Paper Number: 99
May 2010
Urbanization and Global Environmental Change (UGEC)
in Hong Kong: Preliminary Survey and
Implications for Mainland China
Li Yangfan
Nanjing University
Yangfan Li is a Ph.D. and Lecturer at the School of the Environment, Nanjing University,
China, where he works on urban ecosystem and environmental policy with a topical focus on
urbanization and global environmental change. He was a visiting scholar at LEWI from Jan.6
to Feb. 4, 2010.
The authors welcome comments from readers.
Contact details:
E-mail: yangf@nju.edu.cn
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LEWI Working Paper Series
Urbanization and Global Environmental Change (UGEC) in Hong Kong:
Preliminary Survey and Implications for Mainland China
Li Yangfan
Nanjing University
Abstract
How to conserve non built-up landscapes (wetlands, country park woodlands and
etc.) and realize urban-regional sustainability is a challenge with the rapid
urbanization of Hong Kong and China’s coastal areas. A survey of Hong Kong will be
helpful in understanding future trends and the concentration of urbanization, socioeconomic drivers, key environmental changes and their effects, in particular
vulnerability to increased Global Environmental Change (GEC) in urban areas. On the
basis of field environmental and geographical survey, the paper attempts to identify
some critical issues, e.g. sea reclamation, wetlands conservation and harmonious
urbanization, presents a framework for public-oriented governance, showing that
advancing eco-governance of public participation, public transport and public green
space across local and regional levels of government and relevant stakeholders are
crucial to formulate ecological, low-carbon and green policies towards harmonious
urbanization.
Keywords: urbanization, environmental change, reclamation, wetland, public
participation
1 Introduction
Urban areas are hot spots that drive environmental change at multiple scales. Just
as land change occurs as cities are built and must support the demands of urban
populations, cities also drive other types of environmental change (Grimm et al. 2008).
The irreversible transition to urbanization has, since 2008, led to more than half of the
world’s population (approximately 3.3 billion people) living in urban areas; it is
projected that 60% of the population will be living in urban areas by 2030 (Fig.1) (UN,
2007; Sanchez-Rodriguez et al. 2008).
Furthermore, 90% of the world’s future
population is expected to be occupying in urban areas, mainly in developing countries.
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Fig.1 Urban, rural and total population in the world (United Nations, 2007)
Within global environmental change (GEC) research, cities are now considered
to be important sites of origin for numerous environmental issues including the
greenhouse effect, air and water pollution (Li et al. 2008). In this context, urban
development policies and strategies should not only take the positive effects of
urbanization into consideration, but also the potential and ability of mitigating the
negative impact of environment change on cities (Fig.2).
Fig.2 Urban areas: Crisis and Solutions (Seto, 2008)
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Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.
Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South
China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour (Wong,
2009a). With a land mass of 1,108 km2 and a population of seven million, Hong Kong
is one of the most densely populated areas in the world (Jim, 2008b). Simultaneously,
Hong Kong has 76.3% non built-up area, including grasslands, woodlands, shrublands
and wetlands (Planning Department, 2009).
The urban expansion of Hong Kong since the early days has been beset by the
shortage of easily developable land. The city thus has adopted a high-density mode of
development which extends from the core all the way to the periphery. The resulting
phenomenal concentration of buildings, roads and population has disadvantages (Jim,
2008b). Although Hong Kong is regarded as one of the world's great cities, out of the
total land, about three-quarters is non-urban. Scenically, Hong Kong has a great deal
to offer - a landscape rising from sandy beaches and rocky foreshores to heights of
almost 1,000 meters, woodlands and mountain ranges covered by open grassland and
a variety of scenic vistas is rarely, if ever, matched in so small a territorial unit.
What about UGEC in Hong Kong? How does Hong Kong resolve the
relationship between urban expansion and environmental conservation, especially in
such densely populated urban areas? What does Hong Kong’s example have to offer
in building the eco-city and low-carbon city for mainland china, and the rest of the
world? The paper would focus on three aspects: 1) sea reclamation, 2) conservation of
non built-up areas, and 3) harmonious urbanization and environmental sustainability
in future urban development.
2 Urbanization and Global Environmental Change in HK
2.1 Broad Land Usage
As much of Hong Kong's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less
than 25% of the territory's land mass is developed, and about 40% of the remaining
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land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserve (Table 1). Most of the
territory's urban development happens on the Kowloon Peninsula, along the northern
edge of Hong Kong Island and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories.
