Aristotle's Defense of the Theoretical Life: Comments on "Politics" 7
Author(s): David Roochnik
Source: The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 61, No. 4 (Jun., 2008), pp. 711-735
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ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE:
COMMENTS
ON POLITICS7
DAVIDROOCHNIK
?Vristotle
opens
Politics
7, his discussion
which
he later
ernment"
of the
"best
form
of gov
calls "the city according
(politeias
avistes),
to prayer"
his
audience
of his plan of at
by informing
(kat'euch?ri),
an inquiry into the ideal city must,
who undertakes
tack.1 Anyone
he
most
first
what
the
determine
is.2
After
life"
says,
"choice-worthy
all,
"it is fitting
for those who
commence
discussion
To
are best
of
governed
the nature
of
to act
this
in the best way."3
to
best
life he refers
to: Department
of Philosophy,
Boston University,
745
Correspondence
Commonwealth
Avenue, Boston, MA 02215.
1
Politics
1323al4 and 1325b36.
The Greek
Aristotle,
(hereafter Pol),
text isWilliam David Ross' edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988). Transla
tions are my own, unless noted otherwise.
Translations
by Richard Kraut, Ar
VII and VIII (hereafter APB)
istotle: Politics
Books
(Oxford: Clarendon
The Politics
Press, 1997), Carnes Lord, Aristotle:
(hereafter ATP) (Chicago:
The University
of Chicago Press,
Poli
1985), and C. David Reeve Aristotle:
tics (hereafter AP) (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing
Company,
1998) have all
been consulted.
For a discussion
of the phrase kat'euch&n see Richard Kraut,
Aristotle:
Political
Philosophy
(hereafter APP)
(Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2002), who renders the phrase "a city that is the most one could hope
or pray for" (p. 192). Also see Kraut (APB) for a defense
of the claim that
Book 7 offers a "description of the ideal city [that] must in some sense be real
istic: itmust be possible
for such a city to exist" (52).
2One may, of course, object at the outset to Aristotle's
Con
procedure.
sider, for example, what John Rawls, A Theory of Justice
(Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University
of jus
Press, 1971), 447-8, has to say: "Once the principles
... there is no need to set up the account of the
tice are chosen
good so as to
force unanimity on all the standards of rational choice.
In fact, itwould con
tradict the freedom of choice that justice as fairness assures
to individuals
... Individuals find their
and groups within the framework
of just institutions
... This variety in the conceptions
of the good is itself
good in different ways
a good thing."
Kraut's (APB) translation
3Aristotle, Pol. 1323al718.
is, "it is appropriate
that those who should fare best who
live under the best political
system."
Reeve (AP) is almost identical. Lord (APB) does a better job: "it is appropri
ate for those who govern themselves
to act in the best manner."
best...
He
takes into proper account the fact that tous arista politeuomenous
is the sub
ject of prattein.
The Review
of Metaphysics
61
(June
2008):
711-735.
Copyright
?
2008
by The Review
Metaphysics
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of
DAVIDROOCHNIK
712
what
he calls
seem
were,
"the exoteric
to have
whatever
which,
discourses,"
basic
ethical
expressed
principles.4
exactly
they
no one would disagree.
one distinction,
There are three di
Concerning
the best life]: external
visions
[to be made within
[goods], those of the
body, and those of the soul. All of these must belong to those who are
to be among the blessedly
For no one would
say
happy (makariois).5
or of jus
that the blessed man has no share of courage or moderation
but is afraid of flies buzzing around, can resist
tice or practical wisdom,
or drink, destroys his dearest friends for a
desires
food
when
he
nothing
it comes to intellec
and is as foolish and prone to error when
pittance,
as a child or a madman.
With these assertions
tual matters
everyone
would agree.6
Aristotle
requires
is confident that no one would disagree that the best life
possession
of
healthy body, and most
the
"soul"; namely,
the passage
as well
as
that
"virtue"
Even
in what
above,
the fact
is what
sufficient
external
goods
(like
to
important of all, the good which belongs
"virtue"
(arete).
but his mention
He
does
not use
this
of courage, moderation,
it shortly
thereafter
clearly
in mind.7
that he uses
he has
in
last word
and so on,
indicate
it is not
if it is granted
that the best life requires virtue,
sort of virtue
7.2 narrows
Politics
such a life consists.
possibilities
a
money),
clear
the
to two:
in political activ
is the more choiceworthy
Which
life, that of engaging
ity and sharing in the life of the city, or is it rather the life of the stranger
have been dis
ties to the political
whose
(ho xenikos)
community
solved?8
there is
those who agree that the best life is most choiceworthy
or
life is choiceworthy,
and practical
whether
the political
have been dis
ties to all external matters
the life whose
some people say is the only
the theoretical
life, which
solved?namely,
more choiceworthy.
For it is nearly the case
life for a philosopher?is
Among
dispute
whether
4
Aristotle, Pol. 1323a22. Lord (APB) states that a study of all of the ref
in the Politics
erences
"shows that all are de
to Aristotle's
ethical writings
Eth
or arguably to the Eudemian
rather than the Nicomachean
monstrably
of
ics" (19).
Reeve
(AP) says, that the "reference may be to lost works
In
he
than the Politics"
Aristotle
intended for a wider audience
support
(76).
Also see Kraut, APB, 53-4.
1217b22-3.
cites Eudemian
Ethics
5 See
and
1101a6-8
Ethics
Aristotle, Nichomachean
(hereafter NE),
and being
between
for the distinction
1179al-9
happiness
(eudaimonia)
"blessed." The latter is free from misfortune.
6
Aristotle, Pol. 1323a27-35.
7See
also, ibid., 1323a36.
8
Ibid., 1324al4-17.
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ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
713
that the most honor-loving
of men, both of the past and of the present,
seem to choose these two lives when it comes to virtue. The two Imean
are the political and the philosophical.9
a long tradition,
Aristotle
excellent
forms
of
genuinely
From
two
life:
the view
that
are
there
the
theoretical-philosophical
Ethics
10.7-8 he argues
Most
commentators
think he
InNicomachean
and
the practical-political.10
on behalf
unambiguously
is less
inherits
of the former.
here
in the Politics
7.1.
For example,
Kraut
straightforward
"does not decisively
draw a conclusion
about which
says that Aristotle
is better."11
him as "cagey, dialectically
Reeve
describes
the
balancing
claims on the political
life against
the philosophical,
but not giving de
to either."12
Solmsen
puts the point strongly
precedence
by say
the oscillations
of Aristotle's
and
ing that "we have to accept
argument
are
a
con
the ambiguity
of his conclusion;
indicative
of
they
deeper
flict between
tendencies
and
inclinations
in
his
mind."13
diverging
cisive
Miller
concurs:
cause
he does
whether
"Aristotle's
Some
greatest
is somewhat
explicitly
life is political
assertion
is based on his reading
consider
be
inconclusive
the question
he has
or
and
philosophical."14
the best
Miller's
discussion
answer
not
of the following
that the despotic
rule over one's neighbors
while
if it does
political
rule, even
ii\justice,
posed
as to
passage.
involves the
not involve
9
Ibid., 1324a25-32.
10See Andrea
Greek Phi
of Truth in Classical
Nightingale,
Spectacles
in its Cultural Context
losophy: Theoria
(Cambridge: Cambridge University
to the theory-practice
issue in Greek
Press, 2004), for a general introduction
this paper the English
related to it
thought.
theory and words
Throughout
will be used to translate the Greek theoria and words related to it. For an ex
"What is Theoria?
Aristotle's Nicoma
planation of why see David Roochnik,
chean Ethics Book 10.7-8," Classical Philology
(forthcoming).
