✍Writing the
Research Paper✍
A Guide for Northern Valley Students
Prepared by Charles Cook, Brian Hanson-Harding, & William Menza
with the assistance of the Northern Valley Regional High School English Faculties
Revised 1997 by Brian Hanson-Harding
Northern Valley Regional High School District
William Menza, District English Supervisor
Office of Curriculum and Instruction
162 Knickerbocker Road
Demarest, New Jersey 07627
Dr. Edward Ciccoricco, Director
©
Northern Valley Regional High School District 1989,1992,1997
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Table of Contents
(Click on any section heading on this page.)
Introduction
Types of Research Papers
Research Procedure
Topic and Thesis
Taking Notes
Outlining
Plagiarism
Writing the Paper
Quoting and Paraphrasing
Works Cited
Electronic Sources
Notes
Manuscript Format
Basis of Evaluation: A Checklist for Student Writers
Sample Page
Introduction
O
.K., we admit it. Writing a research paper can seem scary, difficult, and
complicated. But we don't make you do it just to torture you. We ask you to do
it so that when you leave high school, you will have the basic tools you need to
present an original idea to the academic community and to be taken seriously when
you do so.
Yes, there are lots of details and lots of rules. But if you follow them, people will more
readily consider the ideas you present, and they'll be able to check out your sources
easily and quickly.
The approach you take in doing a research paper is the same that scientists and
thinkers in all fields use when they attempt to describe the world as truthfully as
they know how, and it is in this way that they arrive at new knowledge. The
research paper format is the language of intellectual truth: impartial as is
humanly possible, precise, and logical.
When you finish your research paper, you will be joining hundreds of other former
students from Northern Valley, some of whom now, as research scholars, are
contributing to our knowledge of the world. If you choose your topic carefully, you
should learn something of personal value and also sharpen your ability to organize
your ideas and your time.
This guide outlines and gives examples of the various steps you must take to
complete a research paper: selecting a topic, finding research material, collecting
information and taking notes, organizing notes and outlines, writing the paper
itself, and properly documenting your research. We hope that reading this guide and
referring to it as you work on your paper will make the process easier for you.
The Northern Valley Regional High School English Faculties
*The authors acknowledge the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers for several examples
excerpted for the Handbook.
Types of Research Papers
There are two basic types of research projects you may be assigned: a factual (or
informational) paper, in which you must gather and organize facts to develop your
thesis; and (primarily in an English class) a critical (or argumentative) paper,
which calls on you to make evaluative and analytical judgments in order to develop
and prove your thesis.
An example of a factual thesis would be the following: "Mark Twain's experiences on
the Mississippi River were the source of much of the material he used for the setting
of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn." This type of thesis requires only factual
material to prove it.
A critical thesis would be the following: "Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man and the
Sea and John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men share a common outlook; both works
portray man as a relatively weak creature trapped in a struggle with nature and
society, a struggle he will inevitably lose, but one from which he will learn and
grow." Such a thesis requires you to prove, by reference to the novels themselves
and by citations of the opinions of acknowledged authorities (which you will find in
the course of your research) that this outlook is an important theme in the two
works. Since this type of thesis requires a thematic analysis of the novels, it is more
demanding than the first type. (See Topic and Thesis)
Once you have decided on a topic and know what type of paper you will be writing,
you are ready to begin the process in earnest. Think of the process in terms of
three basic sections:
1) research and note-taking,
2) organizing and outlining, and
3) writing and editing.
Your first step, therefore, is to proceed to the library to begin your research.
Research Procedure
Although your teachers want you to work hard on your research ,project, we
do not want you to spend a lot of time "spinning your wheels" in wasted effort. To
insure that you complete your paper , efficiently, you must develop a research plan
which matches your topic and the resources available in local libraries.
Suggestions for doing research
1. Choose a sensible topic to make the research process a smooth and rewarding one.
2. If you do not have the ability to travel to larger libraries, select a topic which
can be investigated in our local libraries. Also, ask your school librarian about
inter-library loans.
3. Take the time to become acquainted with the periodicals and materials stocked
by local and school libraries.
4. Once you have chosen a topic, quickly check the card catalogue to gauge whether
book-length works have been produced about your topic.
5. If no book-length works have been produced on your topic, examine the library's
periodical collection.
6. Use the general rule of thumb: Older and more prominent topics or authors can be
researched through the card catalog (accessible through any computer in the school),
while more recent topics should be pursued through periodicals.
7. An encyclopedia may be used to generate "leads" when researching a topic
about which you know little, but should not be used as a source.
Some helpful resources
The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, The Book Review Digest, The New York
Times Index, Contemporary Literary Criticism, Contemporary Authors, The Essay
and General Literature Index, the Infotrac computer for articles in periodicals, and
the LePac computer for books in other libraries
Topic and Thesis
I. Narrowing a Topic
It is natural to begin thinking in broad terms, but remember, you're not writing a
book. Expect to narrow a topic several times. For example, note how we have
narrowed the following topic:
American Authors
American Realists
Mark Twain
Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn
Autobiographical elements in Huckleberry Finn
Don't give in to the temptation of keeping a topic broad so that you'll have plenty of
easily-available information. A good paper will develop a limited topic fully and
specifically.
II. The Importance of Thesis
No single group of words will have more bearing on everything else in your
paper than will the thesis. You should be able to apply the "because" test to every
level of your paper; every fact and statement must support the thesis, directly or
indirectly.
✑ A thesis is like the foundation of a house.
Think of the thesis as the foundation of a house; you can't build a sound
structure unless you design and establish a firm foundation; furthermore, the nature
and dimensions of the thesis will determine those of a paper just as the size and
shape of the foundation determine the final shape of a house.
III. The Process of Formulating a Thesis
You must not churn out a thesis quickly and be done with it; you must
consider your thesis carefully, rethink it, rephrase it, and rework it until every single
word is perfect, and do this consistently throughout the process of writing your
paper. Remember, every other word in your paper depends on it.
✑ Let your thesis develop as you do research.
A. Do Reading First
Preliminary reading plays a very important role in developing a thesis: You
must know what you are talking about, you must know what there is to talk about,
and you must know what kind of information is available for you to use.
B. Choose a Thesis You Can Prove
Once you know something about the information available to you, think about
what sort of statement to make about it. Remember, a research paper is merely a
long, documented essay; the thesis of a research paper or an essay is like the topic
sentence of a paragraph; it must make a statement that is not only provable but
calls for proof: It cannot be a statement of common knowledge, nor can it be any
wild, extravagant idea that strikes your imagination.
✑ limited topic + point of view = thesis
To be provable, a thesis must be a statement. Begin with a topic. Limit the
topic to reasonable bounds, and add a point of view; make it say something.
C. Developing A Thesis
Don't look for a ready-made thesis in your reading, formulate it as you read.
It should be a product of your own thinking.
✎ Ask yourself questions
The following are examples of a thesis in progressive stages of development
and the questions that helped to narrow them down.
"Both Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck write depressing
novels."
Why are they depressing? What are they about?
take a
"Both Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck write novels that
negative view of humanity."
Which novels? All of them?
"In The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway and Of Mice and
Men by John Steinbeck, both authors present a negative view of
humanity."
Why are they so negative about humanity?
"In The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway and Of Mice
and Men by John Steinbeck, both authors see human beings as
relatively weak, struggling creatures."
What are they struggling against? Is there any point to it?
"In The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway and Of Mice
and Men by John Steinbeck, both authors see human beings as
relatively weak creatures trapped in a struggle with nature
and society, a struggle they will inevitably lose, but from
which they will learn and grow."
The thesis we have developed here took a lot of thinking and rewriting. It is a
thesis, however, that is complex and subtle enough to offer clear direction for writing
a good paper.
Taking Notes
I. The Preliminary Outline
Before you can take notes in an organized way, you must have some idea of
the topics on which you will need information. To formulate a list of such topics,
begin your reading with a few general articles which give an overall survey. If your
subject is treated in an encyclopedia, the article there will be excellent for this
purpose. Another way to approach such an outline is to try to anticipate the
important questions your paper will have to answer. Jot down what seem to be the
major divisions of the subject.
The preliminary outline is not an outline of your paper as it will finally be
organized. It is, rather, a guide for use in your reading and note-taking and represents
the topics you think you'll want to cover. As your reading suggests new topics,
insert them in the outline, and remove topics that should not be treated in the paper.
