BUSINESS ETHICS
IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION
J. M. Elegido
Department of Business Ethics
Lagos Business School, Pan-African University,
Lagos, Nigeria
i
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
i
PREFACE
vi
ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
x
AUTHORS AND SOURCES CITED
xii
CHAPTER 1 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 1
Introduction
Solidarity among all human beings and hierarchy of responsibilities
Hierarchy of responsibilities
Co-operation as a form of solidarity
Additional material on solidarity
Additional material on hierarchy of responsibilities
Wealth and material goods in a Christian perspective
The goodness of material goods and their danger
Relative unimportance of material goods
Detachment
Later Christian teachings
Additional material on Christian teachings
on the value of material goods
Work in a Christian perspective
Practical consequences
Additional material on work in a Christian perspective
9
9
10
14
16
17
24
25
26
28
28
30
CHAPTER 2 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 2
Christian assessment of the value of trade and business
Additional material on Christian assessment of the value
of trade and business
Commitment to Justice
Additional material on commitment to Justice
Additional material on respect for the rights of every
individual
Profit and business purpose
Additional material on profit and business purpose
Vocation
Additional material on vocation
Significance of human actions
Additional material on significance of human actions
Moral criteria in economic decisions
Additional material on moral criteria in economic
57
57
32
43
47
48
60
62
66
70
72
75
77
82
84
88
91
ii
decisions
94
CHAPTER 3 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS-1
Basic attitude towards customers
Business as service
“Needs” and “wants”
The Christian conception of value
Excluded products and services
Additional material on business as service
Additional material on products and services supplied,
the objective conception of value and need for
self-control
Paternalism
Monopolies
Additional material on monopolies
99
99
100
103
104
106
107
CHAPTER 4 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS – II
Communication with customers
Love for the truth, love for our neighbour
One should not lie
Additional material on the value of truthfulness
One should not seek to mislead others
There is no duty to disclose all the information one has
Additional material on controlling disclosure
Substantial defects must be disclosed
No manipulation
Consumerism and materialism
Additional material on consumerism and materialism
The Christian tradition on pricing
Charity in pricing
A buyer’s special need and higher prices
Justice and equivalence in value
Measuring value
Cost theories of value
Market theories of value
Additional material on prices
Appendix: Interest
Additional material on interest
123
123
123
125
128
135
138
139
140
142
144
146
150
151
153
155
157
158
160
163
166
169
CHAPTER 5 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES – 1
Respect for the human dignity of employees
The foundation of human dignity
Respect for human dignity
A moral work environment
Additional material on respect for the human dignity
of employees
174
174
175
176
180
113
116
118
120
181
iii
Privacy
Additional material on privacy
Motivation and discipline
Additional material on motivation and discipline
Fair hearing
Additional material on fair hearing
Emphasis on community
Additional material on the importance of community
189
190
191
198
206
207
209
213
CHAPTER 6 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES – II
Participation
Additional material on participation
Compensation
Duty to pay what has been agreed
The salary as price for labour
Salary proportionate to the contribution made by the worker
A living wage
Salary and the common good
Additional material on compensation
Time for rest and family
Family
Rest and other aspects of employees’ lives
Additional material on rest/family
Job design
Additional material on job design
Right to work
Additional material on right to work
217
217
218
221
221
222
223
224
226
227
232
232
234
235
241
245
246
247
CHAPTER 7 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – 1
250
Suppliers, creditors and shareholders
250
Financial reports
251
Other issues
254
Additional material on suppliers, creditors and shareholders 256
The duty to care for the poor and needy
258
Additional material on the duty to care for the poor
and needy
262
The Christian concept of property
269
Additional material on the Christian concept of property
273
CHAPTER 8 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – II
The firm and the community
Additional material on the firm and the community
Stewardship for the earth
Additional material on stewardship for the earth
Compliance with the law
278
278
282
285
290
296
iv
Additional material on compliance with the law
Giving bribes
Additional material on giving bribes
Competitors
Additional material on competitors
CHAPTER 9 – THE MANAGERS’ WORK
Authority as service
Additional material on authority as service
Loyalty and commitment
Additional material on loyalty and commitment
The fiduciary principle
Additional material on the fiduciary principle
Protecting and fostering unity in their organisations
Additional material on fostering and protecting the
unity of the organization
Diligence
Additional material on diligence
Listening to advice
Additional material on listening to advice
Balance work/life
Obedience
Additional material on obedience
301
305
306
307
309
311
311
313
318
321
323
329
332
335
338
342
346
349
349
350
352
v
PREFACE
This book is in part an anthology of Christian texts which are relevant to problems of
business ethics and in part a discussion of what I consider are the characteristic themes
and ideas that can be distilled from the Christian tradition on each of the issues I have
studied. It may help the prospective reader if I try to explain my purpose in writing it.