Table 1 Broad Land Usage Distribution in Hong Kong (End of 2008) 1
Approximate area (sq.km)
Class
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Residential
Private residential (i)
25
25
25
25
25
Public residential (ii)
17
17
16
16
16
Rural settlement (iii)
35
36
34
34
34
Commercial
Commercial/Business and office
3
3
3
3
4
Industrial
Industrial land
7
7
7
7
7
Industrial estates
3
3
3
3
3
Warehouse and storage (iv)
15
15
14
14
15
Institution/Open Space
Government, institution and community facilities 23
23
24
24
24
Open space (v)
21
22
22
23
24
Transportation
Roads
38
38
39
41
41
Railways
2
3
3
3
3
Airport
13
13
13
13
13
Other Urban or Built-up Land
Cemeteries and crematoriums
7
7
7
7
7
Utilities
6
6
7
7
7
Vacant development land/Construction in 29
26
20
19
17
progress
Others
18
20
21
20
21
Agriculture
Agricultural land
56
55
51
51
52
Fish ponds/Gei wais
17
18
17
16
16
Woodland/Shrubland/Grassland/Wetland
Woodland
268
257
245
247
241
Shrubland
214
220
228
237
238
Grassland
249
251
266
255
258
Mangrove and swamp (vi)
5
5
5
5
5
Barren Land
Badland
5
5
5
5
5
Quarries
2
2
2
2
1
Rocky shore
2
2
2
2
2
Water Bodies
Reservoirs
24
24
24
24
24
Streams and nullahs
3
5
5
5
5
Total
1107
1108
1108
1108
1108
Remarks: The above land usage figures as at end 2008 have been updated with satellite images dated
November 2008, in-house survey information up to end 2008 and other relevant information from
various Government departments.
1
Data Source: Planning Statistics, Information Services, Planning Department (HK SAR) Website,
http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/landu.html
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2.2 Sea Reclamation
In Hong Kong, the earliest reclamation dates back to the mid-1800s (Glaser et al.,
1991). Almost 6% (67.4 km2) of the current land area is reclaimed land (Fig.3).
The New Territories
Kowloon
Hong Kong Island
Fig.3 Sea reclamation areas in Hong Kong (grey color) 2
Major areas of existing reclamation in Hong Kong include Kai Tak Runway
Extension, Plover Cove Main Dam, Sha Tin New Town, Tuen Mun New Town,
Container Terminal No. 6, Container Terminal No. 7, Tin Shui Wai, West Kowloon
Reclamation, Tsuen Kwan O, Container Terminal No. 8, Chek Lap Kok Airport,
Tung Chung New Town, Central and Wanchai Reclamation, SENT Landfill, and
North Lantau Expressway (Fig.4).
Hong Kong's new airport is located to the north of Lantau Island at Chek Lap
Kok (CLK). Covering an area of 1,248 hectares – three quarters of which have been
reclaimed, the remaining quarter comprised the land area of CLK and Lam Chau
Islands - the new airport has been branded the "largest construction site on earth"
(Fig.4). Such massive infra-structural projects entail significant environmental impact
in both the construction and operation phases, includeing noise, air quality and water
quality impacts, marine ecology and terrestrial ecology. 3
2
Civil Engineering and Development Department (CEDD), Hong Kong SAR, The Geology of Hong
Kong (Interactive On-line).http:/ /www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/ organisation/org_geo_ pln_map.htm
3
WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature Hong Kong). 1996. Environment Impacts of the New Hong
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Hong Kong International Airport
(Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)
The Central Reclamation Phase III (CRPIII)
Project (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)
Penny’s bay (CEDD, 2007) 4
Victoria Harbour (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2006)
Fig.4 Major areas of existing reclamation in Hong Kong
The Central Reclamation Phase III (CRPIII) Project is the final phase of planned
waterfront reclamation in the Central District of Hong Kong Island. The CRIII Project
has evolved significantly since its original conception over a decade ago. In 1997,
while the Project design was nearing completion, the “Protection of the Harbour
Ordinance” was enacted. As a result, a critical review of the scope of the project was
conducted to formulate a scheme that would achieve the objectives of the Harbour
Ordinance and provide sufficient land to serve the long-term needs of Hong Kong.
The resulting scheme, referred to as the “Minimum Reclamation Option”,
significantly changed the original reclamation configuration, most notably reducing
Kong Airport, Factsheet No.26. http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/pdf/references/factsheets/factsheet26.PDF
4
CEDD. 2007. Penny’s Bay Infrastructure Development (1999-2005).