An example of a preliminary outline follows:
Autobiographical Elements in Huck Finn
I. Twain's Youth
A. In Hannibal
B. River-boat pilot
II. Similarities between Hannibal and St. Petersburg
III. Huck/Twain's knowledge of the Mississippi
IV. Slavery
A. Twain's personal experience
B. Attitude expressed in novel (Jim)
II. Sifting for Gold
Once you have done enough exploratory or preliminary reading to have chosen
a topic and formulated a thesis, you are ready to do purposive reading, i.e., reading
for material to support your thesis.
Remember, to do research properly, you will inevitably do much reading that
won't be fruitful; in order to choose the best information for your thesis, you will
have to sift through a lot of irrelevant material for the few gold nuggets that will
serve your purposes.
III. Guidelines for taking notes
1. Most students find note cards useful because
a. they are usually the smallest units of information,
b. they will not have to be broken down further,
c. and they are easy to move around to different positions in your outline.
2. Each card should contain material relating to the same point.
3. A 4" by 6" card is probably just the right size for this.
4. Use the back, not a new card, if one side is not enough.
5. Copy all quotations correctly; check them against the original after you have
copied them.
6. If an error or misspelling appears in the original, put [sic] after it.
7. You may use only parts of a quotation, as long as you do not alter the meaning, by
inserting an ellipsis { . . .} for words you leave out.
8. If you feel a word or two inserted into a quotation (for example, to identify to
whom a pronoun refers) would clarify it, use square brackets [ ] .
9. It is your responsibility to document or cite (which means to acknowledge in
parenthetical notes, end notes, or footnotes) all borrowed facts or
opinions, whether you quote them word-for-word or not; so, before you
take notes, put the source and page number at the top of the card.
Note: You will make documentation a simple task if, as you take notes, you clearly
indicate the source on your note cards.
A Note About Plagiarism:
A. Take short notes in your own words in addition to full quotations.
B. Remember, just because you paraphrase does not mean you don't have to
document!
C. When in doubt, document!
D. If you do paraphrase in your final paper, you may use one (parenthetical or other)
note for no more than one sentence of paraphrased material.
IV. Code System and Labeling
1. When you first decide to use a source, make out a working bibliography card.
2. Give each item in your working bibliography an arabic numeral, or a color code.
Put this same number or color in the upper right hand corner of each note
card on which you take notes from that source; this way, you won't have to
put a full bibliographical entry on each note card.
3. Put a slug in the upper left hand corner of each note card; a "slug" is a word or
two indicating its content and/or purpose for your paper. This will make it
easier for you to arrange your cards to fit your outline.
V. Kinds of Notes
The notes that you will take will be direct quotations, various forms of
summary, and combinations of quotation and summary.
Although students' papers are often overloaded with quotations, this cannot
be said of their note cards. If you are in doubt about whether you will use an author's
actual words in your paper, take down the quotation. When you write the first draft,
you can convert a quotation into a summary, but you cannot substitute a quotation
for a summary without returning to the original sources. There are four possible
reasons for using a direct quotation in a research paper:
1. Accuracy: when the precise phrasing of the original is significant.
2. Authority: when the exact words of a source carry more weight than a summary
of the ideas.
3. Conciseness: when a quotation states an idea in fewer words than a summary
would require.
4. Vividness: when the language of a source is more colorful or more descriptive
than your summary would be.
If you cannot justify a quotation by one or more of these reasons, you should
summarize a passage in your own words; but remember, a citation is still
necessary.
VI. Sample Note cards
The various kinds of note cards are illustrated by samples based on the
following passage from The Unembarrassed Muse by Russel Nye. The first three
paragraphs appear on p. 210 and the fourth paragraph appears on p. 211.
Dime-novel characters, plots, and style moved quickly into
the pulp magazine, a relatively short-lived publishing phenomenon
which served as a bridge between the popular novel of the
nineteenth century and the magazine, paperback and comic-book
of
the twentieth.
The pulp originated with Frank Munsey, who made Argosy into
an adventure-story magazine in 1896 and printed it on rough
wood pulp paper, making it eligible for second-class postal
rates. Tousey, Street and Smith, and other publishers followed
suit, so that the pulp magazine almost wholly supplanted the dime
novel and the "story paper" before 1910. As it became
standardized, the pulp was usually about 120 untrimmed pages,
seven inches by ten, with a bright enameled color cover, carrying
some advertising and selling for ten to twenty-five cents. Pulps
were sold only at newsstands, never by subscription. During
their best days--the late twenties and early thirties--they sold
at the rate of twenty million per month.
Editors paid two cents a word for routine stories in the
twenties (up to eight cents a word to their star writers) dropping
to a cent a word in the late thirties. It took a professional to
make a living at it. Harold Hersey, who spent thirty years as a
pulp editor, once discussed the qualities a professional needed.
Facility, of course, stood first: the ability to turn out
quantities of material day in and day out, which also required
rigid self-discipline. Second was consistency. In pulp-writing
individuality was no virtue--a little, perhaps, but editors
wanted the same product done in the same way time and again.
The
writer who got fancy most likely had to do it over. Third, the
writer must have limited inventiveness; he could vary the
standard plot elements a bit, but never enough to disturb the
reader's expectations. Pulp readers, as Hersey put it, did not
like to be surprised too much, for much of their pleasure came
from anticipating correctly. Manufacturing daydreams for the
millions, one had to be sure that the dream always came true.
Top-liners like H. Bedford-Jones, Frank C. Robertson, Forbes
Parkhill, W. C. Tuttle, and Allan Vaughan could repeat the
formula expertly and endlessly.
Pulp stories were frankly mass production items, written to
a rather rigid formula, never realistic, never disturbing, never
disappointing. War could never be grim, a hero must never show
fear, airplanes could never have accidents (though such might
threaten), cowboy life had to be exciting, courtship must end in
marriage.
A. Working Bibliography Card
Before taking any notes from a source, make a working bibliography card. If you
postpone making the card until you have finished with the source, you are likely to
forget to make it, and you will have to return to the library and search for it again.
It saves trouble if you write the information as it will appear in your Works Cited
list. (Click here for sample working bibliography card.)
B. Quotation note
The author's last name and the page number are sufficient to identify the source. A
word or two in the upper left-hand corner indicating the content of the note (a slug)
will be helpful when you begin writing your paper. A quotation must be copied exactly
as it appears in the source and must be enclosed in quotation marks. The above note
telescopes the last paragraph of the selection by omitting two brief passages. Each
omission is indicated by an ellipsis { . . . }. In the upper right-hand corner, be sure
to put the code number or color that corresponds to the working bibliography card.
(Click here for sample quotation note.)
C. Summary note
A summary in complete sentences (an abstract) is probably the least practical form
of note. If the author's language is not used and the content itself is significant, an
outline note might be sufficient. The summary should not echo the style of the
original. The above summary condenses information from the first paragraph of
the selection and part of the second. (Click here for sample summary note.)
D. Outline note
If only factual information is borrowed from a source, rough notes in outline form
may be sufficient. Abbreviations and other shortcuts that could not be used in a
quotation note are permissible here. A danger in this type of note-taking is that if
overused, it may encourage you to follow a single source too closely. The above note
tabulates facts from the second paragraph. (Click here for sample outline note.)
E. Combination note
A note may combine quotation and summary. For the experienced writer of research
papers this type of note is often the most efficient because it encourages the blending
of quotations with the writer's sentences. In a sense, when you write a combination
note, you are beginning to compose your essay while taking notes. It is especially
important to be meticulous in the use of quotation marks in a combination note.
(Click here for a sample combination note based on the third paragraph.)
VII. Coding by Source -- Multiple Sources
Acknowledging where you got your information, which is called documentation,
is what makes a paper a research paper. It is crucial, therefore, for every note
card to have a color or number code and a page number; otherwise it's useless.
As you do your research you will discover what information is "general
knowledge" and what must be "cited". Usually, you must cite information or ideas
you found in only one or even two sources (some teachers would say three sources).
Be sure to ask your teacher to explain "general knowledge."
