European Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009
Europen Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009
© 2009 Ozean Publication
A PSYCHOLOGICAL POSTULATION FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF
CLASSROOM EMOTIONAL ABUSE
Okoza Jolly, *Oyaziwo Aluede And A.I Ojugo
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria
*E-mail address for correspondence : oyaziwoaluede@yahoo.com
______________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract : Emotional abuse of secondary school students by teachers is an active label for describing the
violations of students’ rights. It is a strong school violence that can impede students’ development and
productivity. This work portrays how emotional abuse can destroy self –concept of students in the
classroom in concordance with Rogerians’ theory. In line with Rogers’ theory, emotional abuse is undue
pressure from teachers. Such pressure can stifle students’ development. This work recommends that since
emotional abuse destroys growth promoting climate in the classroom, teachers should internalize the
principles of unconditional positive regard as enunciated by Rogers that is characterized by genuineness,
sympathy and empathy. These are ingredients that can facilitate students learning and development.
______________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Emotional abuse, which is a subtype of abuse and neglect, is a problem affecting all races, religions, and
socioeconomic groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around the world, 40 million
children suffer from abuse or neglect and need health and social intervention (WHO, 1999). Emotional
abuse is a concerted attack by an adult on a child’s development of self and social competence, a pattern of
psychically destructive behaviour (Garbarino, Guttman & Seeley, 1986).
Today, school violence is one of the most important problems facing children and their families, since
growing number of students perceive their school context as an unsafe environment (Aluede, 2004). In
some family settings, inappropriate and abusive parent will denigrate and insult the child, express
conditional love and ambivalent feelings towards the child, and will emotionally or physically reject the
child’s attention (Alfandary, 1993). Children who found themselves in such situation either in their school
or family circle are likely to suffer damage to their self-esteem and their internalization of positive role
models and adaptive interactional patterns. This state of psychological maltreatment experienced by
students is perceived as a socio-economic malaise by all and sundry in our society. Such experience will
impact negatively on the mental abilities of a child such as intelligence, memory, recognition and attention,
feelings and capacity to develop relationships (O’ Hagan, 1993).
Psychological abuse or mental injury and other forms of abuse may have informed the Federal Republic of
Nigeria (1999) to insert in her constitution, section 34 which states the Rights to dignity of human persons.
In addition, subsection (1) of section 34 states further that every individual is entitled to respect for the
dignity of his human person and accordingly: (a) no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or
degrading treatment. The foundations for good mental health are laid in the emotional development that
occurs in infancy and later childhood and appears to be dependant upon the quality of and frequency of
response to an infant or child from a parent or primary caregiver (O’ Hagan, 1993). If a parent
inadvertently or deliberately engages in a pattern of inappropriately emotional responses, the child can be
said to have experienced emotional abuse.
The term abuse conjures up images of violence and cruelty. It infers a deliberate action, an intention to
harm and to damage. It is an active label for the violations of one person’s rights by another. But in order to
be able to talk about emotional abuse, we need to recognize that the term also describes what is not being
done, what is being omitted, neglected and denied and most importantly, how it is done unintentionally,
out of ignorance, indifference or distress (Alfandary, 1993)
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Emotional abuse is as difficult to detect as it is damaging. It is an invisible wound. It is often ignored as its
recognition may leave us feeling enraged, impotent and devastated. We may try to protect ourselves from it
as adults by denying its emotional impact, projecting our feelings and down-playing its significance. But in
later years, we become morally indignant when confronted with the extreme examples of its consequences
such as juvenile delinquency (Alfandary, 1993). This denial, (Polansky, 1981) is putting democratic society
in great danger. Students in secondary school may experience some forms of emotional abuse such as
rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, controlling, etc, that may have effects on their passage through the
three major developmental stages of infancy, childhood and adolescence (Garbarino, et al, 1986).
