that led him to
found National Sportsmanship Day and
investigate unethical behavior in sports.
Jan Boxill pointed out that cheating in
sports, however that is defined, destroys
the basis for sports competition.
Scott Kretchmar defined sportsmanship
and gamesmanship and stressed the need
for the desire to play within both the
letter and the spirit of the rules of sport.
Bill Shelton reported on his work as
chair of the NCAA committee on
sportsmanship and recalled the difficulties the committee faced trying to
achieve agreement on what constitutes
sportsmanship and gamesmanship.
Brenda Bredemeier identified the tension
between the drive for victory and the
ideal of sportsmanship and she pointed
out how she teaches moral reasoning in
an attempt to assist her athletes in making good moral choices in sports.
Sports managers, coaches and administrators, like many of us in this complex
society, confront situations where each
option requires an ethical analysis before
a decision should be made. What is
within the rules? What is beyond the
rules intent? What is a violation of the
spirit of the rules? These can be difficult
questions, especially when winning and
losing are on the line. Let’s now consider how some of our experts suggest
that we manage aspects of the sportsmanship and character development
issues.
The importance of winning in sports is
different among the various stakeholders
and their specific goals. The athletes,
fans, coaches and athletic departments,
universities and associations, each may
have some values and goals which diverge or even conflict in certain situations.
Dr. Shelton and Dr. Bredemeier both
addressed the problems associated with
ethical decision making in the midst of
rules in sports which makes moral reasoning difficult but necessary.
Bill Curry defended the emphasis on
winning by linking important values and
virtues in the pursuit of victories. He
argued that participants in team sports
who are well coached can develop
character.
Professors Hinman and Dwachter noted
that special efforts must be made to
transfer the values and virtues learned in
sports to other areas of life in society.
Justice Page and Dr. Boxill both noted
how the values developed in sports participation can be valuable when those
values are successfully transferred to life
outside sport.
Do good sports make good people? Determining exactly how to be a good
sport, and how to exemplify sportsmanship and the appropriate amounts of
gamesmanship at the appropriate times,
require a conscious effort as well as developed moral reasoning skills. From
college presidents, coaches, scholars and
athletes, we have heard that sportsmanship, gamesmanship and character are
intertwined and that, if anything, it is
good people who make good sports.
In summary, we addressed these questions. “What is the nature of sportsmanship, gamesmanship and character in
sports? In what ways are sports “simply”
an entertainment opportunity and a socio-economic activity rather than an
avenue to personal enlightenment and
development? How can sports be a
means to achieving personal moral development and social goals?
4.3 Issues in Sport DVD: Disability
Sport Special Edition: Ted Fay, Ph.D.
Dr. Ted Fay is a research fellow for
Sport in Society's Disability Sport
Research Initiative. He is an Associate
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Professor and Coordinator of the Sport
Management Program at the State
University of New York (SUNY) at
Cortland. Fay holds a Ph.D. in Sport
Management from the University of
Massachusetts, a M.P.A. in Public
Affairs from the University of Oregon,
and a B.A. in Government from
St.Lawrence University. He has been an
active member of the North American
Society for Sport Management
(NASSM) and several national
governing bodies including the US Ski
& Snowboard Association and the US
Biathlon Association.
Prior to coming to SUNY Cortland, Fay
was Director of the Sport Management
program at Daniel Webster College in
Nashua, NH and taught undergraduate
and graduate sport management classes
at the University of Massachusetts in
their sport management program.
Dr. Fay has an extensive background in
international sport and the Paralympic
Movement. He was the Executive
Director of the 1996 IIHF World Junior
Ice Hockey Championships held at a
number of locations in Massachusetts.
Paralympic/Olympic Background
Dr. Fay began his involvement with the
Paralympic Movement over twenty years
ago with his participation as a cross
country ski race guide for the US Nordic
Team in Geilo, Norway at the 2nd
Winter Paralympic Games in 1980. He
went on to serve as head nordic coach
and program director for the US
Disabled Ski Team from 1983 ú 1990.
He was one of the principal advocates
and negotiators who helped integrate the
US Disabled Ski Team into the US Ski
Association and US Ski Team in 1986.
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He was a member of the US Olympic
Team in Calgary, Alberta for the 1988
Winter Olympic Games as a cross
country ski coach involved with the
Disabled Nordic Demonstration Event.
He also was a support coach for the US
Olympic cross country team.Dr. Fay is a
certified national and international cross
country official who holds an
International Ski Federation (FIS)
technical delegate license.