While it's always better to do separate note cards, in some cases you may find
the same information repeated exactly in source after source. In such a case, only
with summarized material and only with your teacher's permission, it may be
acceptable to list more than one source on a single card; in other words, there would
be two or more color or number codes in the upper right hand corner, each with a
different page number.
Outlining
An outline is a tool for organizing thoughts and illustrating logical relationships.
There are many purposes for outlines, but here we will deal only with outlines used
for organizing ideas prior to writing a paper.
I. Guidelines in outlining:
1. An outline is a blueprint for which you use the slugs from your note cards;
eventually, you will make these into sentences.
2. Constantly revise your outline as you do more reading, and keep it coordinated
with your note cards.
3. Keep your outline flexible and make it work for you; it should be a tool, not a
burden.
4. Ultimately, however, your outline will become fixed, so that you may use it as a
table of contents for your final paper.
5. Since this booklet concerns itself primarily with essays and research papers in
which you prove a statement, we will emphasize the sentence outline; only a
complete thought can logically support another complete thought.
II. Conventions of Outlining
The purpose of an outline is to show graphically the order, the unity, and the
relative importance of the various parts of an essay. To show these qualities, certain
conventional practices are in general use.
A. Values are shown by symbols.
The most common system of outline symbols is very simple:
I.
II.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
To subdivide further, you merely alternate arabic numerals and lower case
letters. If you must subdivide to this extent, however, you are probably including
too many insignificant details or you have omitted a necessary main heading. You
will seldom deal with a set of ideas on five or six levels of importance. Symbols are
an important way of showing relative values because all items with the same
kind of symbol are of approximately the same importance. Something is wrong with
an outline in which A represents a paragraph and B represents single sentence.
B. Indentation is another means of showing values.
It allows the reader to see all numbers and letters on the outline clearly. All
headings on the same margin are of approximately the same importance.
C. Single division is a logical error in an outline.
A single symbol, therefore, is a danger signal. When you indent and begin a
set of subordinate symbols, you are dividing ideas. Since nothing can divide into
only one part, you must have at least two sub-topics or none at all.
III. From Note Cards to Outline
1. Go through your note cards, shuffle them, and read them.
2. Repeat step #1 three times.
3. Once you have a sense of the kind of material you have, start arranging cards
that seem to go together into separate piles.
4. Look at each pile, and decide if it is specific and limited yet complete enough to
constitute a paragraph; if it's too big, perhaps you need to break it down; if it's
too small, perhaps you need to combine it with something else.
5. Each pile should be enough for a paragraph; piles that go together could make up
a general category heading; and the main idea of each note card could be
a major support for the paragraph it is in.
6. Once you have finished this process, set the order of the cards and number them in
the lower right hand corner of each card.
7. On your outline, put the appropriate numbers you have just assigned next to the
major idea the note card supports.
From this numbered outline and organized set of note cards, you will be
able to write your paper from start to finish.
IV. Sample Outline
There are three kinds of outlines commonly used for research purposes:
1) the sentence outline;
2) the topic outline;
3) the combination outline.
Although the sentence outline is probably the best for your purposes, since
it's easier to prove a statement with a statement, your teacher may ask you or
permit you to use a topic outline or a combination topic/sentence outline.
The following is an example of a sentence outline because topic sentences
and major supports are expressed in sentences, allowing you to check the
soundness of your reasoning. The Roman numerals stand for topic sentences, the
capital letters stand for major supports, and the arabic numerals stand for minor
supports, which are in phrase form. (Notice that the introduction and conclusion
are not included.)
Thesis:
I.
Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea and John
Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men share a common outlook; both
works portray man as a relatively weak creature trapped in a
struggle with nature and society, a struggle he will
inevitably lose, but from which he will learn and grow.
In The Old Man and the Sea, Santiago loses his agonizing struggle
with nature and society.
A.
Three-day battle with the marlin takes place.
1.
Physical pain.
2.
Allusions to Christ's suffering.
B.
Sharks devour his prize.
C.
Society is indifferent to his plight.
1.
2.
Condemned to poverty.
Tourists (at end of novel) have no idea what has
happened.
{Outline continued next page}
II. In Of Mice and Men, Lenny and George are trapped by their
environment.
A.
B.
Nature has made Lenny a misfit.
1.
Retarded.
2.
Cannot control his strength.
Both Lenny and George's lives are controlled by rigid
social order.
1.
2.
Imprisoned in lowest class.
a.
Lack of education.
b.
Rootlessness.
Held in line by social hierarchy.
a.
Must avoid the police.
b.
c.
Bare subsistence salary.
Curly.
III. Both novels suggest that the characters' suffering leads to
growth.
A.
Santiago is "defeated but not destroyed."
1.
Survives to battle nature again.
2.
Manolin learns from him.
B.
George learns the value of friendship.
C.
Santiago reveals nobility through suffering.
D.
1.
Fishes for 40 days, without help.
2.
Struggles with sharks, even after marlin is destroyed.
George finds the strength to alleviate Lenny's suffering.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism, the act of passing off the writings and ideas of others as one's own,
is often not taken seriously by students because nothing tangible is stolen. However,
a student who plagiarizes cheats himself in an important way and steals a precious
commodity from another person.
First, your teachers want you to learn to write term papers properly, for you
will do many of them during your academic career. Although course requirements
vary widely, most college courses demand at least one research paper per semester.
Additionally, we want to read your prose and to help you to improve it, not a thinlydisguised copy of a literary critic's writing. To copy a paper verbatim from another
source, therefore, robs you of an important aspect of your academic preparation.
After all, Bruce Springsteen did not learn to compose music and write lyrics by
reproducing songs by previous artists.
Not only is plagiarism unethical and illegal, but it is also a sad admission that
you cannot produce an acceptable paper yourself. Certainly, if you don't try to
do independent and original work at this early stage of your education, you may never
develop this vital capacity.
I. Suggestions to aid in avoiding plagiarism:
1. Follow your teacher's schedule to break up your research project into manageable
segments.
2. Try to take notes in your own words, except when noting direct quotations.
3. Document original ideas even when paraphrasing them.
4. Do not attempt to finish your paper at the last minute. Removing the pressure of
time is one of the ways to remove the temptation of plagiarism.
II. Understanding When to Cite
Very few students plagiarize intentionally, but some may do so inadvertently.
If you are clear about when to cite sources, you will probably avoid any inadvertent
plagiarism. See the Notes section for a discussion of this.
Writing the Paper
After you have finished taking notes, organizing your note cards, and writing
your outline, you are ready to begin work on your first draft.
Many students seem to misunderstand the nature and purpose of a first draft
and fail to realize how important it is to the success of the whole research project.
Writing the first draft entails transforming your notes into a coherent and unified
manuscript, so it must be written carefully and then rewritten, perhaps several
times; in any case, a first draft is not something that is written once and then just
copied or typed. If you want anything more than a mediocre grade on your paper,
you must allow yourself enough time to edit: That is, revise, rewrite, and
restructure your first draft. We suggest, then, that you start writing the first draft
a minimum of a week before the final draft is due.
I. Introduction*
A clear and complete introduction is an essential element in a good paper, so
give it particular attention. The introduction should follow the general-to-specific
structure you have been taught to use for introductory paragraphs, with the thesis
statement as the last sentence in the paragraph, and it should give the whole paper
a clear sense of purpose and direction.
II. Conclusion*
Make sure your paper has a conclusion; don't leave it "hanging" at the
end of the body. An effective conclusion will sum up briefly what you have covered
in the paper and will somehow hark back to ideas or images first brought up in the
introduction. Do not introduce any new ideas in the conclusion.
III. Title*
After you have completed the first draft, you should be ready to formulate a
title for the paper. Make sure it briefly and clearly states the topic (for example,
"Hemingway and Steinbeck's Outlook on Man"); do not use your thesis statement
as a title.
Take the time to develop a good title; a vague or poorly-worded title will give the
reader a bad initial impression of your paper.
III. Final Draft
After you have edited and revised the first draft thoroughly, you can begin
your final draft. The final draft should be typewritten and adhere to the
manuscript format described in the last section of this booklet. It must also be
cited and documented properly: the following section, Quoting and Paraphrasing,
describes how to quote sources in the text of your paper; the Works Cited section
explains how to prepare a list of of the works you use; and the Notes section
discusses the corresponding parenthetical notes, end notes, or footnotes. Read
these sections carefully, because failing to follow these guidelines may result
in inadvertent plagiarism.