11
"a reluctance
Kraut, APB, 62. Kraut says that Aristotle here manifests
to say unequivocally
that a certain life is best for all" because
he is leaving
that the best life that can be achieved by nearly all of the
"open the possibility
citizens
(a political
life) is none the less inferior to a life that only a few of
them can lead (a philosophical
tries
life)" (53). He later argues that Aristotle
to show that "neither activity"?that
nor politics?is
is, neither philosophy
between
the best life and
"inherently flawed" (62). Reeve (AP) distinguishes
the best activity, and claims that while Aristotle does acknowledge
that theo
retical activity is best, he "does not tell us what the best life is" (p. xlvi).
12
Reeve, AP, xlvi.
13Friedrich
"Leisure and Play in Aristotle's
Ideal State," (here
Solmsen,
after IS*PC)
Rheinisches
Museum fr Philologie,
196.
107(1964):
14Fred
and
in
Aristotle's
Politics
Miller, Nature,
Justice,
Rights
(here
after NJR) (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1995), 216.
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DAVIDROOCHNIK
714
to one's
is an impediment
injustice, nonetheless
hold nearly the opposite opinion.
They consider
. . . Some
ical life the only one fitting for a man
while
others
that
the
say
judgment,
despotic and
ernment is the only happy one.15
Miller
cal from
that because
argues
the tyrannical,
which
of excessive
Aristotle
involves
towards
possession
possibility
that the political
life.16 That
Aristotle
does
here
distinguishes
the performance
he
neighbors,
one's
commentators
on behalf
make
this distinction
down
dramatic
over
10. Nonetheless,
Ethics
comes
7 he
leaves
the
open
is clear
from
de at 1324a36-37,
are right
never
in maintaining
that Aristotle
of the theoretical
life in Politics
7, and cer
explicitly
argues
not do so in the same
does
tainly
chean
the politi
of unjust acts
is a viable candidate for the title of best
indeed
. . .
men
his use of the phrase
despotik?s
politik?s
and later material
from Books
3 and 4.17
Such
own well-being.
Others
the practical and polit
have made this sort of
tyrannical form of gov
and
fashion
he does
inNicoma
the course
even
of the entirety
of Book
in
favor
of
it. On
decisively
thoroughly
are consis
and the Nicomachean
Ethics
issue, then, the Politics
To explain
and support
this claim
several
of the
tent.18
segments
sometimes
o? Politics
7 must
be examined.
choppy
argument
this
I
As
agree
cient
rather
indicated
with
above,
his assertion
external
Aristotle
that
is confident
the best
life requires
and virtue.
a healthy
body,
of
human
picture
agreement
goods,
optimistic
that, although
expressed
by an observation
not only over the previous
but
statements,
low) over all of Politics
that no one would
possession
dis
of suffi
this
Unfortunately,
is immediately
followed
a shadow
casts
quietly,
also
(as we
shall
see
be
7.
15
Aristotle, Pol. 1324a35-b3.
16Miller,ATJi?,215.
17
See, for example, Aristotle, Pol. 1279b5-10 and 1289bl.
18There is thus no need to invoke the deus ex machina
to
of chronology
as
Kraut
does
when
he
this
away
apparent
inconsistency
(APB)
explain
in Aristotle's
treatment of the ri
claims that there is "a natural progression
. . . does not deci
. . .The Politics
and politics.
valry between
philosophy
Ethics unambiguously
sively come to a conclusion," while the Nicomachean
life" (75).
the philosophical
"champions
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ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
715
With these assertions
everyone would
agree. Nonetheless,
they differ
on how much
is preeminent.
and what
For while
consider
any
they
amount of virtue (aret??) to be sufficient, of wealth, money, power, repu
tation and all such things they seek an unlimited excess.19
While "everyone" (pautes) would agree that the best life requires
concerns
to the
about
virtue
subordinate
"they" nonetheless
and fame.20 "They" do so even though
of money,
power
they
pursuit
we
As
shall see below,
know better.
"they" refers to "the many"
(hoi
most
the
to
and
condition
Aristotle
that
is,
citizens,
(implic
polloi);
virtue,
to them is "moral weakness"
they know they
(akrasia):
itly) attributes
but
do
it
because
should not do something
anyway
they are over
bad,
are those who
cannot
The morally
weak
by a passion.21
powered
of their own reasoning.22
by the conclusions
emanate
their bad actions
from
vicious,
genuinely
abide
rather
than
from
their
sleep
so
their
character
condition
they will
or from
to the
opposed
a passion
or desire
rational
deliberation.
they ought to do has temporarily gone to
of what
Their knowledge
and
basic
As
to epilepsy.23
When
the
"sei
Even
"regretful"
(metameletikos).24
after
the fact the morally
wrong,
(meta)
something
about doing what
is right. As a re
reveal that they care (melein)
are
even
if they
diseased
and do bad things
they are still "cur
zure"
subsides,
they do
when
weak
sult,
thus
is similar
be
able."25
This
neither
diagnosis
Aristotle's
of
the moral
confidence
weakness
nor his apparent
of
the
citizenry
dampens
optimism.
to reach a reliable conclu
We will say to them that it is easy (raidion)
sion about these matters by referring to what really happens
(dia tun er
gon). For we see that they do not acquire and then guard the virtues by
means of the external goods, but the external goods by means of the vir
tues. Furthermore,
it is more common for human beings to live happily,
whether
in pleasure or in virtue or in both, when they have an excess of
19
In his translation Reeve
Aristotle, Pol. 1323a34-8.
(AP), adds "how
ever small" to the phrase "any amount of virtue." This has no basis in the text,
but captures the sentiment of the sentence well.
20See
also, Aristotle, Pol. 1323a34.
21
Ibid., 1324b32.
22See
and 1151a20-2.
also, Aristotle, NE 1145bll-14,1150b27-8
23
1150b34.
Ibid., 1147al3,1147b7and
24
Ibid., 1150b30. See also, 1150a21
25
and its re
Ibid., 1150b32. For a thorough treatment of moral weakness
of the Vicious: A
"Aristotle's Account
lationship to vice see David Roochnik,
Inconsistency,"
Forgivable
History
of Philosophy
Quarterly,
24(2007): 207
20.
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716
DAVID ROOCHNIK
character and thought but are moderate
the possesion
of ex
concerning
ternal goods than it is for those who possess more money
than is useful,
but are lacking in character and thought.26
Again,
"they" refers to those many
to the quest for money,
of virtue
pursuit
seems
to be an
Aristotle
offers what
desires
strongest
of power
power
who
and
subordinate
fame.27
To
the
"them"
If their
empirical
argument.
are
all
of
which
potentially
goods,
to unhappiness.
No amount
of money
to be had.
is always more money
No
are for external
they are doomed
"unlimited,"
can be highest
because
there
amount
citizens
or fame
can be maximum,
for even
if one were
to
rule or be admired by all humanity, there would still be the gods left to
can supply no terminus
Such goods
themselves
point, no te
or
even
measure
to
A
their
worth.
life
los,
by them is
ground
guided
as Durkheim
thus infected with,
desire
for the infi
put it, "a morbid
to
The
it
nite."
and is satisfied
with
person
"aspires
everything
living
conquer.
nothing."28
Aristotle
a
ton
that
is kata
argument
(one
this empirical
claim.29 An external
logon) to accompany
good is like a
its value
is instrumental.30
As such, it must
be used
"tool" (organon);
in order to become
with
value.
for
is
worth
Money,
example,
charged
offers
theoretical
Itmust
less if kept under a mattress.
be spent.
Since
it can be spent
or it can cause harm.
it can bring benefit
In turn,
either well or poorly,
or
to some
how well
it is spent can be measured
standard
according
If a man
(peras).31
well be harmful
both
"limit"
may
too
little.
"mean."32
amount
right.
which
Obviously,
then,
one seeks
When
should
Such
to acquire
and then spend money
the
nor too little; it should
too much
be just
is rationally
determinable
by "practical wisdom,"
be neither
a "mean"
in the
on perfume
the result
spends
excessively
to himself
and others.