Fay served as Chief Event Advisor and
Technical Delegate for cross country
skiing and biathlon for the Winter
Paralympic Games in Albertville/Tignes
(France) in 1992, Lillehammer (Norway)
1994, and Nagano (Japan) in 1998. He
served in this capacity also at the IPC
World Nordic Ski Championships in
1990 in Jackson, NH and in 1996 in
Sunne, Sweden. He also was elected as
the Chairperson of the IPC Nordic Sport
Section from 1990 ú 1996 and served as
Wintersport Coordinator of the IPC
Sport Council Executive Committee
from 1992 ú 1994.
Research & Publications
Dr. Fay has focused much of his
research in the area of policy
development and strategic management
in sport organizations. His research has
been specifically related to issues of
integration and inclusion of racial/ethnic
minorities, women and people with
disabilities. His doctoral dissertation
entitled: Race, Gender, and Disability:
A New Paradigm Towards Full
Participation and Equal Opportunity in
Sport presented a new theoretical model
called the critical change factors model
(CCFM) which helps frame and explains
the persistence of barriers to greater
inclusion within sport organizations.
Fay has often presented at national and
international conferences on these
issues. He also published a chapter on
international sport in Contemporary
Sport Management by Parks, Zanger,
and Quarterman in which the Paralympic
Games and Paralympic Movement were
highlighted. Dr. Fay was the recipient of
the Outstanding Service and Dedication
Award to the 1998 Winter Paralympic
Games as presented by the International
Paralympic Committee and the Nagano
Paralympic Organizing Committee. He
was a 1998 nominee for the Council for
the Advancement and Support of
Education (CASE) U.S. Professor of the
Year.
6. Sports and You . . .
•
•
How does poor sportsmanship effect the athletes and the sport?
What ethical concepts and principles apply to sportsmanship?
What issues in sportsmanship
have made the headlines recently? Do the owners, sports
fans, government and the press
have different moral or financial
stakes in the situation? What
would you do to change the
situation?
5.0 Brief Summary of Web Site activities
5.1 This week we provide links to
several web sites that will provide
insight to issues in sport history and
sports fundamentals such as character
development and sportsmanship.
5.2 On the web site this week you have
the opportunity to post your position regarding issues discussed in this module
and you have the opportunity to respond
to others who may post their positions.
This week’s assignment is:
OPPORTUNITY POSITION POST:
Take an historical event in sport (or
event discussed in the video programs)
and identify an issue associated with it
as a conflict among stakeholders with
respect to values, important consequences or rights and responsibilities.
5.3 Don’t forget to take your quiz.
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6. Practice Quiz Questions for Module
Two
5. Sports management issues may be
evaluated based on:
1. Unethical activities in sport are due to
the money in professional sports and are
a recent development.
(a) the greatest good for the greatest
number
(b) equal treatment under the law
(c) by treating others as you would be
treated
(d) identifying the rights and responsibilities in the situations and acting accordingly
(e) all of the above
(a) true
(b) false
2. Sports and the media have grown together throughout the twentieth century,
so much so that some have said that the
media needs sports as much as sports
need the media.
(a) true
(b) false
3. The following are true about segregation and football except:
(a) Some college teams were not racially
integrated until the 1970's.
(b) When an integrated northern team
played a segregated southern team the
northern team would agree not to suit up
their African –American athletes.
(c) racial issues were not a concern in
college football .
(d) integration in college football makes
integration in other aspect of society
more likely.
4. Sports management issues can be represented in terms of the
(a) values of the situation.
(b) the important consequences likely to
arise from the situation
(c) the applicable rights and responsibilities of the situation
(d) all of the above.
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6. Nelson Mandela said that the international sports boycott was one of the
most important of all actions taken
against the South African policy of
apartheid.
(a) true
(b) false
7. Richard Lapchick believes that sports
can be used to address almost any social
issue.
(a) true
(b) false
8. There has been a dramatic improvement in the number of African-American
in sports management positions and
ownership positions over the last 3
years.
(a) true
(b) false
9. Sportsmanship can be said to have
two aspects:
13. Sports has been said not to be a microcosm of society because
(a) the duty to treat others in the sport
environment with respect
(b) the refusal to seek unfair advantage
over opponents in the contest
(c) shaking the opponents hand after the
game
(d) a and b
(e) a and c
(a) it implies that sport and society are
separate
(b) sport is not a perfect mirror of society because at best it is a funhouse
mirror.