* History papers vary slightly: Ask your teacher!
Quoting & Paraphrasing
I. Quote? Paraphrase? Or both?
The following three examples use the same material in different ways, but
all three require documentation (a note). (click here for further discussion of this)
A. Direct quotation
Whenever you quote a source, you must put quotation marks around it -- or,
if it is long, use block form -- and show where it came from:
As Jameson has said,
For such an obsessed hero (whose prototype is of
course Don Quixote), the apparent resistance of the
real world can be easily accounted for by magic and
the hostile operations of evil sorcerers: Thus he
never really comes in contact with outside reality,
but only with the Utopian vision of it which was his
starting point (174).
B. Mixing quotation with paraphrase
Whenever you quote just a few words, perhaps paraphrasing the rest, you still
must put quotation marks around the words you've quoted and show where the
passage came from: (click here for further discussion of this)
Heroes like Don Quixote attribute the hostility of the world to
"magic" or "operations of evil sorcerers"; these explanations
make it possible for them to ignore the real world and confront
only those worlds they have created (Jameson 174).
C. Simple paraphrase
Whenever you paraphrase or summarize a source, even if you do not quote
any of the exact wording of the original, you may have to acknowledge that the
ideas are not your own: (click here for further discussion of this)
Heroes like Don Quixote manage to ignore the claims of the real
world by attributing its hostility to magic; they confront only
the imaginary worlds they themselves have created (Jameson 174).
{The above parenthetical notes are keyed to this entry in Works Cited:}
Jameson, Fredric. Marxism and Form. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1971.
D. When to use quotation
Students tend to use quotations more often than necessary. Often a
paraphrase of your source, properly acknowledged, is adequate. Certainly you
should never quote more than you are actually going to use. Don't quote a whole
paragraph when all you are really interested in is a key phrase; don't reproduce a
whole speech from Hamlet when you're planning to discuss only two or three lines.
Quote only when the exact wording is crucial for your argument. Use a quotation to
support a statement -- not to substitute for one.
II. How to use quotation correctly
A. Quoting accurately
When you do need the exact words, you must give them exactly as they are
written. Never change, add, or leave out something without showing what you've
done. Your quotations must correspond exactly to the original, word for word, comma
for comma, unless you indicate changes, omissions, or additions.
Original: [from Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address]
With malice toward none, with charity for all, with
firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right,
let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind
up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have
borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do
all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting
peace among ourselves and with all nations.
B. Using ellipses
Indicate omissions in your text by substituting an ellipsis (three spaced
periods) for the words left out.
As Lincoln said, "With malice toward none, with charity for
all, . . . let us strive on to finish the work we are in" (67).
Be sure that your omissions do not distort or destroy the meaning, grammar, or
syntax of the original. No ellipsis is necessary when your quotation is obviously a
fragment:
Lincoln's main concern at the end of the Civil War was "to bind
up the nation's wounds" (67).
Nor is an ellipsis necessary if your quotation can stand as a complete
sentence.
C. Altering the original
Indicate additions or changes by using square brackets [], (not parentheses,
which could be understood to be part of the original text).
Lincoln hoped to help "him who shall have borne the battle [on
either side]
and . . . his widow and his orphan" (67).
Often you will need to make minor changes, like the omission of "for" (before
"him") in the preceding example, to make the quotations fit your sentence.
Sometimes, for example, you will have to change a pronoun and the tense of a verb:
After Lincoln's death, the nation did "strive on to finish the
work [it was] in" (67).
Indicate emphases not in the original text in parentheses after the quotation.
In the speech, Lincoln constantly referred to the country as a
whole: "Let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind
up the nation's wounds" (67, emphasis added).
Otherwise, your reader will assume that the writer had emphasized these words
in the original, as Lincoln did elsewhere in the Second Inaugural Address.
Use sic -- the Latin for thus or so -- in square brackets when you think you
must point out errors of fact, spelling, logic, or usage in the original:
Coleridge believed that literary works should have a "circular
form, like the snake with it's [sic] tail in its mouth" (143).
One travel writer remarks that "in Jerusalem, where Christ was
born [sic], East and West mingle" (16).
D. Incorporating prose quotations
Incorporate prose quotations not more than four typed lines long in your
text, as we have done with the brief quotations from Lincoln above. (If you use the
quotation as part of your sentence, be sure it fits smoothly into your sentence
structure. Don't insert a lengthy quotation in the middle of your sentence.)
E. Using Block Form with prose
Prose quotations exceeding four lines (that is, four lines as they would appear in your
paper) should be set off from the text by using block form:
1. start a new line,
2. indent 10 spaces from the left margin,
3. continue to double-space within the quotation,
4. but do not enclose it in quotation marks.
At the beginning of the Second Inaugural Address, Lincoln
refers to his first address four years before:
On the occasion corresponding to this four years ago
all thoughts were anxiously directed to an impending
war. All dreaded it, all sought to avert it. While
the inaugural address was being delivered from this
place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents were in the city seeking to
destroy it without war--seeking to dissolve the Union
and divide effects by negotiation. Both parties
deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather
than let the nation survive, and the other would
accept war rather than let it perish, and the war
came. (66)
Lincoln uses parallel structure throughout to underline the
difference between the two parties.
Note: The reference to page 66 in the example above comes after the period, not
before the period as it would in the case of a short quotation, because this refers to
several sentences.
F. Indirect quotations
When you borrow something from a source word for word, you are making a
direct quotation. When you borrow something from a source word for word, and it
was already in quotations in that source, you are making an indirect quotation. If it's
already in quotations in the source you're reading, that means the author of that
source either borrowed it from another source (which you'd call the original source) or
wrote down the words of someone who was speaking.
Warning: If you find yourself making a lot of indirect quotations, and if a lot of these
are from one or two original sources, that means you really ought to use the original
source(s) yourself. For example, if Source A and Source B both quote (and cite)
Source X frequently, and if that information is useful to you, then you ought to get
hold of Source X for yourself.
•Appearance of indirect quotations
For quotations under four lines in length, it's quite simple. Use regular double
quotation marks ("like this") to indicate where your borrowing from your source
begins and ends, and use single quotation marks ('like this') to indicate where your
source's borrowing from the original source begins and ends. The singles are always
within the doubles. Study the following example.
If this is the way it appears in your source . . .
At the urging of Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, who did not
want the U.S. "to come in as a cock boat in the wake of the British
man-of-war," Monroe and the Cabinet decided on a unilateral
statement.
. . . then this is the way it should appear in your paper.
"At the urging of Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, who did not
want the U.S. 'to come in as a cock boat in the wake of the British
man-of-war,' Monroe and the Cabinet decided on a unilateral
statement."
For quotations over four lines, you must use block form, which doesn't need
quotation marks. So if you have an indirect quotation in block form, use
quotation marks exactly as your source does. For an example, see the block
quotation on in the sample page at the end of this manual.
G. Introducing quotations
Always introduce a quotation! Let the reader know what she is about to read!
You have three choices for punctuation:
1. If the introductory material flows directly into your quotation, no punctuation is
needed (see example);
2. If the introductory material is just a phrase (As Lincoln said, Hegel writes,)
use a comma;
3. If the introductory material is a complete sentence, use a colon (see example).
✎ Remember: Block quotations don't need quotation marks! *
H. Quoting poetry
Treat three or fewer lines of poetry as you would prose, except
1. be sure to capitalize the first word of each line (if it is done in the poem), and
2. indicate the end of a line of poetry with a virgule "/".
Shakespeare the actor shone through when he wrote, "All the
world's a stage / And all the men and women merely players"
(2.7.147-8). {These numbers denote act, scene, and lines.}
I. Using Block Form with poetry
Treat more than three lines of poetry as you would a block quotation, indenting
each line ten spaces, capitalizing the first word of each line (if it's done in the poem),
but not enclosing in quotations.
Elizabeth Bishop's "In the Waiting Room" is rich in evocative detail:
It was winter. It got dark
early. The waiting room
was full of grown-up people,
arctics and overcoats,
lamps and magazines. (6-10) {These are line numbers.}
If the spacing within and between lines is unusual, reproduce it as accurately as
possible. Also, if the quotation begins in the middle of a line, reproduce it that way.