I have been teaching Business Ethics at the Lagos Business School for quite some time. I
have often been struck by the fact that, while I am a Roman Catholic who tries his best to
take his religion seriously, and most of the participants in the different courses I teach are
also Christians, we all regularly found ourselves having to labour mightily during the
discussion of business ethics cases in order to finally come to the conclusion that, say, it
is right to treat employees with respect, or that it is wrong to produce misleading or
manipulative advertising. Was there really a need for all that heavy huffing and puffing in
order to reach such relatively elementary conclusions?
Of course, if one is addressing a “mixed audience” in which besides Christians there are
adherents to a variety of other religions and occasionally people with no religion at all, it
is necessary to look for common ground and one has to do one’s best to identify reasons
and arguments that will build on our common humanity and that, at least in principle, are
accessible to everybody.
Trying to reach across a fundamental ideological divide is often very enriching for all
concerned. There is no denying, however, that it is also slow work and I have often felt
frustrated by having to spend so much valuable time establishing elementary points that,
if one were addressing an homogeneous audience of fellow Christians, could have been
agreed upon far more quickly, more securely, and with greater richness of meaning by
having recourse to Christian sources and the Christian tradition.
Considerations such as these led me to get engaged in trying to develop material on
Christian Business Ethics. My aim was to try and write a book that would be helpful for
people who are interested in exploring in greater depth the implications of their Christian
faith for their everyday business activities. I feel strongly that this type of book is likely
to be of far greater help for a committed Christian who is trying to integrate better his
profession with the rest of his life than the standard business ethics book. However, the
project turned out to be rather more complex than I had first envisaged.
The first option I considered was to write a book on those aspects of the Social Doctrine of
the Catholic Church that are of more direct interest for business people. That plan would
have had the great advantage that this is a well-established field in which there is plenty of
material available. If I had followed that line I could probably have completed this book
within a year. Still, in academic life I usually tend not to choose an easy and straightforward
option whenever a dangerous and complicated one is also available. And so I quickly
vi
decided to expand the original idea in several interesting directions (“interesting” as in the
Chinese curse “May you live in interesting times”).
Books on the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church usually concentrate on studying the
teachings on social matters of the official magisterium of the Church in relatively recent
times (roughly the last century and a half). Sometimes they can give the misleading
impression that Christian teachings on social issues are a fairly new phenomenon. The fact,
of course, is that there is a very rich tradition of Christian teachings on social and economic
issues that goes back all the way to the early Church Fathers and, before that, to the Bible. I
quickly decided that I would like to take into account all of that material.
Also, for quite some time the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church has tended to gravitate
towards what one could call “macro-issues”, that is to say, towards questions related to the
overall structure of society. This is much less true of the contributions of John Paul II to this
evolving doctrine, but it is still fair to say that a standard summary of that doctrine will
contain much that is of more immediate interest to a politician than to a business manager.
However, I wanted to concentrate on issues that would be of help to modern businesspeople
in their day-to-day work. Accordingly, I started my project by putting together an agenda of
questions derived from contemporary treatments of business ethics and tried to let those
questions dictate my search for material.
Last, but not least, while a majority of the executives who attend courses in the Lagos
Business School are Christians, only a minority among them are Roman Catholics. It made
sense, therefore, to expand my search for material to include the writings of prominent nonCatholic Christian teachers and the official pronouncements of other Christian churches and
groups. I had some fears initially that it could turn out to be impossible to make a coherent
synthesis of teachings that perhaps would be in sharp conflict with each other. However, I
was gratified to discover that there is a good deal of common ground among the teachings of
diverse Christian groups in the area of business ethics. Of course, there are differences; but
usually these are differences among individuals and groups, rather than among churches. To
illustrate with a simple example, different Christian writers have different views on the issue
of just prices. But these are not systematic differences between, say, Catholics and
evangelicals. They are differences among individual authors and they tend to cut across
ecclesiastical membership. In any case the differences, which undoubtedly exist among
Christians, overlay a far more important substratum of common principle.