So too if he spends
in
the
is the notion
of the
implicit
argument
scheme
of
the Nicomachean
Ethics
(6.5,
8-12)
is an
26
Aristotle, Pol. 1323a24-23b6.
27 In the
of verbs in the
only by means
Greek, the "they" is expressed
third-person plural.
28
trans. John Spauld
?mile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology,
here
he too takes him
is
cited
because
York:
Free
271,
Press,
1979),
ing (New
self to be making empirical claims.
29
Aristotle, Pol. 1323b6.
30
Ibid., 1323b8.
31
Ibid., 1323b7.
32Note Aristotle's
use of metriazousin
at ibid., 1323b4.
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LIFE
DEFENSEOF THETHEORETICAL
ARISTOTLE'S
a word
(al?theuei),
"truthing"
which
that the "mean" is objective
and knowable.33
implies
one
An opponent,
of
the
who
dedicate
perhaps
"many" citizens
to the pursuit
of money,
themselves
and fame,
could
power
object
intellectual
virtue
and
thus
a form
717
of
If it did not, then
that such a "mean" actually
exists.
by denying
"more" could well
substitute
for "better" and the external
could
goods
to
of
make
it
the
the
ladder
of
desire.
But
Aristotle
thereby
top rung
here
cuts
abruptly
off this possible
debate:
The best life, both for individuals separately and for a city is a life of vir
tue sufficiently
equipped with the resources needed to take part in virtu
ous actions.
With regard to those who dispute
this, we must
ignore
them in our present study, but investigate
them later.34
It is not
clear
why
Aristotle
suppresses
this
debate
or
to what
be referring.35
In any case, at the end o? Poli
to have secured
two propositions.
the
First,
to human beings must
in order to de
be determined
later passages
he might
seems
tics 7.1 Aristotle
best
life available
the best
life is the one
city.
Second,
in these principles
lived in virtue.
His confidence
be
should, however,
own
even
his
earlier
observation
that
tempered
by
"everyone"
though
would
the second,
and thereby
that they
agree with
acknowledge
to
not pursue
should
external
the exclusion
of virtue,
goods
they
the nature
termine
"seek
nonetheless
zens
suffer
remainder
of the
ideal
an unlimited
from moral weakness,
of the discussion.
excess
of them."
a fact
that will
In short, many
resonate
through
citi
the
II
Even
rather
than
if "everyone"
that the best
life
agrees
in the (endless
and unsatisfying)
quest
sort of virtue
it is not clear in what
such
is spent
in virtue
for money,
power
a life consists.
In
and fame,
are narrowed
Politics
7.2 the possibilities
to two: the political-practi
cal and the philosophical-theoretical.
after stating
that
Immediately
no
"it makes
small
difference
which
side has
the truth," Aristotle
abruptly
begins
a discussion
of despotism:
33
Aristotle, NE 1139bl5.
34
Aristotle, Pol. 1323b40-24a3.
35
Lord, ATP, 266, tentatively
suggests
Politics
"some
consider
7.13.
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that
the
DAVIDROOCHNIK
718
over
rule
despotic
while
political
one's
involves
the
greatest
injustice,
involve
is
nonetheless
injustice,
rule, even
an impediment
to one's own well-being."36
"Others hold nearly
the op
the practical
and political
life the only
opinion.
They consider
posite
one fitting for a man."37 As mentioned
Miller
relies on this pas
above,
sage to support his claim
life from the competition
the despotic
argument
to focus
neighbors
if it does not
that Aristotle
for
does
not
"best" because
the political
he distinguishes
it from
its potential
for virtue.
This
preserves
thereby
not least because
next move
is unconvincing
is
Aristotle's
life and
on the evils of tyranny,
exclusively
he says the following.
For example,
length.38
eliminate
which
he
does
at some
in most
in
laws are, so to speak, random,
Thus while
regimes most
some
one thing all (pantes) aim for
at
aim
those cases where
do
they
in Sparta and Crete education
For example,
and most
ruling (kratein).
of the laws have been devised with an eye to war. Furthermore,
among
the Thracians,
and
the Persians,
all those nations, such as the Scythians,
the Celts, which are capable of wanting more (dunamenois
pleonektei),
such power has been honored.39
The
pirical
claim?when
in mind,
purpose
Such
from pleonexia
and their continual
desire
a
As
into expansionist
consequence
policies.
are educated
in the art of war.40
primarily
regimes
drives
more
are haphazard,
but?and
this is an em
regimes
a specific
with
cities have organized
themselves
over others.
for domination
they "all" have aimed
of most
laws
citizens
suffer
to have
their
them
and may well
look like a
should be puzzling
passage
is whether
the practical-politi
all, the topic at hand
digression.
has
and yet Aristotle
life is best,
cal or the theoretical-philosophical
of tyrannical
One possi
gone into some detail on the nature
regimes.
This
bility,
lengthy
After
suggested
by his
claim
that all regimes
with
an organized
set of
laws "aim for ruling," is that he is here conflating the political with the
of course, would
deny this and, on the one hand,
Miller,
tyrannical.
an earlier point,
in
for his position.
there is support
First, to reiterate
Books
3 and 4 Aristotle
clearly distinguishes
legitimate political
re
36
Aristotle, Pol. 1324a33.
37
Ibid., 1324a35-40.
38See
also, ibid., 1324b3-25al5.
39Ibid., 1324b4-ll.
40For the
purpose of this paper there is no need to inquire into the his
clams about Sparta and Crete.
of Aristotle's
torical accuracy
See, however,
1271b2-6.
of Sparta in Pol., Book 2, especially
Aristotle's
earlier discussion
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LIFE
DEFENSEOF THETHEORETICAL
ARISTOTLE'S
does not offer
Aristotle
Second,
gimes from tyranny.
what
he?in
would
his own voice.
Reeve
Instead,
manner?attributes
"cagey" dialectical
to believe
that the
"who seem
719
in
this conflation
as
his
identify
it to "the many,"
since
it is they
is
the
But
the
despotic
political."41
error in judgment
an abstract
that offers
it
belief
is not merely
many's
are the
in dialectic.
the many
This
is because
self up as an exercise
citizens and so their belief that the "despotic is the political" is itself a
This implies
fact or reality.
political
have within
themselves
by the many,
that cities, constituted
a tendency
towards
as they are
expansion
the conquering
of their neighbors.
the fact that the many
believe
that the
To reformulate
this point:
an
on
is
the
is
extension
level of their
the political
despotic
political
in Politics
moral weakness
7.1. Recall
that Aristotle
uncovered
that
ism and
even
"everyone"
though
would
agree
that
subordinate
the best
life requires
virtue,
concern
about vir
a proper
"they" ("the many")
regularly
in their
tue to the pursuit
and fame. Bigger
of money,
is better
power
so
comes
to
when
the
is
deemed
the
and
it
eyes,
city, expansion
high
est good.
As a consequence
like their many
tend to
cities,
citizens,
wards
the disease
of moral weakness.
strive for more
They endlessly
and more,
in their ambitions.
become
excessive
inevitably
as a
is correct,
the following
formulated
argument,
from Politics
7.2 and can explain why
tollens, can be extracted
here treats tyranny at such length: if the practical
rather than
and
thus
If the above
modus
Aristotle
the
would
theoretical
follow
to be counted
life were
counted
as
the best
life for an
or Crete
that expansionist
cities
like Sparta
as the best regimes.
This they are not.
individual
would
it
have
the prac
Hence,
the best, and so the theoretical
life wins
the prize.
The
first premise
of the proposed
makes
argument
particularly
good
sense.
as best, then the horizon
If the practical
life were
counted
for
were
human
the
And
if
would
be
if
itself.
this
the
case,
city
activity
tical
life is not
there were
its activity
nothing
would
of itself.
pansion
If the practical
pansionist
consideration
a city could be guided,
itself by which
then
beyond
or ex
to the reproduction,
be restricted
extension
life were
counted
be best.