Shakespeare revealed his view of drama in As You Like It:
All the world's a stage
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages. (2.7.147-51)
In a block quotation of poetry, indicate the omission of a line or more of poetry by
a line of spaced periods equal in length to the other lines of the poem:
All the world's a stage
And all the men and women merely players:
.....................
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages. (2.7.147-8, 150-51)
Works Cited
Note: All information and guidelines in this section are taken directly from the MLA (Modern
Language Association) Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, third edition, 1988, sections 4 & 5.
"In writing a research paper, you must indicate exactly where you
found whatever material you borrow -- whether facts, opinions, or
quotations."
-- MLA Handbook, section 4.1, p. 86
The basis of a research paper is, of course, research. You must acknowledge
your sources
1. by creating an alphabetical list of the research materials you use; and
2. by providing citations, or notes, within the text of your paper.
This list (#1) is called Works Cited.
The notes (#2) can be in the form of parenthetical notes (i.e., notes in
parentheses within the text), end notes, or footnotes.
This section will discuss the list of Works Cited, and the following section will
discuss the three options for notes.
I. Preparing a list of Works Cited
A list of Works Cited includes the sources which you have cited (referred to)
in your paper. To prepare the list, refer to the working bibliography cards which you
made before you began to take notes. You should have one card for every source from
which you took notes which you have used.
This list is essential to your paper. Although it will appear at the end of
your final draft, it should be one of the first things you prepare; if you write down all
the information about each of your sources at the very beginning, you'll have it when
you need it as you proceed with your paper, even after you have returned materials
to the library.
Differences from traditional bibliography
Previous handbooks have called this list a bibliography, which literally
means "description of books." However, since many students use not only books, but
also articles, recordings, films, and interviews, Works Cited is the best title.
Some teachers may ask you to provide an Annotated Bibliography or
Annotated List of Works Cited, in which you describe and comment on each item.
IMPORTANT: If you put an item on a list of Works Cited, that means you have
cited (referred to) that item by means of a parenthetical note, endnote, or footnote,
or by directly referring to it by author or title in your text. If you do not cite an item
at least once, then that item does not belong on the Works Cited List.
Works Consulted
Some teachers may ask you to provide a separate, additional list after the
Works Cited list. This list, titled Works Consulted, would include items which
you consulted, read, or referred to for general or background information, but which
you did not cite directly in your paper.
II. Format for Works Cited
1. Include name and page number in the upper right-hand corner as you do with all
other pages, and center the title Works Cited (not underlined or in quotations) one
inch from the top of the page. Double-space between the title and the first entry.
2. Arrange the list in alphabetical order according to the last name of the author or
the first letter of the first main word in a title where no author is cited (Ignore "a,"
"an," and "the.").
3. Begin the first line of an entry at the left margin; for any lines following the first,
indent five spaces.
4. Double-space within and between entries.
5. Do not number Works Cited entries! We have done so below only for the
purpose of easy reference within this manual.
Sample Entries
1. Book with single author
Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. New York: Vintage Books, 1972.
2. Book with multiple authors
Eastman, A. M., and G. B. Harrison. Shakespeare's Critics. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 1964.
{Do the same for 3; for more than 3, use the first name and then "et al." See #5 below.}
3. Book with corporate author
Automation. Detroit: General Motors Corporation, 1945.
4. An anonymous book
Who's Who 1984-85. 43rd ed. 2 vols. London: A. C. Black, Ltd., 1985.
5. A multivolume work -- using 2 or more volumes
Potter, G. R., et al., eds. The New Cambridge Modern History. 14 vols.
Cambridge UP, 1957-70.
6.
-- using only one volume
Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature. 2nd ed. Vol. 2.
New York: Ronald, 1970. 2 vols.
7.
-- using one volume with its own title
Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, 1957. Vol. 3
of A History of the English- Speaking Peoples. 4 vols. 1956-58.
8.
-- using an article in a multivolume work *
Mowry, George E. "The Progressive Party, 1912 and 1924." History of U. S.
Political Parties. Gen. ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger. Vol. 3. New York:
Chelsea, 1973. 2541-669. 4 vols.
{Note: Omit vol. # in an alphabetized work, e.g. an encyclopedia. See #21.}
9. An edition or translation
{Note: Always indicate later editions: "2nd" or "3rd," "revised," or "1988 ed." Also, indicate a
modern edition of an older work. You may provide original publication date after title.}
Dostoevsky, Feodor. Crime and Punishment. 1866. Trans. Jessie Coulson.
Ed. George Gibian. Rev. ed. New York: Norton, 1964.
10. A work in a collection of pieces all by the same author
Malone, Kemp. "Etymologies for Hamlet." Studies in Heroic Legend and in
Current Speech. By Malone. Ed. S. Einarsson and N. E. Eliason.
Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1959. 204-25.
11. A work in a collection of pieces by different authors *
O'Connor, Flannery. "Everything That Rises Must Converge." Mirrors: An
Introduction to Literature. Ed. John R. Knott, Jr., and
Christopher R. Reaske. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Canfield, 1975. 58-67.
* {Note: See #36, "cross-references," for 2 or more from one collection.}
12. Reprinted article -- with a new title
Shanahan, D. H. "The Human Factor." Celtic Myth in English Romance. Ed.
Inmaculada Lazaro. London: Routledge, 1985. 219-23. Rpt. as
"Viewpoints: D. H. Shanahan." Twentieth Century
Interpretations of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Ed. T.
Adorno. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1994. 100-01.
{Note: Don't underline Sir Gawain ... because it's a title within a title.}
13. Reprinted article -- with the same title: "Rpt. in," not "Rpt. as"
Crowley, Eileen. "Repressed Women in Victorian England." PMLA 90
(1975): 813-22. Rpt. in Twentieth Century Interpretations . . .
14. An introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword
Schickling, Evelyn. Introduction. The Prairie: A Tale. By James Fenimore
Cooper. New York: Holt, 1950.
{Note: Use this form if you use only the introduction and not the rest of the book. Do the same with
preface, foreword, or afterword.}
15. Article from weekly or monthly magazine or newspaper
Kilmartin, Cecilia. "The Wales of Dylan Thomas." New Yorker 23 Sept.
1982: 34-48.
"Steinbeck of Salinas." Life May 1970: 71-75.
{Note: Do not give volume and issue even if they're listed.}
16. Article from a journal with continuous pagination
Howard, Elise. "Sweet Valley Turns Sour." PMLA 102 (1987): 177-86.
{Numbers given: volume, year, pages.}
17.
a journal that pages each issue separately
Chapman, Leo. "The Ethics of Ennui." Parisian Journal, 20.5 (1984): 24-47.
{Numbers given: volume, issue, year, pages.}
18. Article from daily newspaper
Hom, Julie. "Invisible Man: A Thirtieth Anniversary." Oakland Tribune 12
Oct. 1981, late city ed., sec. 3: 48+.
{"+" means article continues.}
19.
-- if page # includes section designation
McClellan, Alan. "Actors Show Cool and Verve." Daily Californian 17 May
1986: 4C.
20.
-- editorial
"The Spirit of `77." Editorial. Washington Post 21 January 1977: A22.
21. Article from common reference work
{a. Begin with author, if given, otherwise with title. b. Omit editor. c. Give full information only for
lesser known or obscure works. d. Omit volume number of alphabetized works. See also #4.}
"Hemingway's Code Heroes." Collier's Encyclopedia. 1958 ed.
22. A government publication
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Productivity. Washington, D. C.:
Government Printing Office, 1958.
23. Letters -- published
Eliot, George. Letter to Charles Bray, 11 June 1848. Letter 37 in The
Brontes: The Critical Heritage. Ed. Miriam Allott. London:
Routledge, 1974.
24. Lecture, speech, or public address
Ciardi, John. "Wisdom of Words." Opening Session. NCTE Convention.
Washington, 19 Nov. 1982.
{If there's no title, simply write "Address." or "Lecture."}
25. Interview: personal or radio
Ellison, Ralph. Personal interview. 6 May, 1978. Morrison, Toni.
Interview. All Things Considered. National Public Radio. WNYC, New
York. 16 Feb. 1986.
26. Recording
{Include name, title, company, catalogue number, and year.}
Murrow, Edward R. Year of Decision: 1943. Columbia, CPS-3872, 1957.