It turned out that each of these expansions of my original idea increased greatly the scope of
the project. To really do justice to it would have demanded mastery of many disciplines and
skills, not to mention a huge investment of time which is far beyond my possibilities. Even
more radically, if done rigorously, this work would have to be theological in method and
approach while I am not a professional theologian. For all these reasons, this work is only
preliminary in nature. It presents an incomplete assemblage of materials and it only offers a
first attempt at making sense of them.
No matter. I have always agreed wholeheartedly with Chesterton’s dictum that if something
is worth doing it is worth doing badly. This is a first attempt at doing a task that is very
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much above me. My only justification for having the audacity of attempting it is that I could
not find that anybody else had done it before and that the task very much needed to be done.
My greatest hope is that others may now be inspired to improve upon this effort.
My methodology has been rather straightforward. I started by preparing a list of topics to
address. As I indicated above, in doing this I did not follow the traditional outlines of books
on social ethics or on social doctrine. I started instead from my experience in teaching
business ethics and prepared a rather long list of issues about which I thought a
contemporary manager would like to get guidance. At this stage I did not allow myself to be
influenced by considerations of how easy or difficult I thought it would be to get suitable
material. After refining my list, I just started to look for material that had a bearing on the
topics chosen.
I tried to be broad-minded in looking for material. I did not consider it necessary that a
source should agree with my own ideas before I mined it for texts. The only requirement I
established was that I would only consider texts that were either the official pronouncement
of a church or Christian group that had had a relatively large membership (say, counting in
the millions, rather than in the tens of thousands) and had lasted for a reasonable period of
time (say, centuries rather than decades), or the writings of an author who had had a
significant impact on such a Christian community. To this I added the Bible and all the
works of the Church Fathers. Any book or document on which I could lay hands and which
fell within the preceding broad limits, I scanned for any material which could be considered
relevant to the list of topics I had previously prepared. I have only made two exceptions to
these guidelines. In the first place, I did not look for any work written in the 20th or 21st
centuries by individual Catholic authors. The reason for this is that in this period there is
already an abundance of official pronouncements by popes, episcopal conferences and
departments of the Roman curia. Secondly, I have included material of evangelical or
Pentecostal origin even though most such groups are rather less old than I specified.
However, they make up for this by their weight in the contemporary Christian scene. As can
be seen, the basic criterion has been to include material that has been recognised to embody
Christian standards by a substantial body of believers over a relatively long period of time.
I think that the result of my efforts at collecting and ordering Christian material relevant to
present-day questions of business ethics already has a value in itself. The passages I
gathered can be found either indented within my own text or in the “additional material”
appendixes which most sections carry.
At an early stage in the project my idea was to present this material without any additions, or
at most with a very light connecting text. However, as I used the material for teaching
purposes, it soon became clear that most potential readers would find it useful if I made an
effort to highlight the main conclusions that I thought could be drawn from it gathered.
I have been pleased that many Christian managers who have seen parts of this book have
found them useful and that most of them have said that it throws light on the implications of
their faith for their daily professional practice. However, the reactions of academics who
have seen sections of the book have been more mixed. As perhaps was bound to happen in
viii
view of the intellectual fashions of the day, a good number of them have raised the question:
“But according to what criteria have you selected the material, and what hermeneutic keys
have you used in distilling the main lines in it?” I find it very interesting that many people
who raise this type of question do not consider it necessary to wait for an answer; they tend
to think that simply raising the question is enough to convict the project.
I hope that I am as aware of the hermeneutic problem as any man who has paid his dues in
academic life and that I can appreciate the issues that arise when we take the hermeneutic
question seriously. But for the life of me I cannot see that this negates the usefulness of an
attempt to see what the Christian tradition has to teach us in any field. It is true that
“Christian tradition” (at least as I am using the term here) is a fuzzy expression; that literally
millions of documents have some sort of claim to be considered part of that tradition; and
that even if we restrict ourselves to the texts I have selected, alternative readings of them are
possible with a greater or lesser degree of verisimilitude. Still, as far as I can see the only
proper retort to what I have done is to do it better and reach different conclusions. I do not
pretend for a moment that any of my interpretations is the best possible one, or even that,
this side of eternity, we can attain a “perfect interpretation” of any of the sets of materials I
have studied. I simply submit my own attempt to public examination, and in order to make
this examination easier I explain the criteria of text selection (fuzzy as they are) that I have
used, provide a list of the texts from which I have derived the interpretations I have
ultimately found to make better sense, and declare that I will be delighted to be shown either
additional texts that I have missed (one man can read only so much), or more convincing
interpretations to be derived from the texts I have put together. In other words, as far as I can
see the proper way to trump a certain interpretation of a complex and open-ended series of
texts is not with a general reference to the seriousness of the hermeneutic problem, but with
a better interpretation.