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/pb_booklet.pdf
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the reclamation from 32 to 18 hectares, with the majority of the transport
infrastructure to be located underground. The Project has incorporated reclamation
methods and mitigation measures that avoid or reduce environmental impacts during
construction. In the long-term, the ultimate design will provide an unprecedented
opportunity to create a waterfront that complements Hong Kong’s famous skyline
whilst making the best use of the reclaimed land, for both strategic infrastructure and
recreational open spaces, serving the community and tourists alike (Fig.4).
5
2.3 Non Built-up Areas Conservation
2.3.1 Country Park 6
To conserve and, where appropriate, open up the countryside for the greater
enjoyment of the population, the Country Parks Ordinance was enacted in 1976 to
provide a legal framework for the designation, development and management of
Country Parks and Special Areas (Fig.5). Country Parks are designated for the
purposes of nature conservation, countryside recreation and outdoor education.
Special Areas are created mainly for the purpose of nature conservation.
The country parks and special areas cover a total area of 433.94 km² (Table 2).
The country parks comprise scenic hills, woodlands, reservoirs and the coastline in all
parts of Hong Kong. The parks include Tai Mo Shan, Pat Sin Leng mountain range,
Ma On Shan, Lion Rock, Sai Kung Peninsula, forest plantations at Shing Mun and Tai
Lam, Shek Lei Pui Reservoir group and Lantau Island. Several islands such as Ping
Chau in Mirs Bay are included, and Hong Kong Island itself has five Country Parks.
5
CEDD. 2010. Central Reclamation Phase III. http://www.criii-cedd.com/index.htm
Provided by Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD), Government of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region.
6
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Fig.5 Country parks and special areas distribution in Hong Kong
Table 2 Country Parks in Hong Kong
Country Park
Date of Designation
Area in Hectares
1
Shing Mun
城門
24.6.1977
1400
2
Kam Shan
金山
24.6.1977
337
3
Lion Rock
獅子山
24.6.1977
557
4
Aberdeen
香港仔
28.10.1977
423
5
Tai Tam
大潭
28.10.1977
1315
6
Sai Kung East
西貢東
3.2.1978
4477
7
Sai Kung West
西貢西
3.2.1978
3000
8
Plover Cove
船灣
7.4.1978
4594
9
Lantau South
南大嶼
20.4.1978
5640
10
Lantau North
北大嶼
18.8.1978
2200
11
Pat Sin Leng
八仙嶺
18.8.1978
3125
12
Tai Lam
大欖
23.2.1979
(5330)
(replacement)
(取代舊圖)
7.4.1995
5370
13
Tai Mo Shan
大帽山
23.2.1979
1440
14
Lam Tsuen
林村
23.2.1979
1520
15
Ma On Shan
馬鞍山
27.4.1979
(2880)
(replacement)
(取代舊圖)
18.12.1998
2880
16
Kiu Tsui
橋咀
1.6.1979
100
17
Plover
(Extension)
船灣(擴建部分)
1.6.1979
630
Cove
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Shek O
石澳
21.9.1979
(710)
(replacement)
(取代舊圖)
22.10.1993
701
19
Pok Fu Lam
薄扶林
21.9.1979
270
20
Tai Tam (Quarry Bay
Ext.)
Clear Water Bay
大潭(鰂魚涌擴建
部分)
清水灣
21.9.1979
270
28.9.1979
615
Sai Kung West (Wan
Tsai Ext.)
Lung Fu Shan
西貢西(灣仔擴建
部分)
龍虎山
14.6.1996
123
18.12.1998
47
Lantau
(Extension)
Total:
北大嶼(擴建部分)
7.11.2008
2360
18
21
22
23
24
North
43394
2.3.2 Costal Landscape and Wetlands
Hong Kong boasts a variety of landscapes and habitat types. This diversity
reflects the climate and Hong Kong’s geographical position between tropical and
temperate climatic regions (Owen and Shaw, 2007). The long, irregular and
curvaceous coastline provides a natural geological gallery, featuring spectacular
landforms and rock formations with many bays, rivers and beaches shaped by waves
and weathering. (See Fig.6)
The Hong Kong National Geopark officially opened on 3 November 2009. It was
set up with the aim to protect the valuable geological relics, landscapes, ecological
environment and cultural heritage of Hong Kong. The Hong Kong National Geopark
covers about 50km2 land area of Hong Kong. It consists of two regions with eight
Geo-areas, each having its own unique geological attractions.