Holliday, Billie. "God Bless the Child." Rec. 9 May 1941. Billie Holliday:
The Golden Years. Columbia, C3L 21, 1962.
27. Film or similar medium
It's a Wonderful Life. Dir. Frank Capra. With James Stewart, Donna Reed,
Lionel Barrymore, and Thomas Mitchell. RKO, 1946.
{Note: You may add film size and length after date.}
28.
-- citing the contribution of an individual
Chaplin, Charles, Dir. Modern Times. With Chaplin and Paulette Goddard.
United Artists, 1936.
29.
-- filmstrip, slide program, or videotape
Alzheimer's Disease. Videocassette. Prod. Hospital Satellite Network.
American Journal of Nursing, 1994. 28 min.
30.
-- television or radio program {See also #25.}
"In Search of Ancient Ithaca." Narr. Elizabeth Strouse. Prod. Kevin Murphy.
Dir. David Finacom. The Quest for Homer. Exec. prod. Caroline Tauxe.
PBS. WNET, Newark. 8 May 1995.
31. Work of art -- original
Bernini, Gianlorenzo. Ecstasy of St. Teresa. Santa Maria della Vittoria,
Rome.
32.
-- published photograph
Cassatt, Mary. Mother and Child. Wichita Art Museum, Wichita. Slide 22 of
American Painting: 1560-1913. By John Pearce. New York: McGraw,
1964.
33. Cartoon
Addams, Charles. Cartoon. New Yorker 21 Feb. 1983: 41.
34. Pamphlet {Treat it like a book}
What You Should Know About Birth Control. Washington, D.C.: Planned
Parenthood, 1996.
35. Two or more works by the same author(s) {Use three hyphens}
Schwartz, Carol. Energy: A Scarce Resource. New York: Scribner's, 1984.
---. Look, Ma, No Hands! New York: Avon, 1995.
36. Other problems
Missing information:
No place of publication:
No publisher:
No date of publication:
N.p.: Scribner's, 1993.
New York: n.p., 1993.
New York: Scribner's, n.d.
Page numbers:
Give inclusive page numbers if you use a part of a book -- a story, essay, or
article: New York: Scribner's, 1988. 2-10.
Cross-references:
To avoid repetition in citing 2 or more works from the same collection, first,
list the collection in a separate entry; then, in the entries for the individual articles,
refer to the collection by the author's or editor's name.
Jacobson, Seth. "Fatherhood in the 90s." Rudnick 66-70.
Rudnick, Susan. Changing Sex Roles. Boston: Houghton, 1994.
Electronic Sources
CD-ROM
Treat a work in CD-ROM format as you would any other published work.
The only difference is that you will not be able to list a page number, so be
sure to indicate whatever keyword you searched under.
For further help with these citations, click on this link
(http://www.wilpaterson.edu/wpcpages/library/mla.htm) which
will bring you to the William Paterson College library’s web page about
following MLA style. Then scroll down the page until you see “CD-ROM.”
Internet Sources
With the advent of the Internet and its vast resources of information,
there’s even greater reason to be very careful and selective about what
information you rely upon and cite. While books and magazines that you
find in libraries have been selected by professionals who have some basis
for deciding what is and is not a valid source, when you’re on the Internet,
you’re on your own. It’s kind of like the Wild West, with no real law, no
one really guaranteeing that any information is valid or reliable.
So it is very important that you know who assembled or wrote the
information you are using. Is this person in a position to be an expert?
Does he or she have any credentials? You should also know, for example,
who sponsors or runs any Web site you want to use. One way to get some
sense of where information is coming from is to look for certain suffixes in
Internet addresses:
•com indicates a commerical enterprise
•org indicates a non-profit organization
•edu indicates a university
•k12. [state initials, such as nj]. us indicates a public or private school
But you still have to do more research to ascertain that you are getting
good information.
Citing Web Sites
and other electronic sources
Citing Web Sources
Since the Northern Valley Research Paper Guide is based on the style
manual of the Modern Language Association, it makes sense to go first to
the MLA’s web site at the following address:
http://www.mla.org/style/sources.htm
(Note: If you click this link and no web browser has been selected, you will be
prompted to select one. If you’re at Northern Valley, go to the Student Save Folder
and look for Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Explorer under “Applications.”)
Other Online Sources
Another good source that goes into slightly more detail about various
online and electronic sources is the Columbia Guide to Online Style:
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/cgos/idx_basic.html
Notes
I. Documenting Sources with Notes
A note is a reference to a book or other source of information used in a paper.
Papers use one of three types of notes: At Northern Valley we use parenthetical
notes (these are in parentheses all throughout the paper). Other old-fashioned notes
you may come across include end notes, which are listed on a separate page at
the end of the paper, and footnotes, which appear at the foot of each page of the
paper.
Why and when to use notes or Avoiding plagiarism
When you use anyone else's words or ideas that are not considered "general
knowledge" (see discussion below), you must acknowledge your debt. This applies
to any borrowings: from a published work, from a lecture, or from a friend's old term
paper. Failure to acknowledge your borrowings is plagiarism -- intellectual
dishonesty -- and a serious academic offense. You "document" (i.e., acknowledge your
debt) by providing a "citation," which involves a "note."
Exact borrowings:
In the following cases, always use a note!
1.
2.
3.
4.
All word-for-word quotations, except common sayings)
All charts, graphs, diagrams that are not your own.
All statistics that you have not compiled yourself.
All key words or terms, unless the same ones are found in 3 or more of your
sources.
Rearranged borrowings:
In the following cases, use a note only when the borrowing is not
general knowledge (see below).
5. All passages that you have summarized or paraphrased.
6. All theories or interpretations that are not your own.
How to clarify what is cited in paraphrase
#1 above is simple; if you quote it, you cite it. #3 and #4 are also pretty
obvious. However, #2, #5, and #6 can be more tricky because paraphrase or
summary does not stand out the way quotation does. When you paraphrase more
than one or two sentences, you must make it clear to the reader exactly what ideas
you have borrowed. It would be unacceptable, therefore, to place a note at the
end of a paragraph that does not contain quotations. If you must paraphrase a good
deal of material from one source in a paragraph, acknowledge the source by
mentioning the author's name at the beginning of your borrowing and placing
the note at the end of the borrowing (or paragraph).
What you don't have to document
Do not document proverbs, familiar quotations, your own original ideas, or
general knowledge (e.g., "The Revolutionary War began in 1775.").
What's general knowledge?
There's a sticky problem here. What's "general" knowledge to a college
graduate may not be to a high school freshman. So how do you know what to cite
and what not to cite? Could you conceivably cite every single sentence?
This really depends on the kind of topic and sources you use. Typically,
however, if you are using good, reputable sources, and most of them agree on
particular information, then you could consider that information to be general
knowledge. Also, depending on the subject matter, information you find in a
typical, brief article in a general encyclopedia is probably "general knowledge."
(Such encyclopedias, however, are usually unacceptable as sources.) Still, the
bottom line is ask your teacher!
Finally, remember: WHEN IN DOUBT, USE A NOTE!
II. Parenthetical notes: Simple and Sensible
At Northern Valley, as at most leading universities since 1988, students
place notes in parentheses within the text of the paper. Try to work the author's
name and/or the title into your writing when possible, and give the minimum
essential information in the form of a parenthetical note. This system is based on
the idea that the Works Cited list acts as a key to your notes. In other words, if the
following sentence appears in your paper -The Babylonian goddess, Ishtar, is similar to the Greek Aphrodite (Stone
41).
-- the reader can consult Works Cited for full information:
Stone, Merlin. When God Was a Woman. New York: Harcourt, 1976.
The parenthetical note contains the minimum essential information -- only the
author's last name and the page number. (Note: Don't abbreviate "page"; simply
put the number in the right place.)
Punctuation and Placement
Whether you place the parenthetical note before or after the period depends on
how long your quotation or paraphrasing is.
Before the punctuation: If the quotation or paraphrasing that you are citing
is one sentence or less, then the note becomes part of the sentence and belongs before
the punctuation (see Quoting and Paraphrasing).
After the punctuation: If the quotation you are citing consists of more than
one sentence (see example in Quoting and Paraphrasing), or if the paraphrasing is more
than one sentence, then place the note after the period.
For further examples, see the sample page at the end of this manual.