But this
regimes
are
not.
of why
they
41
Aristotle,
Pol.
as best,
then so too would
next
they are not. We move
1324b32.
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ex
to a
DAVIDROOCHNIK
720
III
like Sparta
and Crete
seek to conquer
their
Regimes
Because
their only purpose
is to get bigger,
they do so
This
is
where
they go wrong.
nately.
neighbors.
indiscrimi
Itwould be absurd ifwhat is despotic
and not despotic did not
nature.
if this is the case, there must be no attempt
Therefore,
over everybody,
but only those who are fit to be ruled. This
to
fact
that one ought not to hunt human beings for
the
gous
but ought to hunt only that which
is suited to this,
sacrifice,
those wild animals that are edible.42
exist by
to rule
is analo
food or
namely
are fit to be
is "by nature."
Just as some animals
here
key phrase
are
some
nature
fit
to
human
be
ruled.
eaten,
by
Therefore,
beings
are fit to be ruled.
In turn, this implies
not all human beings
that in its
to
the
in
dominate
unlimited
tyrannical
expansion,
regime,
seeking
a
to
the
natural
of
human
and so
is
blind
population
all,
heterogeneity
The
are contrary
harks
passage
to nature
and thereby unjust.
on behalf
to Aristotle's
of nat
argument
1 in which
in Politics
he claims
that the ruling-ruled
rela
ural slavery
nature.
exists
tionship
throughout
its actions
This
back
from many
In everything
that has been conjoined
one common
it comes from many
thing, whether
uous or divided, a ruler and ruled appears.
This
to living beings.
entirety of nature and belongs
present even in nonliving
things, like a chord.43
and comes to be some
things that are contin
is characteristic
of the
Indeed, some rule is
in living things
is
of the ruler-ruled
relationship
example
can
first of all study despotic
and
"one
soul and body:
that between
an
rules
with
in
For
the
soul
the
animal.
rule
body
despotic
political
so
the body,
animal
the soul commands
rule."44 Just as in a healthy
The
salient
slave.
commands
the natural
in a healthy
city the natural master
are benefited.
this is the essential
In such a case, both parties
Indeed,
a
must
slave:
he
be benefited
to
natural
which
criterion
by
identify
by
too
his
enslavement.45
receive
This
he
is because
he
is by nature
constituted
orders.
42
Ibid., 1324b36-41.
43
Ibid., 1254a28-33.
44
Ibid., 1254b4-5.
46See
also, ibid., 1254bl6-25.
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to
ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
721
For being able to use thought to see ahead is characteristic
of one who
rules and is master by nature, while being able to labor with the body is
of the one who
is ruled and is by nature a slave.
In this
characteristic
way, the interests of both master and slave are served.46
The
rational
of a natural
capacity
slave
is so
limited
to make
the foresight
decisions
for himself.
for him, which
is precisely
what
the master
so he benefits
the slave.
have
to think
that he does
He
needs
and
does,
not
someone
in doing
seems
to run obviously
afoul of our most
cher
argument
ished ideals of human
and equality.
But before
simply dismiss
dignity
as
it
and
the
critic
should first
offensively
anachronistically
elitist,
ing
consider
the role it plays in the argument.
Lear has noted
that because
This
"Aristotle
was
defense"
he was
the first
also
Ambler
makes
political
the first
to realize
thinker
a
that slavery needed
the very
institution
to problematize
of
the point more
that Ar
forcefully
by arguing
as a
based
defense
of natural
functions
slavery
slavery.47
istotle's
teleologically
as actually
in the Greek world.48
A standard
of slavery
found
critique
was
a
to
Greek
kill
the
and
indiscrimi
conquer
men,
practice
city,
women
as
as Ambler
take the
and children
slaves.
nately
Therefore,
master
"Aristotle's
natural
and
natural
stan
slave
establish
puts
it,
dards
which
This
very."49
the naturalness
deny rather than establish
contention
is reinforced
by the following
of actual
sla
passage:
There is both advantage
and affection between
the master and the slave
of these designations
when both are worthy
by nature. When master
in this way, when
slave are not determined
the relationship
exists by
convention
and has been instituted by force, the opposite
is the case.50
as natural,
a slave must not only be objec
To be properly
counted
but must
also feel some affection
for
tively benefited
by his master,
him. By contrast,
in the conventional
of actual Greek
practices
cities,
which
not
Aristotle
feel much
condition
of
implies
affection
being
are unjust,
slaves
masters.
for their
a natural
slave,
in war surely did
conquered
If affection
is a necessary
are certainly
then such beings
46
Ibid., 1251a31-3.
47 Jonathan
to Understand
Lear, The Desire
(hereafter DTU)
(Cam
bridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1988), 197.
48
"Aristotle on Nature and Politics: The Case of Slavery"
Wayne Ambler,
(hereafter ANP), Poltical
Theory 15 (1987): 390-410.
49
Ibid., 398.
50
Aristotle, Pol. 1255M3-15.
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DAVIDROOCHNIK
722
In fact, it is even possible
that Aristotle
intends
ca
slave out of existence.
After all, the rational
in number.
miniscule
to define
the natural
of the putative
natural
any sort of deliberation
pacity
clude
those
who
body,
a natural
analogy,
least,
given
being
slave
is not
criteria
would
whether
To sum up:
the future.
differs
Aristotle's
given population
himself wonders
about
to the same
differ
a human
and
seems
brains are damaged,
statement
reinforces
those whose
except
The following
are
slave
have
extent
from
to be
so
But
limited
as
all human
beings,
can do that.
this point:
"Slaves by nature
that the soul differs
from the
a beast."51
a real human
the number
to be extremely
one
On
the basis
of this
being at all. At the very
in any
of natural
slaves
small;
so small,
that he
exists.52
(tis) actually
"ifwhat
be absurd," Aristotle
asserts,
If there were
did not exist by nature."53
"Itwould
and not
to pre
is des
no dis
despotic
and lower human
there would
be no
between
beings,
higher
to unlimited
Because
the distinction
barrier
expansion.
conceptual
in any given
of
natural
slaves
because
the
number
does
exist
(and
potic
tinction
population
is extremely
small),
but only those who
"there must
be no attempt
to rule over
are fit to be ruled.54
everybody,"
leads Aristotle
of indiscriminate
This critique
expansionism
of the political
role of the military.
discussion
to a
that even though one must count all military pursuits as noble
telos o? all. Instead,
(kalas), they are not to be taken to be the highest
telos. Seeing how the city and the
they are for the sake of the highest
human species and every other community might share in the good life
to them is the task of the serious
that is available
and in the happiness
It is clear
(spoudaiou)
law-giver.55
51
Ibid., 1254M6-18.
52See
to Ambler (ANP), who
I owe this observation
also, ibid., 1254al7.
there are many such crea
says "I am not surprised that he asks not whether
tures but whether
there is any" (395). There is, unfortunately,
countervailing
stance on institutional
evidence
slavery.
(nonnatural)
concerning Aristotle's
of
For he seems to take it for granted that slaves are a necessary
component
Silvia Carli
and 1330a25. Also, as Professor
See 1329a25-6
the best city.
even suggests that freedom should be held out as
pointed out to me, Aristotle
that they are
is a clear indication
"a reward for all slaves" (1330a33), which
not
"natural."
53
Ibid., 1324b36-7.
54
Ibid., 1324b38.
55
Ibid., 1325a5-10.
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ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
723
to nothing
but expansion
and Crete are dedicated
like Sparta
culture
aim to train
and political
and so in them education
generally
the
there is no horizon
for war.