In the long process of researching and writing this book I have incurred innumerable
debts of gratitude, so many that I find it impossible to list all those who have helped me.
There are two people, however, whose influence on this work has been so extensive that I
cannot fail to mention them explicitly. One is Germain Grisez. As anybody familiar with
his writings will easily realize, several of the organizing ideas of this book derive from
his work. The other is Saint Josemaría Escrivá. I had the good fortune of meeting him
several times when he was still among us and have read frequently his published and
unpublished works. His influence on my understanding of Christianity has been so
pervasive and deep that I can no longer distinguish what I have received from him from
what I owe to other sources or to my own reflection. Echoes of his teachings will be
found throughout the following pages. Of course, none of the two bear any responsibility
for the way in which I have used their ideas.
ix
ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
Gn
Ex
Lv
Nm
Dt
Jos
Jgs
Ru
1 Sam
2 Sam
1 Kgs
2 Kgs
1 Chr
Ezr
Neh
Tb
Jdt
Est
1 Mc
2 Mc
Jb
Ps
Prv
Eccl
Sg
Wis
Sir
Is
Jer
Lam
Bar
Ezk
Dan
Hos
Jl
Am
Ob
Jon
Mi
Na
Hab
Zep
Hg
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Tobit
Judith
Esther
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs
Wisdom
Ecclesiasticus
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Baruch
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
x
Zc
Mal
Mt
Mk
Lk
Jn
Acts
Rom
1 Cor
2 Cor
Gal
Eph
Phil
Col
1 Thes
2 Thes
1 Tm
2 Tm
Ti
Phm
Heb
Jas
1 Pt
2 Pt
1 Jn
2 Jn
3 Jn
Jude
Rv
Zechariah
Malachi
Mathew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation
xi
AUTHORS AND SOURCES CITED
Didache or “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles” (80-90). Unknown author. Little treatise of instructions on
Christian organization and life; it enjoyed great prestige among early Christians.
St. Clement of Rome. Bishop of Rome (92-101). Clement to the Corinthians (95-98). Second or third
successor of Peter as Bishop of Rome from year 90 to 100.
Letter of Barnabas (96-98). Author unknown; legend attributed it to the companion of St. Paul.
St. Ignatius of Antioch (died 107-10). Second sucessor to Peter as Bishop of Antioch.
Papias (died 150) Papias wrote “The Explanations of the Sayings of the Lord” around the year 130. Direct
disciple of John the Evangelist. Bishop of Hierapolis.
St. Polycarp (c 69- c 155). Direct disciple of John the Evangelist. Bishop of Smyrna.
Shepherd of Hermas (140-55). Uncertain author. It had great authority in the early centuries. A freed greek
slave. Written about the middle of the Second Century
Epistle to Diognetus. Author unknown. It is an apology of Christianity, written in the second century.
St. Justin (died c. 165). A convert to Christianity, defended Christianity through his knowledge of
philosophy; opened a school in Rome; sent to the emperors two defences of Christianity. Died martyred.
Tatian (120-died after 172). He was trained in philosophy and was a disciple of Justin. Later in his life he
apostatized and became a Gnostic.
St. Irenaeus (c 120 – 202). Bishop of Lyons in France. He fought vigorously the Gnostic heresy.
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215). Leader of the catechetical school of Alexandria in Egypt. He was
both a Christian teacher and a philosopher.
Minucius Felix. Very little is known of him except that he was a lawyer in Rome and that he wrote
Octavius (c. 210)
Tertullian (160- after 220). A professional lawyer, later ordained a priest. Wrote many works in defence of
Christianity. About 202 became a Montanist.
Hippolytus of Rome c. (170-235). A member of the Roman clergy. At a time became anti-pope, but later
died a martyr, reconciled to the current Pope.
Origen (185-254). Extremely brilliant; already at 18 became President of the School of Alexandria. The
most extensive writer of all the early Fathers, being the author of over 2,000 works.
