InhonorofFebruaryBlackHistoryMonth,theSTARCenterwouldlike
totaketheopportunitytoreflectonthecomplicatedhistoryofAfrican
AmericansintheUnitedStatesmentalhealthsystemandcelebratethe
pioneerswhohelpedtotransformit.
TheSTARCenterisaSAMHSA‐fundedtechnicalassistancecenter
committedtoenhancingculturalcompetencyandeffectivenessinmental
healthrecoveryservices,practices,andmodels.AsanAfricanAmerican
consumer,IfindBlackHistoryMonthtobeespeciallyimportantbecausewe
asacommunityneedtounderstandourcollectivepasttoappreciatethe
significantachievementswehavemadetorecoveryeffortsaswellasto
empowercurrentandfuturegenerationstocontinuethestruggleforequality
andfairtreatment,andconsequentlytoexperiencesuccess.Inthewordsof
theinspirationalDr.MayaAngelou:"Themoreyouknowofyourhistorythe
moreliberatedyouare…weneedtosaywearestillhere,thatwehavegrown
andsurvivedanddonebetterthanthat‐‐wehavethrived"i.
ThetreatmentofAfricanAmericansintheinfancyofmentalhealth
awarenessandrecoverycanbesummedupinoneword:ridiculous.For
example,in1851,Dr.SamuelCartwright,aprominentLouisianaphysicianand
oneoftheleadingauthoritiesinhistimeonthemedicalcareofAfrican
Americans,identifiedamentaldisorderpeculiartoslaves.Drapetomia,a
diseasebelievedtocauseAfricanAmericanslavestorunawayfromservitude
or,ironically,“service,”wasnotedasacondition"unknowntoourmedical
authorities,althoughitsdiagnosticsymptom,theabscondingfromservice,is
wellknowntoourplantersandoverseers."Dr.Cartwrightobservedthat"the
cause,inmostcases,thatinducestheNegrotorunawayfromservice,issuch
adiseaseofthemindasinanyotherspeciesofalienation,andmuchmore
curable,asageneralrule".Cartwrightidentifiedpreventivemeasuresfor
dealingwiththedisease.Slavesshowingsymptomsofthecondition,which
includedsulkyanddissatisfiedbehavior,weretobewhipped‐strictlyasa
therapeuticearlyintervention.Plantationownersandoverseerswere
encouragedtoutilizewhippingastheprimaryinterventiononcethedisease
hadprogressedtothestageofapersonactuallyrunningaway.Overall,
CartwrightsuggestedthatAfricanAmericansshouldbekeptinasubmissive
stateandtreatedlikechildren,with"care,kindness,attentionandhumanity,
topreventandcurethemfromrunningaway".
DespitetheabsurdityofDr.Cartwright’stheory,hisinfluenceonAfrican
AmericanmentalhealthcanbeseenasrecentlyastheCivilRightsMovement.
Inthelate1960s,AmericanscholarsVernonMark,WilliamSweetandFrank
Ervinsuggestedthaturbanviolence,whichmostAfrican‐Americansperceived
asareactiontooppression,povertyandstate‐sponsoredeconomicand
physicalviolence,wasactuallydueto"braindysfunction",andrecommended
theuseofpsychosurgerytopreventoutbreaksofviolence.Theabove
examplesillustratethepoortreatmentofAfricanAmericansintheearly
mentalhealthsystemandhowitwasusedtojustifyslavery,abuse,and
oppressionofAfricanAmericansii.
AlthoughAfricanAmericanconsumerscontinuetoexperience
significantchallengesaccessingculturallycompetentandeffectiveservicesin
thepresent,therehasbeensignificantprogressinhowAfricanAmericans
pioneeredmentalhealthandrecoverymodels.Thisprogressisadirectresult
ofthetirelesseffortsofAfricanAmericanconsumers,leaders,andadvocates,
peersupporters,psychiatrists,psychologists,governmentpolicyofficialsand
civilservants,civilrightsleaders,andsocialserviceprovidersthatcontinue
effortstodiscreditthe“Dr.Cartwrights”oftheworldonadailybasis.STAR
Centerthrivestocontinueandenhancetheseeffortsthroughcultural
competenceinitiatives,trainings,anddisseminationofresources.