Because
the citizens
beyond
political,
an end in itself. As a result such regimes
war becomes
are, one might
Cities
since
say, Heraclitean,
such,
they are
will
"war
for them
is the father
in violation
of an essential
below:
"war is for the sake
be discussed
Aristotle
it is defensive
but only when
pursuit,
a
to have
will
its
citizens
allow
that
peace
ing
to live a life of virtue.58
in other words,
noble
again,
for Aristotle
sion,
theoretical
were
counted
of peace,
7.2 may
as the best.
they
an argument
remains
to disclose
itmore
fully.
Such
7.3 help
a "share
in the good
seem
that
life
and
for them war
But because
are not.
life";
like a digres
between
the
the debate
dropped
In fact, he hasn't.
If the practical
like Sparta
expansionist
regimes
this
As
of peace."57 War can be a
and in the service
of secur
to have
to be counted
have
for the sake
life is best.
itics
seem
may
lives.
and practical
as the best,
then
Crete would
is not
in Politics
this material
Once
of all things."56
one
precept,
the theoretical
Hence,
but remarks
implicit,
from Pol
IV
life as be
theoretical-philosophical
com
ties to the political
whose
"to the stranger
(ho xenikos)
it
to
makes
with
have been dissolved"
Solmsen
agree
tempting
Aristotle's
longing
munity
who
finds
description
the claim
that
of the
it is the best
determination
available
for a human
"un
being
in order
life is required
ideal city. But if the theo
of the best
First,
acceptable."59
to guide the conceptual
of the
construction
how
retical
life is that of the alienated
stranger,
this
plish
daimonia
task?
Second,
"happiness
while
praxis
estin),
Aristotle
anticipates
impractical.60
can
it possibly
accom
or praxis"
is activity
(he gar eu
theoretical
life seems
utterly
such objections
and then begins
to
the
56
B53. H. Diels, Die Fragmente
Heraclitus,
Kranz (Berlin, 1961).
57
Aristotle, Pol. 1333a35.
58Ibid. 1325a8.
59IbkC 1324al7; Solmsen, LPA, 195.
60
Ibid, 1325a32
der Vorsokratiker,
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Rev. W.
724
counter
them
that his
by claiming
critics
DAVIDROOCHNIK
misunderstand
the nature
of
praxis.
But the practical
life need not be in relationship
to other
(praktikon)
human beings, as some think it must, nor should only those kinds of
thoughts that come to be for action and for the sake of what results be
counted as practical
But much more
[practical] are those
(praktikas).
that are autotelic
and the kinds of theory (theo
thoughts
(autoteleis)
For the telos is good praxis
rias) that are for the sake of themselves.
so that it is some sort o? praxis.61
(eupraxia),
There
are two
senses
of "praxis" and its derivatives.
or ethical
that is "towards
activity
to political
in
other words,
beings";
more
broad, and refers
fers
only
from metabolic
ality,
seem
"active" may
tion VII below,
this
be resisted.
As we
senses
other
human
that
is essentially
social.
The second
is far
a potenti
to all forms of activity,
of actualizing
to
is not di
Even
if
it
functioning
theorizing.
theoretical
rectly political,
in
this
As
cal"
latter sense.
as
re
The first
activity
such,
tempting.
temptation,
shall see,
can
as
surely be counted
translation
Kraut's
oipraktikos
to be discussed
For reasons
"practi
here
in sec
while
should nonetheless
reasonable,
the theoretical
life is "practical"
in both
of the word.
In any
case,
Aristotle
goes
even
further:
is an
which
theorizing,
is "much more"
than conven
end-in-itself,
practical
(jpolu motion)
tional political
This
is
somewhat
activity.
description
mysterious.62
Kraut goes so far as to say that "unfortunately,
Aristotle's
arguments
are marred
to
of
his
failure
face
the
by
question
squarely
precisely
it is to be
what
means
that
man
"theorizing"
This is at least
capacities.
chean Ethics
nou
10 when
energeia), which
highest
sistent
form
It is likely, however,
the maximum
represents
of human
he
says
seems
the claim
that
here
actualization
he makes
for
"the actualization
to be theoretical
of hu
it inNicoma
of mind
(he
ton
(th&oretik?)" is the
and virtue.64
activity,
happiness
of the development
with
the description
inMetaphysics
1.1-2
he presents
Book
edge
next briefly
that Aristotle
active."63
It is also
of theoretical
and
to which
turn.
61
Ibid., 1325bl6-21.
62
Ibid., 1325M9.
63
Kraut, APB, 73.
64Aristo?e,MF1177bl9.
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con
knowl
we
shall
ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
The
and then devel
of knowing
begins with perceptions,
in the attain
until it culminates
and "experience"
memory
process
ops through
ment
of knowledge.
Differently
to an understanding
of particulars
the cause
ing "that" to knowing
from
emerged
these similar
draws
Aristotle
from awareness
it progresses
stated,
from simply know
of the universal;
or the "why."
Aristotle
"Knowledge,"
to be whenever
"comes
explains,
725
universal
Relevant
to our
experience
things."65
between
from
one
those
who
many
that
thoughts
conception
here
inquiry
have
knowledge,
and those
o? the cause,
have
about
emerges
is the distinction
so can offer
and
are merely
who
limited to
is
and whose
thereby
purview
(hoi empeiroi)
"experienced"
to "acting" (pros
When
it comes
"the particulars"
(ton kath'hekaston).
are
in the
men
fluent
to prattein)
because
the latter, precisely
they
more
"succeed
often"
may
epituncha
actually
(mallon
particulars,
"a rational
account"
(logon)
own ex
Aristotle's
by updating
someone
the pain of many
who
has experienced
headaches,
ample:
a
advise
from taking aspirin, may well
and then the relief that came
than
nousin)
friend
may
hence
whose
To explain
the former.66
head
to do
hurts
the
same.
her
recommendation
and
for why
itworked,
she has no explanation
does.
Nonethe
The physician,
by contrast,
of anatomy may
with a firm grasp of the science
But
actually work.
no real knowledge.
a physician
in
because
treating a patient precisely
goof up
ized and thus only an incidental manifestation
less,
And
even
useful
may be more
Experience
with
real
dealing
people.67
concedes
this limitation
Aristotle
ture.
of
uine
knowledge
cious and "practical"
the universal
who
They
than universal
but nonetheless
is superior
to even
is particular
struc
general
when
knowledge
insists
that gen
the most
effica
of experience.
On this point he cites the
to develop
the first
pure or theoretical
a critical
to introduce
able to do so because,
forms
were
priests
Egyptian
mathematics.
They were
word
that will
be discussed
(scholazein).68
the patient
of a more
were
shortly,
"counted
they were
as wonderful
allowed
by
"leisure"
others"
not
65
981a5-7.
The Greek
Aristotle, Metaphysics
(hereafter Metaph.),
word for "knowledge"
in this passage
is techne, which
is not used here in the
narrow sense of "productive
in Nicomachean
that it receives
knowledge"
Ethics
6.
66Ibid,981al4-16.
67See
also, Aristotle,
68Ibid,981b25.
Metaph.
981a5-bl.
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726
DAVID ROOCHNIK
because
"done" anything
but simply
because
they had
useful,
they
were
"wiser."69
Theoretical
conse
is
not
for
any
good
knowledge
or specific
itmay generate,
but simply
in and of it
quence
application
actualization
of human
nature.
"It is clear that
self, as the complete
we
do not
seek
such
that
someone
free,
so of the forms
who
knowledge
is for the
for any other
sake
of himself
of knowledge
need; but just as we say
and not for another
is
this sort alone
is free."70
To sum up this line of thought: in both Nicomachean
and Metaphysics
an end in itself
practical
pacity.
more
critic
even
activity
if it cannot
is described
be
(praktikos)
we
in mind,
than
any
can
return
as autotelic.