St. Cyprian (c. 200 – 258). Bishop of Carthage. He suffered martyrdom during the persecution of Valerian.
Didascalia. A Church Order published in Syria early in the third century to instruct converts from
paganism; it contains chiefly Church law and moral instruction.
Lactantius. A Christian apologist of the fourth century. He was a professional rhetorician whom the
Emperor Constantine invited to teach his son.
xii
Novatian. A member of the Roman clergy who became an anti-pope; he founded the sect of the Novatians.
He lived in the third century.
Eusebius of Cesarea (c. 263-340). Bishop of Cesarea. Celebrated historian of the early Church.
St. Athanasius (c. 295-373). Bishop of Alexandria for nearly half a century. Leading defender of the faith
against Arianism.
St. Hilary of Poiters (c. 300 – c. 368). Bishop of Poitiers, one of the leaders in the struggle of the Western
Church against Arianism.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315 – 386). Bishop of Jerusalem.
St. Basil the Great (329-379). Bishop of Cesarea. Final architect of monachism as it still obtains in Eastern
Christianity
St. Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329-390). Very close friend of St. Basil. Extremely erudite and eloquent. He
became the bishop of Constantinople.
St. Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 394). Bishop of Nyssa. He was one of the main theologians at the
Council of Constantinople (381)
St. Ambrose (c. 339 – 397). When still very young he became governor of Northern Italy and, when still a
catechumen, was chosen Bishop of Milan by popular acclaim. On his election he sold his property to be
distributed among the poor and became an exemplary pastor. He was a friend and adviser of emperors and
one of the great public figures of his time.
Apostolic Constitutions. Compiled in Syria about 380. A collection of liturgical laws.
St. Jerome (347-420). His translation of the Bible had unparalleled authority during many centuries. He
also wrote many commentaries on the books of the Bible.
St. John Chrysostom (344-407). Bishop of Constantinople. His powerful eloquence earned him the name
Chrysostom – “the golden mouthed.” He died in exile over his uncompromising defence of the faith.
St. Augustine (354-430). Bishop of Hippo, in Northern Africa. No Latin Father has left so many and so
extensive works as him, There is no Father whose works have been adopted more extensively than
Augustine by ecumenical councils as a standard expression of the faith.
Cassian (360-435). Monk, theologian and founder of the famous abbey of SaintVictor. His writings have
influenced all Western monasticism.
St. Cyril of Alexandria (370-444). Patriarch of Alexandria. He defended Christological doctrine against
Nestorius in the face of very serious opposition.
St. Leo the Great. (Pope 440-461), at a time when the Roman Empire was overrun by the barbarians. He is
commonly considered one of the greatest popes.
St. Benedict (480-547). He chose to live a solitary life at Subiaco and eventually organized a form of
monastic life. He is the author of a very famous rule for monks which was most influential in the
development of monasticism.
St. Gregory the Great. (Pope 590-604). He was a prefect of Rome and later became a monk. Eventually
he became Pope and greatly influenced the life of the Church. One of his most far-reaching actions was to
send missionaries to England.
xiii
Venerable Bede (672-735). Spent all his life in a monastery. He was a Church historian and by common
consent was reputed one of the most learned men of his time.
St. John Damascene (c. 675 – c. 749). The last great Greek theologian, he gathered and compiled the
theological wisdom of the Fathers who had preceded him, thereby preserving it for the future. He was the
orthodox leader in the iconoclast controversy.
St. Anselm (1033-1109). Benedictine monk and Archbishop of Canterbury. He is called the Father of
Scholastic Theology.
St. Bernard (1090-1153). A Cistercian abbot and a great preacher. He was very influential on Church and
secular events of his time.
St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226). Founder of the religious order of the Franciscans.
St. Albert The Great (1197?–1280). A Dominican religious and a professor of theology. He is best known
as the teacher of Thomas Aquinas.
St. Bonaventure (1218-1274). Franciscan monk, bishop and theologian. He became the General of the
Franciscan Order.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). He was a Dominican monk and is considered one of the greatest
philosophers and theologians of all times. His monumental work, The Summa Theologica was still
unfinished when he died.
John Duns Scotus (c. 1266 – 1308). Franciscan monk. He was a philosopher and theologian and had great
influence in later centuries on the evolution of these disciplines.