Two or more works by the same author
If, for example, you cite two or more works by Robert Graves, you would
include the title, or a shortened form of it, in the note.
The cult was introduced by Heremon, nineteenth King of All Ireland, after
1267 B.C. (Graves, Goddess 131).
This way, the reader can easily distinguish between the works listed in Works
Cited:
Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths. Rev. ed. 2 vols. Harmondsworth:
Penguin,
1985.
- - - . The White Goddess. New York: Farrar, 1984.
Readability
The principle behind this system is to include documentation in the text while
making it as readable as possible. Including too much information in the
parenthetical note becomes distracting to the reader. Whenever possible, therefore,
work the information into your sentence. The examples above could be rewritten as
follows:
Stone finds similarities between Ishtar and Aphrodite (41).
It was Heremon, Graves maintains, who, as nineteenth King of All Ireland,
introduced the cult after 1267 B.C. (Goddess 131).
The following example follows the same principle. The note is placed at a
natural pause. (Notice how it cites the first volume of a multivolume work.)
In his The Greek Myths, Graves points to Pan, "a humble fellow . . .
content to live on earth" (1: 101), as an example of the many powerful
Greek gods who did not live on Olympus.
Mentioning the author's name in your text is a useful technique when you
have more than one sentence paraphrasing or summarizing a source. Mention the
author's name at the beginning of the paraphrase and then place the page number(s)
in parentheses at the end of the paraphrase; this way, the reader will know what
exactly has been borrowed.
There will be many variations, as you cite articles, reference works,
anonymous works, films, interviews, and so on, and you will have to use your
judgment and a flexible writing style to incorporate the necessary information. But
the basic principle remains the same: give the minimum essential information that
will direct the reader to one (and only one) entry on your list of Works Cited, and do
so in a clear, readable fashion.
Consecutive successive references need not repeat author or title. Page
number only implies the citation is from the same source as the previous one. For
example, the citation (Jones 13) can be followed simply by (14) in the next
sentence. Common sense!
III. Other sample references -- Parenthetical System
Listed below are samples of some kinds of references you may have to make
in your paper. If you encounter a situation not covered here and cannot figure it out
according the the principles discussed, consult the MLA Handbook or ask your
teacher.
Citing an entire work -- omit page numbers
Robert Graves redefines Greek mythology in The Greek Myths.
Citing a section of a work
In the opening of A Separate Peace, Knowles demonstrates how
sights and smells can evoke memories and emotions (1-6).
Citing a work listed by title
According to A Guide to Indian Food, Westerners have a warped
view of the mixture of spices known as curry (32-3). The sort of curry
powder found in most American supermarkets is hardly known in India
("Bengali Cuisine" 84).
Citing a work by a corporate author
The National Endowment for the Humanities has warned that "a
threat to the humanities is a threat to democracy" (237).
Citing other sources
Whatever you cite, use the first word that appears in your Works Cited
entry, whether it be the author, editor, artist, composer, movie director or producer,
screenplay writer, and so on, or the first major word of a title. You may use a
shortened version of a long title, like "Goddess" for "The White Goddess". You may
also abbreviate long names of agencies, like "N.E.H." for "National Endowment for
the Humanities."
Citing indirect sources
Always take material from an original source whenever possible. When only
an indirect source is available, however -- e.g., a published account of someone's
spoken remarks -- use the abbreviation "qtd. in" before the indirect source
(whether you quote or paraphrase the words).
Will Rogers claimed he never met anyone he didn't like (qtd. in Johnson
23).
Citing literature -- prose
When you refer to classic prose works, the reader may have a different
edition. It is helpful, therefore, to add, after the page number, a semicolon followed
by other identifying information such as chapter (ch.), book (bk.), part (pt.), section
(sec.), or scene (sc.): e.g., (223; pt. 2, ch. 3).
Citing literature -- verse
When you refer to classic poetry or verse plays, omit page numbers and cite
by divisions (act, scene, canto, book, part) and lines separated by periods. For
example, Iliad 5.41 refers to book 5, line 41 of Homer's Iliad; and Lear 2.2.14 refers
to act 2, scene 2, line 14 of Shakespeare's King Lear. If you are listing only line
numbers, as with a poem, do not use the abbreviations "l." or "ll." because they may
be confused with numerals. Instead, use the word "line" or "lines" in your first
citation, and give only the numbers thereafter. In parenthetical references, it is
perfectly acceptable to abbreviate titles of famous works and books of the Bible, as
we did with Lear above: for example, Oth. is Shakespeare's Othello, ˙PL˙ is Milton's
Paradise Lost, ‘DQ˙ is Cervantes's Don Quixote; 1 Chron. 21.8 refers to chapter 21,
verse 8 in the first book of Chronicles in the Old Testament. Consult the MLA
Handbook or your teacher for other abbreviations.
Citing more than one work in a single reference
You may find the same idea in two or more places. In this case, give all
references in one set of parentheses, and separate them with semicolons: e.g., (Frye
42; Potter et al. 58) or (Wellek and Warren; Booth, Critical Understanding 2:45-52).
This kind of citation would normally direct the reader to two or more note
cards, in which case you should list first the source you depended on more heavily.
However, this sort of citation might in some cases correspond to a single card that
draws from more than one source. {See Taking Notes.}
IV. Footnotes or End notes: The old-fashioned methods
The two more traditional methods of documentation, footnotes and end notes,
are still used by some teachers and professors. Even if you don't have to use
them, it may be helpful to understand how they work: First, you will understand the
essential information that goes into a parenthetical note; and second, you will very
likely come across such documentation in your reading.
(The information in this section applies to both footnotes and endnotes -- there are only
a few differences between them.)
1) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the
reference appears, while endnotes appear on a separate page or
pages at the end of your paper but before the list of Works
Cited (Note: some instructors will not require you to prepare a
list of Works Cited if you use footnotes or endnotes.).
2) For both kinds of notes, you double-space between notes;
however, for endnotes you double-space within the notes, but
for footnotes you single-space within the notes.
Note numbers
Instead of referring to a source directly or in parentheses
in your text, place a number after each reference or quotation,
beginning with 1 and increasing consecutively. (These numbers
correspond either to the footnotes or the endnotes.) Do not number
notes by individual pages or use asterisks or other symbols. Use
arabic numerals, without periods, parentheses, or slashes, placing
them after the borrowed material, elevated above the line.1 They
should be placed after all punctuation (except dashes). Avoid
interrupting the flow of thought of a sentence with note numbers.
Place the number after, but not necessarily immediately after, a
direct quotation or paraphrase. If you give several sentences
that paraphrase or summarize a source, mention the source (author
or title) at the beginning and place the note number at the end.
Format: ENDNOTES and FOOTNOTES
Endnotes should be on a separate, unnumbered page at the
conclusion of the text (but before the Works Cited), entitled
Notes (not underlined nor in quotations). The first line of each
note should be indented five spaces. Type the number slightly
above the line, without punctuation, skip a space and begin the
reference. Double-space within and between notes. A note should
read like a sentence and must end with a period. Every note
should end with the page number, but do not use "p." or "pp.";
just use the number(s). [The same rules apply for footnotes,
except that you should double-space between, but single-space
within, the notes.]
The first reference to a specific source gives the full
bibliographic information -- in a style slightly different from a
Works Cited entry -- while subsequent references appear in an
extremely shortened form. {See the end of this section.}
Samples of first note references
The following samples are in footnote form: i.e.,
single-spaced within each note. These footnote numbers correspond
to the numbers given in the samples of Works Cited entries. We
have not provided samples for every possibility.
Book with single author
1 Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (New York: Vintage Books, 1972) 52.
Book with multiple authors
2 A. M. Eastman and G. B. Harrison, Shakespeare's Critics
(Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1964) 89.
Book with corporate author
3 Automation (Detroit: General Motors Corporation, 1945) 139.
An anonymous book
4 Who's Who, 1984-85, 43rd ed., vol. 1 (London: A. C. Black, Ltd., 1985) 324.
A work in a collection of pieces all by the same author
10 Kemp Malone, "Etymologies for Hamlet," Studies in
Heroic Legend and in Current Speech, ed. S. Einarsson and N. E.
Eliason (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1959) 204-25.