Rocky coast, Hong Kong National Geopark (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)
Fig.6 Typical coastline in Hong Kong National Geopark
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The coastal wetlands around the Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay in the
northwestern corner of Hong Kong have been known as a habitat for migratory birds
and native species. In 1995, 1,500 hectares of wetlands around Mai Po and Inner
Deep Bay were formally designated a Wetland of International Importance under the
Ramsar Convention (Fig.7).
Location of Mai Po Nature Reserve
(Owen and Shaw, 2007)
Map of habitat (2001) 7 and the biodiversity management
zone 8for Mai Po Nature Reserve
Tidal flat, Mai Po Nature Reserve
(Owen and Shaw, 2007)
Mai Po Nature Reserve (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)
Fig.7 Coastal wetlands around the Mai Po Marshes and Inner Deep Bay
7
WWF. 2001. Ramsar Site Management Plan.
http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/ramsar_site/maipo-habitat-map.jpg
8
WWF. 2010. Mai Po Management Plan. http://www.wwf.org.hk/images/maipo/new_MP_map.jpg
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3 Hong Kong’s Public-oriented Governance: A Balance between Urbanization
and the Environment
3.1 Public Participation
In the mid 1990s, there was growing public concern for reclamation. The
communities in Hong Kong started to query whether it was the right way forward.
Despite Hong Kong's reputation of being intensely urbanized, the territory has made
much effort to promote a green environment, and the growing public concern
prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from the Victoria Harbor.
To provide a platform for public involvement in the planning and design of the future
waterfront, the Harbour-front Enhancement Committee, an advisory body, was
established in 2004 to advise the Government on planning, land use and development
along the existing and new harbour-front of the Victoria Harbour. The Committee
comprises professionals, concern groups, business sector, academics and Government
officials to foster more balanced discussions on harbour-front issues. So far, the
Committee has made a number of achievements including formulation of a set of
Harbour Planning Principles and a set of Harbour Planning Guidelines to guide the
planning, preservation, development and management of the Victoria Harbour and its
harbour-front areas. It also provides input for the review of reclamation projects,
promotes public engagement and identifies enhancement opportunities.
Public awareness for the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from
increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. However, a
more encouraging public participation finding was that 88% of the respondents
believed that both the government and citizens should be responsible for
environmental protection. This is in contrast to similar studies on the Mainland which
have shown that residents there largely believed responsibility for protecting the
environment rest with the government (Wong, 2009b).
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3.2 Public Transport
Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated transport network,
encompassing both public and private transport. Over 90% of the daily journeys are
made on public transport, the highest rate in the world (Fig. 8) (Lam and Bell, 2003).
Fig. 8 MTR system map in Hong Kong
9
The entire Hong Kong SAR acts as a network of primary, secondary and tertiary
Multiple Intensive Land Use (MILU) zones linked by relatively cheap and speedy
public transport. The MILU forms of Hong Kong have been developed as an efficient
design response within a small city-state to population growth and shortages of
buildable land (Lau et al., 2003). Making the MILU tool available will help local
governments design, implement and refine policies to find cost-effective climate
policy solutions and drive economic development in green sectors.
9
MTR, 2010. Train Services System Map. http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/routemap.pdf
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3.3 Public Green Space
As a cosmopolitan city, Hong Kong regularly imbibe knowledge and practices
from around the world,
and often in the process modifications, adjustments,
adaptations and improvements are introduced to fit unique local circumstances and
needs. In the realm of urban greening, Hong Kong is more tightly packed than most
other cities in the world, hence the amount and quality of planting spaces tend to be
seriously constrained (Jim, 2008b). A healthy city and a healthy citizenry demand a
healthy supply of green spaces for active and passive recreational pursuits (Fig. 9).
Urban parks play a pivotal role in fulfilling this innate and fundamental need. The
high-density living environment lacking in private indoor and outdoor spaces would
accentuate such demands. Parks therefore offer relief to an otherwise confined if not
sequestered urban population, and contribute significantly to fostering physical and
mental health (Jim, 2008a).
Fig.9 Urban green parks in Hong Kong (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2010)
A recent research-led green roof initiative at the University of Hong Kong has
stimulated interest in the community. The government has responded by including
green roof installation in its official development policy. In the local context, it is
envisaged that if many more roofs are greened over, the collective cooling effect
could bring significant environmental benefits to the city by ameliorating the urban
heat island effect, reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions at
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power plants, increasing carbon sequestration, dampening air pollution especially the
occurrence of smog days, reducing the discharge and quality of stormwater discharge.