(c) causality goes from sports to society
and from society to sport
(d) all of the above
(e) none of the above
10. Gamesmanship is:
(a) letting the opponent know that you
are tired
(b) the art of and science of gaining a
strategic advantage through morallyquestionable means.
(c) being willing to help another with the
rules of the game
(d) taking bets on the outcome of the
game
11. Anyone can easily see the difference
between what is sportsmanship and
gamesmanship.
14. Nearly half of the Division 1 male
athletes agreed with the following statement: "My team mates would expect me
to cheat if it meant the difference in
winning a game."
(a) true
(b) false
15 National Sportsmanship Day was begun to increase discussion about sports
ethics.
(a) true
(b) false
(a) true
(b) false
16. Dr. Bill Shelton, President of Eastern Michigan University, argued that
12. Sports is often said to be a microcosm of society because it
(a) has its own system of government
(b) has its own legal system
(c) has its own educational system
(d) all of the above
(e) none of the above
(a) we can't legislate morality
(b) we give lip service to sportsmanship
but it is really about winning
(c) there is not a level playing field when
colleges spend different amounts of
money on their programs.
(d) all of the above
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17. Dr. Shelton portrayed five major
changes that have taken place in collegiate athletics. All of the following were
cited by him except:
(a) we demand that athletes devote 12
months each year to their sport
(b) we expect coaches to spend whatever
time it takes to develop their team
(c) what is termed acceptable behavior
has changed over the years
(d) the athletes are much stronger now
(e) commercialism has increased
18. Lack of ethics in sports does not
affect sponsorship, attendance and ratings of sports.
(a) true
(b) false
19. There was a time when bookmakers
called instructions to players on the court
during the Final Four basketball tournament and nothing was done about it.
(a) true
(b) false
20. Fighting during games is a recent
phenomenon.
(a) true
(b) false
21. Framing management issues in the
most inclusive way using the languages
of values, consequences and rights and
responsibilities can better prepare a
manager for making an ethical decision.
(a) true
(b) false
22. In team sports where athletes are
well coached, the athletes can develop
character.
(a) true
(b) false
23. A special effort need not be made to
transfer the lessons learned in sports to
the non-sport context.
(a) true
(b) false
24. Cheating destroys the basis of sports
competition
(a) true
(b) false
25. When there are too many rules, some
are led to believe that whatever is not
prohibited, is permitted.
(a) true
(b) false
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26. Michael Oriard wants to discover the
answer to the question “what has football actually meant to people in America
over the course of history.
(a) true
(b) false
27. During 1880-1890 the newspapers
were the most powerful mass medium
that transformed football from an extracurricular activity at a few northeastern
universities into a popular phenomenon
with a national following.
(a) true
(b) false
31. The last Southeast Conference college football team to integrate was Texas
in 1973.
(a) true
(b) false
32. Franz Dwachter argues that sport is
a mirror of society and that the phenomenon of major sports is a new feature of modernity.
(a) true
(b) false
33. The ancient Greeks did not cheat in
the early Olympic games.
28. In the 1950’s we get the development of sport sections in the daily
newspapers.
(a) true
(b) false
(a) true
(b) false
34. The philosopher and mathematician
Pythagoras lied about his age so that he
could compete in games against older
competitors and have a better chance to
win.
29.Oriard argues that basketball has been
a mediated sport from the very beginning and continues to be so today.
(a) true
(b) false
(a) true
(b) false
30. There were no black football players
in the NFL during the years 1933 to
1945.
(a) true
(b) false
35.Dwachter disagrees that sports is a
restricted area of experience and what is
learned in that area does not necessarily
transfer to other areas of life.
(a) true
(b) false
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36. Sport is like a microcosm of society
because
(a) people in sport are segregated into
their own little worlds
(b) most of our major social institutions
are replicated in the domain of sport
(c) sport involves fewer people than the
larger society
(d) all of the above
37. Sport is a microcosm of societal
stresses and frictions because
(a) there is fighting in some sports
(b) sports ills are smaller than in society
(c) sportsmanship is dead
(d) the same social ills that threaten
larger society also threaten sport.
38. Moral values are often expressions
of group norms.