A work in a collection of pieces by different authors
11 Flannery O'Connor, "Everything That Rises Must Converge,"
Mirrors: An Introduction to Literature, ed. John R. Knott, Jr.,
and Christopher R. Reaske, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Canfield,
1975) 66.
A translation or edition
9 Feodor Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment, trans. Jessie
Coulson, ed. George Gibian (New York: Norton, 1964) 137.
An introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword
14 Henry Nash Smith, introduction, The Prairie: A Tale, by James
Fenimore Cooper (New York: Holt, 1950) xx.
{Note: introductions often have lower-case page numbers.}
Article from weekly or monthly magazine
15 Cecilia Kilmartin, "The Wales of Dylan Thomas," The New Yorker
23 September 1982: 34-35.
15 "Steinbeck of Salinas," Life May 1970: 75.
Article from a journal
17 Evelyn Schickling, "The Ethics of Ennui," Bostonian Journal
20.5 (1984): 24-26.
Article from daily newspaper
18 Julie Hom, "Invisible Man: A Thirtieth Anniversary," Oakland
Tribune 12 October 1981, late city ed., sec. 3: 48+.
20 "The Spirit of `77," editorial, Washington Post 21 January
1977: A22.
Article from reference work: anonymous
21 "Hemingway's Code Heroes," Collier's Encyclopedia, 1958 ed.
A government publication
22 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity (Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1958) 10.
Interview: telephone or personal
25 Ralph Ellison, personal interview, 6 May, 1978.
25 Toni Morrison, interview, All Things Considered, National
Public Radio, WNYC, New York, 16 Feb. 1986.
Recording
26 Edward R. Murrow, Year of Decision: 1943, Columbia, CPS-3872,
1957.
Subsequent References
After you've fully identified a source in a note, if you use
it again, use a shortened form. Be brief and clear. In most
cases, you can use just the author's last name and the page
numbers. If there's no author, use the first item of the full
reference, whether it's title, company, agency, etc.
37 Ellison, 167. {See 1 for first reference.}
If you have two books by the same author, give a shortened
form of the title [here we use The Grapes of Wrath and The Moon
is Down].
38 Steinbeck, Grapes, 147.
39 Steinbeck, Moon, 233.
For articles in periodicals in the case above, give shortened
forms of the article titles. If you abbreviate a title in later
references, indicate this in the first reference:
40 George Watson, ed., The New Cambridge Bibliography of
English Literature, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press,
1969) col. 270; hereafter cited as NCBEL.
You may use similar abbreviations in parenthetical notes.
Manuscript format
{Information and quotations on this page come directly from the MLA Handbook.}
I. Heading and Title
"A research paper does not need a title page. Instead, beginning one
inch from the top of the first page and flush with the left margin," type the following
on separate lines, double-spacing between each: your name, your teacher's name,
the course number, and the date.
Double-space again and center the title (do not underline it, do not put it in
quotations, and do not use all capitals letters). Double-space again and start the first
line of your paper.
(Note: Some teachers prefer title pages. Ask your teacher!)
Jennifer J. Jones
Ms. Fischer
English 021
8 October 1997
Center the Title Here
II. Page Numbers
Number all pages consecutively by placing your last name and the page
number in the upper right-hand corner, 1/2 inch down from the top: e.g. Jones 2 . Do
not use "page" or "p." or a period or a hyphen or any other mark. Then double-space
to the first line of text on that page.
This is easy to do with most word processors by setting up a running "head"
or "header" at the beginning of the file, consisting of your name and the page number.
III. Margins and Spacing
"Except for page numbers, leave one-inch margins at the top and the
bottom and on both sides of the text." Double-space throughout the paper, "including
quotations, notes and the list of works cited." This is easy on a word processor.
IV. End notes
Center Notes 1 inch from top (don't underline or use quotations) and doublespace within and between notes.
V. Footnotes
Quadruple-space from last line of text and begin; double-space between, and
single-space within.
VI. Works Cited
Center Works Cited 1 inch from the top, double-space, and begin, doublespacing within and between entries.
VII. Illustrations
Put an illustration close to what it illustrates. Label it "Fig." and an arabic
numeral, and give it a title or caption, including full information about the source; to
do this, follow the endnote format (see Footnotes & End notes).
Basis of Evaluation
Following is a list of the criteria your teacher will use to evaluate your
research project. Use it as a check list to make sure you have given careful
consideration to every aspect of your research and your paper. You should also
use the section on writing the paper as a guide when you revise your first draft.
I. Research
1. Number of sources
2. Number of note cards
3. Form, focus, and completeness of note cards
a. balance of quotation, paraphrase, and summary
b. proper heading and coding
4. Cards arranged in logical order
5. Overall thoroughness and depth of research
II. Paper
1. Introduction
a. title
b. follows general-to-specific structure
c. clear thesis statement
2. Paragraph Structure
a. clear topic sentences
b. use of major and minor supports
c. unity: use of linking expressions
3. Unity and Structure
a. paragraphs in logical and effective order
b. use of transitions
4. Style
a. varied and sophisticated sentence structure
b. avoidance of passive voice & "to be" constructions
c. diction (choice of words)
5. Grammar: avoidance of errors
a. run-ons and fragments
b. pronoun reference
c. agreement
d. verb tense (stick to one tense)
6. Mechanics
a. spelling
b. punctuation
Be sure you proofread your final draft carefully.
Sample Page
On the following page we have included a sample page from a research paper
on dream interpretation written by a Northern Valley freshman in 1990. We have
modified it somewhat in order to provide examples of as many different situations
as possible.
Go through the sample page and see if you can find all the citations in the
Works Cited list we have prepared below.
Works Cited
Canter, Jacob. The Inner World of Daydreaming. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin,
1984.
Cronbach, Lee J. Educational Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World,
1954.
Foulkes, David. The Psychology of Sleep. New York: Scribner's, 1966.
Goldenson, Robert M. The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Vol. 2. New
York:
Doubleday, 1970. 2 vols.
Katz, Joseph. Dreams are Your Truest Friends. New York: Simon and
Schuster,
1975.
The Landscape of Dreams. New York: Time-Life Books, 1985.
Stwertka, Eve. Psychoanalysis. New York: Macmillan, 1988.
What to look for
Examine very carefully the punctuation of quotations and of citations. Notice
that the citation usually comes before the period except when the citation covers
more than one sentence.
Notice also that the paper is very clear about where its ideas came from; a
reader can easily see who had which idea. A good writer will do this in a variety of
ways, not by using the same phrase every time. Notice also that quotations
are introduced or somehow worked into the writer's sentences.
Can you find these unusual situations on the following sample page?
a) two sources in one citation
b) an indirect quotation of less than four lines
c) a quotation within a quotation of more than four lines
d) a citation of an anonymous source
e) insertion of information into a quotation for clarity
f) a citation covering more than one sentence of paraphrased material
g) author's name in sentence, not in parentheses
Jones 7
use symbols. According to Freud, expressions of sex are always
private and are often seen as shameful (Stwertka 44; Goldenson 183).
Symbols are used to shield the embarrassment and any uncomfortable
feelings the dreamer might have toward sex. David Foulkes, in The
Psychology of Sleep, asserts that when a dream involves a
composite, or an imaginary person who takes the place of a real
person, it usually shows that the dreamer is intimidated by that
person. These composites allow the dreamer to confront these
feelings of inferiority without actually letting the dreamer know
who is causing these feelings. (24) Dreams with symbolism can also
promote positive images for the future. As Freud has stated,
"'Dreams are derived from the past in every sense . . . by
picturing our wishes fulfilled, dreams are, after all, leading us
into the future'" (qtd. in Katz 151).
There are many factors, all controlled by the dreamer's
personality, which influence dream patterns. One major factor is
the reaction to outside stimuli, which is manifested as eye
movement. Dreams that contain eye movement are "more detailed and
vivid and are easier to recall" (Landscape 39). Furthermore, it
is not at all uncommon for the unconscious to manipulate a dream
in order to defend against the disturbance of an outside stimulus.
Often dreams are confusing because, as a dreamer experiences a disturbance, his personality creates a situation
to express the disturbance in the dream. [Psychologist
Carl] Jung explained, "This substitute situation allows
the dreamer to remain unconscious." (Canter 91)
A dreamer's personality not only causes eye movement, but also
(This is the end of the manual.)
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