10
It is
to produce
applied
overtly
ca
actualization
of human
it is the most
results,
complete
a theoretical
In this sense,
life could
"practical"
this result
With
1 theoretical
and
Ethics
other
be
form
construed
as much
of human
to Politics
who
activity.
the
Against
is neither
active
7.3.
would
that the theoretical
life
complain
to guide
the conceptual
construction
of the best possible
are ethical
or politi
Aristotle
that
not
all
forms
o?
city,
argues
praxis
in
cal and that
fact the theoretical
life is the highest
form o? praxis.71
To supplement
to elaborate
this conclusion,
and to begin
its conse
nor
able
quences,
he next
offers
the following:
that have been established
Cities
with
to themselves
respect
to
kath'antas
in
and
have
chosen
live
this
way do not have
poleis)
inactive (apraktein).
For it is possible
that [being active] occurs
gard to their parts.72
This
statement
is in keeping
with
an earlier
comment
Aristotle
(tas
to be
in re
had
made:
in manifest
could be
governs
single city, the one which
fineness,
if it is possible
for a city to
happy with respect to itself (kath'heaufen),
live by itself (kath'heaut?n)
using decent laws. Its form of government
would not be directed towards war or domination
of its enemies.73
A
69Ibid,981bl5.
70Ibid,982b24-7.
71Kraut
in saying that "Aristotle does not empha
(APB) is thus wrong
size the point that philosophical
thought ismore active than others pursuits;
that is, he does not turn this point into an argument for the superiority
of phi
His modest
losophy, as he does in other works.
goal is to show that the
to the criticism that it is inactive" (74).
life is not vulnerable
philosophical
72
Aristotle, Pol. 1325b23-6.
73
Ibid, 1325al^.
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727
ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
consist
city is like an organic whole
self-contained,
nonaggressive
a
set of dynamically
and mutually
parts. As
interacting
enabling
ing of
even
more
a
as
can
than
bit
it
be
so,
every
active,
city that de
such,
A
votes
to expansion
its borders.74 Aristotle
its energy
beyond
strikingly
can
a
to
cities
be
"with
respect
metaphysical
phrase
explain:
employs
a city
In other words,
hautas).75
a
mode
of
characterized
namely
being
to themselves"
(kath
can
be
like a
by the high
does not depend
substance
(ousia);
A substance
est degree
of ontological
independence.
a quality
on any other
for
its
By contrast,
category
being.
(such as
on there being a substance
it
depends
(such as tree) in which
green)
a
In an analogous
substance-like
inheres.
attain
would
fashion,
city
and
self-sufficiency
and economic
logical
that of
quence
remain
substance,
they are doomed
To push
a substance,
to stay within
its political
borders
reflect onto
expansionist
regimes
over
elevate
the
of
they wrongly
category
quantity
over
a
conse
the finite.
As
and thus the infinite
limits.
confusion:
content
By
contrast,
to catastrophe.76
even further,
the best
this thought
but both the cosmos
city
emulates
not only
and god as well.
are with respect to each other in their political
For many communities
can be achieved
parts. And in a similar vein this condition
by a single
human being.
For [if this were not so] then god could not be in a lei
nor could the whole
because
cosmos,
surely and fine condition
they
in addition
to those that belong
have no external
actions
to them
selves.77
seems
or an individual
to be this: if a community
could
argument
nor
a
be "itself with
to
in
substantial
whole
which
respect
itself,"
one
as a maximally
then
understood
rules
part
another,
god,
The
not
74To borrow
it ismore like an energeia
language from the Metaphysics:
than a kinesis.
See 1048b28.
75In the
this phrase is said to refer to the essence of a being
Metaphysics
(1022a26).
76Silvia
that this statement
Carli suggests
conflicts with the notion that
both citizens and cities suffer from moral weakness,
for here I state that they
In other words,
"wrongly" elevate the category of quantity over substance.
that Aristotle
is convinced
they seem not to know better.
Recall, however,
that "everyone" would agree that the best life requires virtue. Therefore
the
"confusion" I here attribute to cities is a component
of the complex and con
flicted condition
that characterizes
moral weakness.
The arguments
against
are so "easy" to make that even regimes like Sparta and Crete
expansionism
would upon hearing them know they should change their ways; even if they
don't.
77
Aristotle,
Pol.
1325b23-30.
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DAVIDROOCHNIK
728
to itself
either.
But
respect
being, could not be "itself with
an
or a city
is this. Therefore,
it is possible
for
individual
god certainly
also to be in this condition,
namely
limited,
localized,
well-functioning
actualized
same argument
to the cosmos.
Since nothing
applies
can
to
it
be
active
with
itself.
Because
the
it,
respect
only
world
is characterized
level of ontological
self
by this consummate
so
can
a
too
to
self-suffi
sufficiency,
city aspire
(and should)
political
on
rather than the expansion
of their power.
The same holds
ciency
and happy.
is beyond
the level
The
that greater and greater amounts
or fame constitute
of money
is fundamental
happiness
self-deception.
to
the
best
is
become
like god or even the
Instead,
substance-like,
goal
world
The best human
life is one that stays at home
itself.78
and
works
of the
hard
tries
individual.
to develop
to gain
character
And
spotlight.
As explained
activity.
is the most
"divine" and
it can function
such,
and without
structed
political
and virtue
the
tinually
work
is theoretical
the theoretical
Believing
as a the model
a doubt
life for title of the
wins
rather
than
one
the maximum
inNicomachean
"self-sufficient"
by which
the contest
the best
against
that con
form
of
Ethics
of
lives.79
this
10,
As
city is con
the practical
"best."
V
As
Aristotle
ample,
Greek
enough
if he understands
turns
it must
have
and
stock,
is enough.
sure
that
these
to concrete
next
decent
so on.
So,
there
be too abstract,
might
of the ideal city. For ex
be of
sea, its citizens must
arguments
descriptions
access
to the
all else,
the best city knows
when
for example,
it vigilantly
monitors
its popula
nor too few. A
are neither
too many
citizens
Above
tion, making
since
it should be ruled by law,
populous,
city must not be excessively
if
too
it
and this becomes
pro
gets
big. Furthermore,
unmanageable
more
too many
will
to
must
lead
be limited because
creation
people
a city be too
Nor must
which
in turn leads to instability.80
poverty,
78Rmi Brague, The Wisdom
of the World, trans. Teresa Fagan (Chicago:
as
on the theme of cosmology
of Chicago Press, 2003) ismasterful
University
ethics.
79
Aristotle, NE 1177al5, 1177b28 and 1177a27.
80
assumes
that "the rich are every
Aristotle, Pol. 1265b9-12. Aristotle
where few and the poor many" (Pol. 1279b37-8
).
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LIFE
DEFENSEOF THETHEORETICAL
ARISTOTLE'S
like a work
for
small,
cannot
of art, it must
if it is does not have
achieve
be beautiful
and
729
fine,
sufficient
it
qualities
In general,
magnitude.
is of course without
great "by number," which
a meaningful
to generate
telos, but by its "ca
for excellent
its capacity
activity.81
specifically,
case
is
with ani
"as
the
the following
comparison:
a city does not become
unable
limit and hence
(dunamin);
pacity"
offers
Aristotle
its own
achieve
few
are
beings
potentiality
or ten miles
wide
inches
to the magnitude
of a city there
will
not
For
each
of
these
(metron).
if it is too small or too big."82 A ship only a
it comes
tools, when
proper measure
and
mals,
plants
is a certain
really a ship.