(a) true
(b) false
39.Gamesmanship was defined by Dan
Doyle as
(a) being very skilled at a game
(b) being the lead ship in a competitive
naval exercise
(c) winning by unsportsmanlike conduct
yet within the rules
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40.“My teammates would expect me to
cheat if it meant the difference in winning a game”
(a) was agreed to equally by men and
women in collegiate sports
(b) was agreed to most by men in Division I basketball
(c) was agreed to by women more than
men
(d) was not agreed to by anyone
41.Scott Kretchmar says that sportsmanship has two aspects to it:
(a) to treat officials and opponents the
same
(b) both a and c
(c) the two aspects are the duty to treat
others in the sport environment with respect and the refusal to seek unfair advantage over opponents in the contest.
(d) none of the above
42.The NCAA has a committee on
Sportsmanship and Ethical Conduct and
it
(a) found that they can legislate sportsmanship
(b) concluded that the pressure to win
undermines sportsmanship
(c) found that sportsmanship is easy to
define and implement
(d) none of the above
43. Dr. Bill Shelton suggested sports has
changed in five ways except
(a) women now demand equal treatment
(b) athletes now spend all year preparing
for their sport
(c) competitiveness has increased in intercollegiate sports
(d) sport is a big business
44. Which President of the USA held a
town hall meeting on the role of race in
sports?
(a) Reagan
(b) Kennedy
(c) Nixon
(d) Clinton
48. Bill Currie said a young person
could learn how to prepare for life in a
team context?
(a) True
(b) False
49. According to Dr. Sperber, when
comparing many aspects of the sports of
today to the sports of the past in America
(a) sports of the past were better
(b) little has changed from sports of the
past to sports of today
(c) today’s sports are much improved
50. In 1939, UCLA had four black athletes. Which of the following was not
among them?
45. What is sports a metaphor for
(a) war
(b) family life
(c) the real world
(d) relationships
46. Which famous athlete claims he
wants nothing to do with his title of "role
model"?
(a) Charles Barkley
(b) Shaquille O'neil
(c) Micheal Jordan
(d) Chipper Jones
(a) Jackie Robinson
(b) Alan C. Page
(c) Kenny Washington
(d) Woody Strode
51. This man was an architect of the
sports oriented anti-apartheid movement
in the United States and was invited to
be with Nelson Mandela when Mandela
became the President of South Africa.
(a) Michael Oriad
(b) Armen Keteyian
(c) Blake Burleson
(d) Richard Lapchick
47. Which philosopher had an influence
on Jan Boxhill’s moral views?
(a) Dr. Charles Smith
(b) Mr. Robert Mertzman
(c) John Rawls
(d) Todd Boyd, PhD
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52. This person founded National
Sportsmanship Day.
(a) Jan Boxill
(b) Dan Doyle
(c) Scott Kretchmer
(d) Bill Shelton
53. According to Scott Kretchmer, aspects of sportsmanship are
I. a duty to treat others in the sport
environment with respect
II. always be courteous
III. refusal to seek unfair advantage
over opponents in the contest
IV. winning at any cost
(a) I and II only
(b) II and IV only
(c) I and III only
(d) III and IV only
54. According to Dan Doyle, which
statement is true?
(a) sportsmanship is not only playing
within the rules but within the spirit of
the rules
(b) gamesmanship and sportsmanship
are the same
(c) gamesmanship is not only playing
within the rules but within the spirit of
the rules
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55. What examples of racism in the recent past does Oriard not bring to our
attention?
(a) the fact that only one or two black
players existed on some northern teams
in the 20’s and 30’s
(b) in 1973, the Southeast Football Conference teams became integrated
(c) the segregated cotton bowl at Notre
Dame in 1970
(d) all of the above
56. What brought about the NCAA according to Dr. Sperber?
(a) the Summit Conferences
(b) the influence of the Catholic Church
(c) the misconduct observed in unregulated collegiate sports
(d) the efforts of professional coaches
working to integrate minority players
Module Two.
1. b, 2. a, 3. c, 4. d, 5. e, 6. a, 7. a, 8. b, 9.
d, 10. b, 11. b, 12. d, 13. d, 14. a, 15. a,
16. d, 17. d, 18. b, 19. a, 20. b, 21. a, 22.
a, 23. b, 24. a, 25. a, 26. a, 27. a, 28. b,
29. b, 30. a, 31. b, 32. a, 33. b, 34. a, 35.
b, 36. b, 37. d, 38. a, 39. c, 40. b, 41. c,
42. b, 43. a, 44. d, 45. c, 46. a, 47. c, 48.
a, 49. c, 50. b, 51. d, 52. b, 53. c, 54. a,
55. b, 56. c