Wewouldliketotakethisopportunitytorecognizesomeoftheearly
pioneerswhopavedthewayforAfricanAmericanconsumers,mentalhealth
professionalsandleaderstohaveavoiceinmodernmentalhealthand
recoverymodelsandpolicies:
MildredMitchell‐BatemanwasthefirstAfrican‐Americanwomantobe
namedtoahigh‐rankingofficeinWestVirginiastategovernment.In1962,
shebecamedirectoroftheDepartmentofMentalHealthandservedinthat
capacityforfifteenyears.Mitchell‐Batemanadvocatedplacingmentallyill
patientsatfacilitiesnearesttheirhomesanddevelopingcommunitymental
healthcenters.Shedevelopedaprogramentitled,"BreakingtheDisability
Cycle,"whichgavehopetoindividualswhowereidentifiedaspatients
labeledasbeinguntreatable.Mitchell‐Batemanstated,"[N]oonehasaright
todecidethatpatientsaren'tgoingtogetanybetter."In1973,shebecame
thefirstblackwomantoserveasvicepresidentoftheAmericanPsychiatric
Association.Fouryearslater,shewasoneoffourpsychiatristsonthe
President'sCommissiononMentalHealth,whichresultedintheMental
HealthSystemsAct,passedin1980iii.
SolomonFuller,thefirstblackpsychiatristintheUnitedStates,playedakey
roleinthedevelopmentofpsychiatryinthe1900s.Heisbestknownforhis
researchondementiaandiscreditedforhelpingmaketheUnitedStatesthe
leaderinpsychiatrythatitistoday.Inaddition,asaprofessoratBoston
UniversitySchoolofMedicineformorethan30years,Fullerhelpedtrainthe
nextgenerationofpsychiatristsiv.
Dr.Sumnerwasaninfluentialpsychologistwhoiscommonlyreferredtoas
the"FatherofBlackPsychology".In1920,SumnerbecamethefirstAfrican
AmericantoreceiveaPh.D.degreeinpsychology.Sumner’sareaoffocus
wasininvestigatinghowtorefuteracismandbiasinthetheoriesusedto
concludetheinferiorityofAfricanAmericans.Sumner’sworkisthoughtto
bearesponsetotheEurocentricmethodsofpsychology.Healsoisknown
forteachingfamoussocialpsychologistKennethB.Clark,whowasan
influentialfigureinthecivilrightsmovement.Heencouragedthat
psychologyshouldmoveawayfromphilosophyandtheschoolof
educationv.
Dr.SmithwasanAfricanAmericanphysician,apothecary,abolitionist,and
author.HeisthefirstAfricanAmericantoearnamedicaldegree,andthefirst
torunapharmacyintheUnitedStates.Smithwroteforcefullyinrefutationof
thecommonmisconceptionsaboutrace,intelligence,medicine,andsocietyin
general.Hisfriendandcolleaguesinthismovementwereoftenfamousand
consistedofmanynotedabolitionists,includingFrederickDouglassvi.
TheSTARCenterinvitesyoutojoinusincelebratingtheindividuals
notedaboveandthenumerousotherpioneersthathaveadvancedAfrican
Americaninitiativesinmentalhealth,recoveryandwellnessmodels.
Attachedpleasefindalistofwebsitesforconsumers,supporters,family
membersandprovidersinterestedinlearningmoreaboutAfricanAmerican
recoveryandwellnessinitiatives.
i
Christina Norman. (February 14, 2012). Huff Post: BLACKVOICES. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/14/maya‐angelou‐radio‐special‐_n_1276463.html?ref=black‐voices. February 17, 2012. ii
Vanessa Jackson. (March 20, 2002). In Our Own Voice: African American Stories of Oppression, Survival and Recovery in Mental Health Systems. http://nationalempowermentcenter.org/downloads/InOurOwnVoiceVanessaJackson.pdf. February 14, 2012. iii
West Virginia Division of Culture and History. West Virginia Archives & History: Mildred Mitchell‐Bateman. http://www.wvculture.org/history/bateman.html. February 14, 2012. iv
faqs.org. (n.d.). Solomon Fuller Biography (1872‐1953). http://www.faqs.org/health/bios/34/Solomon‐
Fuller.html. February 14, 2012. v
Wikipedia. (November 27, 2011). Francis Cecil Sumner. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Cecil_Sumner. February 14, 2012. vi
Thomas M. Morgan. (July 2003). Journal of The National Medical Association: The education and medical practice of Dr. James McCune Smith (1813‐1865), first black American to hold a medical degree. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2594637/. February 14, 2012.