Like other forms of violence, emotional abuse is based on power and control. Emotional abuse of children
can result in serious and /or behavioural problems, including depression, lack of attachment or emotional
bond to a parent or guardian, low cognitive ability and educational underachievement, and poor social skills
(McEachern, Aluede & Kenny, 2008). Children who experience rejection are more likely than accepted
children to exhibit hostility, aggressive or passive- aggressive behaviour, to be extremely dependent, to
have negative opinions of themselves and their abilities, to be emotionally unstable or unresponsive, and to
have negative perception of the world around them.
Most extant literature has focused more on physical abuse and sexual abuse, than the prevalence of
emotional abuse in Nigeria’s school system. There is rarity of empirical studies on emotional abuse by the
teacher on students in Nigeria. Even though teachers serve not only as educators, but also, as important
socializing agents who fulfill basic socio-emotional needs, such as belongings and self- esteem. This fact is
supported by research evidence that teacher - child relationship exerts a major influence on the children’s
social, behavioural, emotional and academic adjustment (Pianta, 1999). Put simply, teachers act in “loco
parentis” in the school to nurture children. But, teachers who consistently communicate a negative sense of
identity to the child and refuse to accept and respond to the child’s needs for human contact and attachment
cannot be said to be promoting the developmental needs of the child. This action by the teacher amount to
rejection, a form of emotional abuse.
Some teachers are unaware of the impact of their behaviour upon children. It is possible that teachers are
also unaware that emotional abuse is a form of child abuse that has serious damaging consequences on the
development of children. They may perceive emotional abuse as a means of molding and shaping
children’s behaviour. Teachers may also lack alternatives in dealing with children who misbehave in
schools.
In the classroom, the importance of children’s mental health should not be underestimated. Emotional
abuse can affect it. Children must survive as psychologically intact individuals. It is apparent that a chronic
pattern of psychological maltreatment destroys a child’s sense of self and personal safety. This leads to
adverse effects on intrapersonal thoughts, emotional health, social skills, learning impairments, and
physical health (Nesbit & Philpot, 2002). A child may recover from physical pain and injuries, but may
never recover from the terror, degradation, humiliation or breach of trust involved in emotional abuse
(Briggs, 1995; Briggs & Hawkins, 1997).
Although individual acts can be abusive, emotional abuse usually describes an ongoing interaction. It is a
repeated pattern of damaging interactions between teachers or parents and the child that becomes typical of
the relationship (Glaser, & Prior, 1997). The severity of emotional abuse should not be underestimated, and
hence Geffner (2007) points out that emotional abuse can be thought of as the non-physical abuse of the
self and spirit, which degrades worth and interferes with human development and productivity. The thrust
of this paper is to evolve a theory that capture emotional abuse of students by their classroom teachers.
This, Rogerian’s self- concept theory is particularly indicated to be relevant.
Rogers’ Theory
The central concept in Rogers’s theory is the self, an organized, consistent set of perceptions of and beliefs
about oneself (Rogers, 1959). Once formed, plays a powerful role in guiding our perceptions and directing
our behaviour. Rogers believed that our behaviour is not a reaction to unconscious conflicts, but a response
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to our immediate conscious experience of self and environment (Rogers, 1951). Rogers (1951) believed
that, without undue pressure from others, individuals naturally move toward personal growth, selfacceptance, and self-actualization, which is the fulfillment of their potential for love, creativity, and
meaning. Emotional abuse is an undue pressure that can stifle such fulfillment in the life of children.
Rogers (1902-1987) began his inquiry about human nature with people who were troubled. Rogers (1961)
examined the conditioned, controlling world that kept them from having positive self-concept and reaching
their full potential as human beings. Under the stress of pressure from society and family, however, people
can develop rigid and distorted perspectives of self and can lose touch with their own values and needs.
This can lead to emotional distress, unhealthy behaviour, and even loss of touch with reality. Emotional
abuse will remove genuineness, acceptance and empathy that are the water, sun and nutrients that enable
people to grow like vigorous oak tree. For “as persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more
caring attitude towards themselves” (Rogers, 1980, p. 116).