Similarly,
and attained
have matured
is not
long
when
they
a city
big enough
More
specifically,
living
their
it is self-suf
is big enough when
to
that allow
most
the
able
conditions
important,
provide
and,
to
or at least some of them, to achieve
their excellence,
the citizens,
As we will see in the
live "in leisure and freely and with moderation."83
form.
proper
ficient
two
next
the best city
to theorize.
sections,
the free time
have
that
size
use
earlier
to make
final way
it can be
One
"easily
of kath
heauWn,
is big enough
"look" of a thing
Its boundaries
be form-like.
the
not
cific place;
as
seen
be of such a
this point: a good city must
as a whole"
Like the
(eusunopton).M
this word
sum
for
indefinite
government
is strictly
peace.
litical
a
a comparison
with
translated
is usually
suggests
eidos, which
from
as a whole.
must
the verb
A properly
it shape by
give
too small, but just what
"to see"
scaled
limiting
it takes
literally
city should
it to a spe
to be easily
a whole.
To
aim
which
too big, not
of its citizens
seen
basic metaphysical
concept;
namely,
as "form," but because
it is derived
means
some
when
up: Aristotle's
with
"ideal"
and
growth,
an eye towards
defensive,
for
city
so does
domination
it understands
size, does not
to order
its form of
is of moderate
not
need
of
its enemies.
that war
is for
81
Ibid.,
82
Ibid.,
83
Ibid.,
84
Ibid.,
sake
this principle
goes to the heart of Aristotle's
it
is
with
another,
Furthermore,
coupled
regularly
turn: lack-of-leisure
is for the sake of leisure.
As mentioned,
teaching.
we now
Its army
the
1326al2.
1326a35-8.
1326b31-2.
1327al.
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of
po
to
DAVID ROOCHNIK
730
VI
in 7.13-15
make
it clear
that the
arguments
closing
over
wins
the competition
the practical
theoretical
life, for it is the
to human
best available
Aristotle
the
by reconsidering
beings.
begins
as "the complete
nature of happiness,
which
is here defined
actualiza
Aristotle's
aretes
and is the goal of both the
(energeian
teleian),
and the best city.85 In this context,
he divides
the soul
best individuals
one
into two parts: one that has reason
and
that
is
of
capable
(logos)
reason
itself is divided
into its "practical"
it.86 Next,
(prakti
obeying
tion
of virtue"
(theUr?tikos)
kos) and the theoretical
in which
result in a tripartite
hierarchy
cle of the activity
of the soul.
These
dimensions.87
reason
theoretical
divisions
is the pinna
Soul
A
Obeys
Reason
Has
Reason
1.
A
Practical
Theoretical
2.
3.
Miller
and Kraut, there
Solmsen,
Reeve,
the theoretical
that Aristotle
champions
it.
would
the following
passage
dispel
Pace
doubt
were,
is now
life.
no reason
Even
to
if there
stand in an analogous
fashion [to the
shall say that actions (praxeis)
that belong
sketched
Those are more choiceworthy
hierarchy
above].
to what is better by nature for those who are able to attain them either
is most choice
all or two of them. For it is always the case that what
can attain.88
is the highest which someone
worthy
We
initially
as a whole
appears
must
be divided
or even
in yet
digressive,
lack-of-leisure
Aristotle
too
into
and war
sure
(scholia),
for the sake of the
sequences,
choppy
remarks,
these
after making
Immediately
that
for
and peace."89
latter. This mention
it is a decisive
85
Ibid., 1332a9.
86
Compare
Ibid., 1333al6-7.
and 1102a25-1103a3.
87
Aristotle, Pol. 1333a25
88
Ibid., 1333a27-30.
89
Ibid., 1333a30-l.
feature
similar
In each
of
of Aristotle's
distinctions
"life
asserts,
(ascholia)
the former
pair
leisure has
move
another
and
lei
must
be
significant
conception
found
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
in NE
con
of the
1098a3
LIFE
DEFENSEOF THETHEORETICAL
ARISTOTLE'S
731
it is integral to his account
of the theoretical
important,
men
in
when
had leisure
1, only
Metaphysics
explained
(as
and so be
did in Egypt) were
"wonder"
they able to experience
life. Most
best
life.
As
they
to ask
provoked
Because
answers
drive
"why" questions
world
of
particularized
are
latter
at some
stand
As a result,
it
"when
"experience."91
to prattein),
those with
knowl
"causal"
inferior to those with only "experience."92
in the particulars;
the former,
living in leisure,
(pros men
are often
to acting"
of universals
edge
The
scientific
inquiry.90
begin
to
and not readily applicable
from
the questioner
the
away
"why" questions
to them are universal
the particulars,
busy,
comes
that
the
fluent
from
distance
the responsibilities,
dis
preoccupations,
of daily
(ascholia)
and general
busyness
polit
ruptions,
interruptions,
life.93 They are "strangers,"
because
ical or social
precisely
they are
with universals,
of which
has value only "for it
concerned
knowledge
the
self."94
Nonetheless,
In Nicomachean
why
the
Among
we can
life
them
do
life they
lead
is the best
of all.
Ethics
offers
10.7, Aristotle
in
the
is
spent
happiest
theorizing
are these:
(1) We can theorize more
else.
anything
is most
(2) Theorizing
is, it has the least need
numerous
reasons
and most
virtuous.
than
continuously
pleasant.
of external
(3)
It is
or
goods
own
the
is
loved
for
its
only activity
(4) Theorizing
no gain other
than itself.
These
characteristics
sake, for it produces
are encapsulated
most
it
is
Leisure
is per
by (5):
activity
leisurely.95
most
human
that
self-sufficient;
assistants.
formed
clock.
come.96
in the absence
As
such,
Only
of external
it is as
in leisure
close
can
constraint
to
the
"free
search
and without
time"
an eye
as human
for knowledge
to the
ever
beings
of "causes,"
90
982b20.
Aristotle, Metaph.
91Ibid,981al7.
92
It is, of course, vital here to remember
that Aristotle's
Ibid, 981al3.
of "cause" embraces
the final and the formal, not just the effi
conception
cient.
93 In order to
is composed
the fact that ascholia
of an alpha
emphasize
on
and
thus
for
its
it
is
very meaning
privative,
depends
schol?,
important to
like "business" or "occupation" as translations.
avoid words
94Kraut's
as "alien" is too narrow, for it
of xenikos
(APB) translation
in
is
that
what
has
Aristotle
mind
suggests
simply a non-citizen.
95See
NE
1177a23-bl5.
also, Aristotle,
96Recall that "it is clear that we do not seek
for any
such knowledge
other need; but just as we say that someone who is for the sake of himself
and not for another
is free, so of the forms of knowledge
this sort alone is
free" (Aristotle, Metaph.
982b24-7).
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732
DAVID ROOCHNIK
rather
Such
than merely
theorizing
to get something
done,
of human
Aristotle
activity.
how
learning
is the telos
take
place.
expresses
this point by adding two more reasons on behalf of theorizing; (6) it
actualizes
is most
what
divine
in fact are, namely
ings
To be most
think
about
in us; (7) it actualizes
or intellect.97
rather
universals
from, to be a "stranger"
somehow
the human,
beyond
famously described
to be most
merely
an understanding
is to seek
human
rated
In short,
what
human
be
(6) and (7) may seem to contradict one another, they do
Although
not.
mind
to
than particulars.
It is thus to be sepa
or political;
the
it is
to,
commonplace
for it is to emulate
the divine
is
(which
12.9 as "thought thinking itself)
inMetaphysics
is to cease,
human
of the cosmos,
as much
as possible,
to be
human.
To state
the central
of the next
contention
seem
itself to be entirely
may
be
reinforced
ally
by practical-political
good for a city to have philosophers
which
abstract
this argument,
or theoretical,
can actu
section:
considerations.
in itwho
It is ultimately
engage
in theorizing.