The lack of green spaces at the ground level could be partly compensated by green
roofs. Such extensive benefits could also be translated into dollars to enhance
understanding and acceptance of green roofs (Jim, 2008a).
4 Major Implications and Conclusions
Projecting city growth in Hong Kong, mainland China and worldwide, we will
ask how rapid urban growth can be planned, managed and developed sustainably. As
cities are being forced to address some of the most dramatic environmental challenges,
including urban sprawl, environmental quality degradation, ecological destruction,
climate change…, can they lead the way in finding sustainable solutions? Maybe
ancient Chinese wisdom could offer us some hints as to the solution (Fig.10).
• 仁：Love, Public-oriented
• 義：Responsible, Public-oriented
• 禮：Controlled behavior
• 智：Wise use
• 信：Confidence
Fig. 10 Park Essay of C.K. Choi Building (Institute of Asian Research), University of British Columbia,
Canada (Photo: Yangfan Li, 2009)
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Hong Kong legislators passed the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance in 1996
in an effort to protect the increasingly threatened Victoria Harbour against
encroaching urban development. Draining wetlands for urban land use, for example,
is a form of habitat destruction. In more and more parts of the world, new reclamation
projects are restricted or no longer allowed as a result of environmental protection
laws.
In line with Hong Kong’s international obligations to conserve the diversity and
promote the wise use of wetland areas, the government is to prevent the loss of
important wetland resources, to minimize detrimental impact on wetlands from
adjacent urban development, and to compensate for losses incurred as a result of
unavoidable development projects.
A review of Hong Kong’s practices suggests a need for local governments to
create a sound public participation base to support decision-making and action at
regional and national levels. This includes developing harmonized stakeholderanalysis methods for local government use, collaboration between trans-boundary
organizations to generate regional development policies, and developing a strong
process and network for public participation. Policy options for increasing
transportation system eco-efficiency include: (1) increased public transportation (e.g.
highly efficient rail systems or Bus Rapid Transit, BRT), (2) Increased density and
land-use efficiency (e.g. mixed-use development (Lau et al., 2003), and (3) Smart
growth policies (integrating land-use and public transportation planning). We could
study greening landscape design ideas, concepts, practices, management, and their
contributions to urban environmental quality, quality of life, and various ecosystem
services. . Examples include the intensive green roof project on a new building which
provides an opportunity to implement the first sky woodland and serve to illustrate the
wide range of environmental, ecological, amenity and economic benefits to a city.
Cities represent a challenge and an opportunity for climate change policies. As
the hub of economic activity, cities generate the bulk of GHG emissions and are thus
important to mitigation strategies (Corfee-Morlot et al., 2009). GEC is not only an
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environmental problem; it is a major challenge for the development of Hong Kong
and mainland China. City governments and urban stakeholders has to, therefore, be involved
in the design and delivery of eco-, low-carbon policies based on urban ecological governance (Li
et al., 2005). Further, by empowering local governments, national policies could leverage existing
local experiments, such as a world class Pearl River Delta (PRD) Metropolis, accelerate green
policy responses, foster sustainability mobilization and engage local stakeholders (Wong, 2009a;
BFRC, 2010).
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Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my gratitude to the following organizations and persons for
their invaluable help, support, information and advice that were instrumental in
realizing the working paper project:
David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies (LEWI), Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) and
Prof. Emilie Yueh-yu Yeh, Miss. Hidy Ng, Miss. Alice Lu, and Miss. Lydia Kwok for providing a
grant and assistance to support the research and publication of the paper;
Prof. Kenneth K.K. Wong, Prof. R. Bernhart Owen, Prof. Si Ming Li, Mr. Ka Wai Lung, Ms.
Tracey Y. L. Yiu and Miss. Suk Yan Heung, Geography Department, HKBU;
Dr. Shan Shan Chung, Dr. Shengchun Wu and Mr. Hongsheng Wang, Croucher Institute for
Environmental Sciences, Department of Biology, HKBU;
Prof. Kin Che Lam, Prof. Yongqin David Chen, Dr. Kai-Yi Zhou and Ms. Chunling Liu,
Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong;
Prof. C. Y. Jim, Department of Geography, The University of Hong Kong;
Ms. Teresa Chu, Mr. Philip Chang and 卓玉明,, Planning Department, Government of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region;
Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region and 鄧玉瓊,
Civil Engineering and Development Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region and 劉曉欣;
Environmental Protection Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region;
Harbour-front Enhancement Committee and 黃隆業; and
The National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) grants 40901081, and the Soft Science
Project of the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China (2009-R2-40)
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