Rogers theorized that at the beginning of their lives, children cannot distinguish between themselves and
their environment. As they interact with their world, children begin to distinguish between the “me” and
“not me.” The self-concept continues to develop in response to our life experiences, though many aspects
of it remain quite stable over time (Passer & Smith, 2001). Once the self – concept is established, there is a
tendency to maintain it, for it helps us to understand ourselves in relation to the world. We therefore have
needs for self-consistency (an absence of conflict among self –perceptions) and congruence (consistency
between self – perceptions and experience). The self is a whole, consisting of one’s self – perceptions (how
attractive I am, how well I get along with others, how good a scholar I am) and the value we attach to these
perceptions (good / bad, worthy/ unworthy for example). Self –concept refers to individuals’ overall
perception of their abilities, behaviour, and personality. In Rogers’s view, a person who has an inaccurate
self-concept is likely to be maladjusted. It is believed that emotional abuse can cause such maladjustment in
children. A child who is abused emotionally will suffer severe anxiety, depression, withdrawal, selfharming behaviour or aggressive behaviour towards others.
Furthermore, the degree of congruence between self-concept and experience helps define one’s level of
adjustment. The more rigid and inflexible people’s self – concepts are, the less open they will be to their
experiences and the more maladjusted they will become. If there is significant degree of incongruence
between self and experience, and the experience are forceful enough, the defenses used to deny and distort
reality may collapse, resulting in extreme anxiety and a temporary disorganization of the self – concept.
Rogers distinguished between the real self – that is, the self as it really is as a result of our experiences –
and the ideal self, which is the self we would like to be. The greater the discrepancy between the real self
and ideal self said Rogers, the more maladjusted we will be. To improve our adjustment, we can develop
more positive perceptions of our real self, not worry so much about what others want, and increase our
positive experiences in the world (Santrock, 2000).
Rogers theorized on the need for positive regard. He believed that we are born with an innate need for
positive regard – that is, for acceptance, sympathy, and love from others. Rogers viewed positive regard as
essential for healthy development. Ideally, positive regard received from parents is unconditional – that is
independent of how the child behaves. Unconditional positive regard communicates that the child is
inherently worthy of love. Rogers stressed that we can help a person develop a more positive self-concept
through unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuineness. He said that we need to be accepted by
others, regardless of what we do. Furthermore, unconditional positive regard is Rogers’s term for
accepting, valuing, and being positive toward another person regardless of the person’s behaviour. Rogers
recognized that when a person’s behaviour is below acceptable standards, inappropriate, or even
obnoxious, the person still needs the respect, comfort, and love of others. Rogers strongly believed that
unconditional positive regards elevate the person’s self-worth (Passer & Smith, 2001; Santrock, 2000).
Rogers also said we can help other people develop a more positive self-concept if we are empathic and
genuine. Being empathic means being a sensitive listener and sense what it is like to be the client at any
moment and understanding another’s true feelings. Being genuine means being open with our feelings and
dropping our pretenses and not hiding behind a facade. For Rogers, unconditional positive regard, empathy
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and genuineness are three key ingredients of human relations. We can use these techniques to get other
people to feel good about themselves and the techniques also help us to get along better with others.
Another aspect of Rogers’ Theory is Conditional Positive regard. Conditional positive regard is Rogers’
term for love and praise being withheld unless the individual conforms to parents or social standards. The
result is lower self – esteem. People need positive regard not only from others, but also from themselves.
We all want to feel good about ourselves. Thus a need for positive self –regard from parents and other
significant people in the past teaches that they are worthy of approval and love only when they meet certain
standards. This fosters the development of conditions of worth that dictate when we approve or disapprove
of ourselves. Rogers believed that conditions of worth can tyrannize people and cause major incongruence:
between self and experience, together with a need to deny or distort aspects of experience.
Rogers (1980) theorized on the fully functioning person and stressed the importance of becoming a fully
functioning person – someone who is open to experience, is not very defensive, is aware of and sensitive to
the self and external world, and for the most part has a harmonious relationship with others (NolenHoeksema, 2004). They feel a sense of inner freedom, self-determination, and choice in the direction of
their growth. They have no fear of behaving spontaneously, freely, and creatively. Because they are fairly
free of conditions of worth, they can accept inner and outer experiences as they are without modifying them
defensively to suit a rigid self-concept or expectations of others (Nolen – Hoeksema, 2004). Rogers (1980)
believed that a person’s basic tendencies are to actualize, maintain, and enhance life. He thought that the
tendency for fulfillment – toward actualizing one’s essential nature and attaining potential – is inborn in
every person.