VII
Recall that in part (4) above itwas mentioned
states
that
"much more
[practical]
are
those
that when Aristotle
and the kinds of theory (theorias)
telic' (autoteleis)
that are
thoughts
'auto
that are for the
to join Kraut
in translating
temptation
(the
as "active" rather than "practical"
is strong.98 After
implicit) praktikos
at work
in the passage
is that of an actualiza
all, the sense o? praxis
a word which
tion of a capacity.
connotes
Nonetheless,
"practical,"
sake
of themselves,"
the
This section will explain why.
activity, was preferred.
political
an individual
A fundamental
obtains
between
citizen
symmetry
the
and the city: both share the same telos and are governed
by
princi
and of lack-of-leisure
leisure."99 An indi
ple, "the telos of war is peace,
vidual
to
requires
theorize.
peace
in order
leisure
in order
Analogously,
that its best
to live well; most
in order
important,
a good
aim to maintain
the
city should
citizens
can be free
from
the
least
97See
also, Aristotle, NE 1177b30 and 1178a2.
98
Aristotle, Pol. 1325M6-7.
1334al5-6.
"Ibid.,
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leisurely
LIFE
DEFENSEOF THETHEORETICAL
ARISTOTLE'S
of all activities,
a city to achieve
"military
namely
this goal itmust
be
and
must
show
law-abiding
be courageous
in order
tions
ciently
patient
to engage
in political
to resist those who urge
in order
consequences?and
of the citizens'
must
citizens
and be well
deliberation,
the city to attack
its neigh
it
is
however,
during peace
Distressingly,
In a brief statement
the
echoes
moral
edgement
for
the city is attacked
they
on their armor and hold their posi
there is peace
be suffi
they must
to put
enough
to defend
it. When
that
In order
When
moderation.
disciplined
enough
its borders.
bors or expand
that the trouble begins.101
ing
and political
actions."100
The
itself be virtuous.
733
weakness
that has
equally
in Politics
terribly sober
acknowl
sobering
7.1 (see
section
says this:
(1) above)?Aristotle
while
For war forces men to be just and moderate,
leisure makes
them more
good fortune and peaceful
(hubristas).102
the enjoyment
of
violently arrogant
as both may be, peace
and leisure are nearly
desirable
intrinsically
men
cannot
for most
to sustain,
tolerate
them.
impossible
Especially
are
who
and
be
those with
ambitious,
desires,
strong
high-spirited
amuse
come restless.
to
and the self
lack the ability
themselves
They
As
discipline
to use
required
commands,
they don't
come
With
ill-at-ease.
start pointless
another
They
curs
the
ments
thereby
misconstrue
their
themselves
hands
they get bored.
oc
this regularly
and do stupid things.
That
of
the
that
disease
Aristotle
expression
locates
to the pursuit
energy
the very meaning
of wealth,
power,
of their own lives.
or fame
are
They
of appreciating
the gift of leisure
and so they disturb
are far better behaved
In fact, most
when
young men
they
in uniform.
fashion
on
at
was
life and which
human
and political
dis
ordinary
of this paper: most
first two sections
and
cites
people
even when
the source
of their own happiness
"easy" argu
are available
to show
that they are being wrong-headed.
They
their best
peace.
to do with
time
by external
and so be
in the
devote
capable
what
too much
Unconstrained
of
heart
mistake
know
time well.
fights
is yet
cussed
free
and
Military
to take
and
in
the
are
to act
forces
them
in a moderate
discipline
heed
of the common
rather
than simply
good
100
Aristotle, NE 1177b5-6.
101
As Kraut (APB) puts it, "Paradoxically,
although war endangers
lives and freedom, peace and abundance
pose greater threats" (144).
102
Aristotle, Pol. 1334a25-8.
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our
734
DAVID ROOCHNIK
own
their
indulging
pleasures.
War
is for the sake
men
but most
sure,
is available.
apy
violent
impulses
of peace,
can
tolerate
For when
peace
to
of his
But
oneself
the philosopher
well.
His activity
tells
ternal
them what
to do.
Not
(pros
It provides
or at least
teaches,
shows,
and his healthy
indifference
"human being
is not the best
to keep him
to be studied,
constraint
in its invitation
from
the
is almost
how
to
to or
thing in
the high
or violent
if no
reason
is not
restless
the philosopher.
in line because
lei
ther
t?n schol?n)
a paradigm
leisure"
affairs reveal that
political
in turn implies
the world," which
that practical
est form of reason.104
Most
become
people
of
But
the philosopher
himself
separates
fellow
In this one sense he
citizens.
dinary
one
time.
the world
ordinary
doings
like a criminal.
separate
is for the sake
free
own
their
seeking
nor
and valuable.103
required
leisure well.
In studying
selfishly
lack-of-leisure
neither
it "comes
is both
philosophy
for how to use
or
ex
not need
He does
the world,
inexhaustible
as
a
source
of wonder
present
is always
and amazement.
and being amazed that human beings
For it is on account of wondering
both now and at first began to philosophize.
At first, they were amazed
and wondered
about those oddities
that were staring them in the face,
and then little by little they progressed
and became puzzled by greater
for example,
about the changing attributes
of the moon and
questions;
of the whole.105
the sun and stars, and about the becoming
The
world
is wonderful,
For
those who
beautiful,
use
their
intellects,
or
fame.
than
power
money,
Only philosophy,
greater
can satisfy
even the most
restless
of souls.
of the world,
coming.
These
tics
2.7.
remarks
He
for the sake
of pleasure
exia
and
. there
the
acts
"fulfilling
Aristotle
of
injustice
of desire,"
thought) to acquire necessary
such wrong-doers,
to enjoy
"who wish
one
some
that
and
For
is only
to a comment
back
first mentions
Phaleas mistakenly
shelter.
hark
cure:
and wel
nourishing
it promises
intelligible,
rewards
the theorizing
makes
in Poli
are committed
and not
just
(as
goods like food or
are prompted
by their own pleon
. .
for the sake of themselves
themselves
who
philosophy."106
Because
the
103
Ibid., 1334a23.
104
Aristotle, NE 1141a21-2.
105
982M2-7.
Aristotle, Metaph.
106
Aristotle, Pol. 1267all-2.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
strong
and
ARISTOTLE'S DEFENSE OF THE THEORETICAL LIFE
the
of such
desires
restless
only philosophy,
them a suitable
offers
alienation,
the money,
offers
and
power
them
has
which
community,
their
criminals
the entire world
bear
Philosophers
some
them from
already
"separated"
in
them to continue
allows
and
they would
as an object
fame
replacement
satisfying
otherwise
seek to acquire.
for theoretical
inquiry.
to criminals,
similarity
and
leisure to being-busy,
Preferring
marginalized.107
out of the realms
of politics
735
and war,
out
of
for
they
therefore
for
It
too are
opting
the
for
competition
But their alienation
strangers.
fame, they become
a
In do
For they think, they theorize.
is simultaneously
completion.
as a paradigm
of how to use leisure well.
function
ing so philosophers
in the city
that the too familiar
urge to succeed
They are reminders
money,
than
rather
hibit
and
power
a telos
to pursue
ex
Philosophers
there would
be nothing
which
activity, without
of the same; without
but more
for human
to want
for humans
is wrong-headed.
excellence
to say when
which
it would
be
is enough.
This
is their "practical"
to
of
the city. By being
the
well
contribution,
indirect,
being
of the city at the same time they show the citi
both inside and outside
zens that, however
the
be to their local community,
tied they may
borders.
world
is much
than that given to them by their national
bigger
impossible
enough
however
If there were
and Crete
are
no philosophers,
then
would
have to be counted
like Sparta
regimes
of all. And this they
not.
To
conclude:
read
theoretical
Reeve
and Solmsen,
Politics
Miller,
7,
a
even
if implicit,
and decisive,
sustained
provides
life. Furthermore,
it does so on
of the theoretical
pace
in its entirety,
on behalf
argument
both
expansionist
as the best
Kraut,
and practical
grounds.
Boston
University
107
associate with characters
like Alcibiades,
By having Socrates
and Charmides,
this is a point that Plato regularly makes.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Critias