By giving the self a central place in his theory, Rogers helped stimulate a great deal of research on the self
– esteem and its effects on behaviour. Self – esteem (how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves)
is a very important aspect of personal well – being, happiness, and adjustment. Self–esteem is related to
many positive behaviours and life outcomes. People with high self –esteem are less susceptible to social
pressure, have fewer interpersonal problems, are happier with their lives, achieve at a higher and more
persistent level, and are more capable of forming satisfying love relationships.
In contrast, people with a poor self – image are more prone to psychological problems like anxiety and
depression, to physical illness, and to poor social relationships and underachievement. Children develop
higher self –esteem when their parents communicate unconditional acceptance and love, establish clear
guidelines for behaviour, and reinforce compliance while giving the child freedom to make decision and
express opinions within those guidelines.
THE RELEVANCE OF CARL ROGERS THEORY TO EMOTIONAL ABUSE
Carl Rogers’s humanistic theory is relevant to research work on emotional abuse of students by teachers
based on these reasons:
Firstly, we are born with an innate need for positive regard – that is, for acceptance, sympathy and love
from others, says Rogers. Emotional abuse of students will negate such fulfillments in students’ lives. A
teacher who spurn, reject, ignore, hurts, and isolate children will stifle the fulfillment of Rogers’s species –
specifics characteristics. Consequently, development and productivity of children may be hampered. It is
therefore apparent that when we are abreast with Rogers innate tendencies of human needs, we may be able
to conduct good classroom management that will foster positive interaction in teacher – children
relationship and learning.
Secondly, self – concept is a central theme in Rogers’ and other humanists views. Self – concept is
individuals’ total perceptions of their abilities, behaviour, and personality. Emotional abuse of students may
adversely affect development of positive self-concept. Students who are verbally assaulted, denigrated,
belittled will not thrive in developing positive self – concept. Self – concept is still being developed in
childhood and adolescence, much more than in adulthood (Nolen – Hoekmsema, 2004). A period of
significant experience of emotional abuse of students by teachers in the classroom while one’s self –
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concept is undergoing substantial change may have long – lasting effects on the content or structure of self
– concept.
It is obvious that any experience we may come across that will be at variance with our self – concept may
predispose us to threat and anxiety. Emotional abuse is a key toxic ingredient in the development of such
neuropsychiatric problems. Rogers’s theory serves as an awareness process in the avoidance of
circumstances that will lead to emotional block in the lives of growing children.
Thirdly, Rogers Unconditional Positive Regard, empathy and genuineness should serve as guiding
principles in classroom management. Rogers recognized that when person’s behaviour is below acceptable
standards, inappropriate or even obnoxious, the person still needs respects, comfort and love of others. A
classroom where there is incidence and prevalence of emotional abuse of students, these humanistic
characteristics are conspicuously absent. To develop good classroom ambience, we need to cultivate the
spirit of empathy, genuineness and good listening ability. When unconditional positive regard is given little
attention and conditional positive regard is highly emphasized, it leads to lower self-esteem.
CONCLUSION
Rogers’ theory is relevant to emotional abuse in that through his theory we know that for children to
develop higher self – esteem, parents, teachers, and significant others should communicate acceptance and
love, establish clear guidelines for behaviour, and reinforce compliance while giving the child freedom to
make decisions and expression of opinions. Emotional abuse is based on power and control and carried out
with words, gestures and policies. It can result in serious and / or behavioural problems, including
depression, lack of attachment, low cognitive ability and poor social skills. To facilitate good human
development and productivity, our classroom management should be guided by Rogers’ theory and
deliberate and conscious efforts should be taken to avoid emotionally abusive learning environment.
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