St. Catherine of Siena. (1347-1380). In spite of her youth she had a great influence on the Italy of her time
and was instrumental in convincing the Pope to move back from Avignon to Italy in the face of the
opposition of many.
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471). Augustinian monk and author of The Imitation of Christ, one of the most
popular books of spirituality ever written.
St. Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444). Franciscan priest who achieved great renown as a preacher. He
refused several cities that wanted him as bishop but he was unable to avoid being named vicar general of
his order.
Antoninus of Florence (1389 – 1459). Dominican priest who became Archbishop of Florence. He is
considered one of the founders of modern moral theology.
St. Thomas More (1477-1535). He was the Chancellor of King Henry VIII. He was condemned to death
because of his refusal to give up his fidelity to Rome.
Martin Luther (1483-1546). German augustinian monk whose Ninety-Five Theses, an attack against
various ecclesiastical abuses, precipitated the Protestant Reformation.
St. Louis of Granada (1505-1588). He was Spain’s most popular spiritual writer in the 16th Century. He
was constantly in great demand everywhere as a preacher and his books were eventually translated into 25
foreign languages.
Francisco de Vitoria (1483-1546). Spanish theologian best remembered for his defense of the rights of
American Indians and for his ideas on just war.
xiv
Domingo de Soto (1495-1560). Dominican. Professor of theology in the University of Salamanca and
leading theologian in the Council of Trent.
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575). Spanish theologian
John Calvin (1509-1564). One of the most important Protestant Reformers of the 16th century. Founder of
Calvinism, that he directed in the city of Geneva.
St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582). Reformer of the Order of the Carmelites. One of the most influential
Catholic authors on prayer and the spiritual life.
Luis Molina (1536-1600). He is best known for his work on how divine grace and human freedom can be
compatible.
St. Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621). Professor of theology in Louvain and Rome. He was also a Bishop
and a cardinal.
Catechism of the Council of Trent|(1566). This large catechism was written under instructions of the
Council of Trent. It was designed to supply parish priests with an official book of instruction for the
faithful.
St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622). Bishop of Geneva during very difficult times.
William Laud (1573-1645). Anglican clergyman who became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633.
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667). Anglican bishop. His writers were broadly popular and influential.
Richard Baxter (1615-1691). Puritan minister and very influential and popular writer of devotional and
theological works.
John Bunyan (1628-1688). Celebrated English minister and preacher. His most famous work is The
Pilgrim’s Progress, a book which has been considered the most characteristic expression of the Puritan
religious outlook
Benedict XIV (Pope 1740-1758). Responsible for reforming the education of priests and many papal
institutions. Also known to have begun the list of historical texts in the Vatican library.
St. Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787). He was a lawyer before becoming a priest. He has been extremely
influential for his work on moral theology.
John Wesley (1703-1791). Anglican clergyman, evangelist, and founder of Methodism.
St. Jean-Baptiste-Marie Vianney (“The Curé of Ars”) (1786-1859). He was the parish priest of Ars, a
small French village. From this place he became known throughout France and indeed throughout the
Christian world. People came to him from all over France and from other countries to hear him preach and
to ask for his advice.
John Henry Newman (1801-1890). He led the Oxford Movement in the Church of England. Later he
converted to Catholicism and became a cardinal.
Leo XIII (Pope 1878-1903). He was the oldest pope. He reigned until he was 93. Known for
intellectualism, the development of social teachings and his attempts to define the position of the Church
with regard to modern thinking.
xv
Pius XI (Pope 1922-1939). He issued numerous letters including Quadragesimo Anno which highlights
capitalistic greed of international finance, social justice issues. Throughout his life he was an accomplished
scholar, librarian and humble priest.
Pius XII (Pope 1939-1958). He contributed largely to the rebuilding of Europe after the World war II, and
was an advocate of peace and reconciliation, including lenient policies toward vanquished nations and the
unification of Europe. He was known as a staunch opponent of communism because of his protests of the
severe persecution and mass deportations that catholics suffered.
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963). Professor of Medieval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge and prolific and
best-selling Christian writer
John XXIII (Pope 1958-1963). He convoked the Vatican Council.
Vatican Council II (1962-1965). The twenty-first Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church, convened
by the world’s Bishops to seek new ways of addressing the tremendous challenges, faced at that time,
which threatened theological and biblical studies of the Catholic Church.
Paul VI (Pope 1963-1978). He encouraged and fostered improved ecumenical relations with Orthodox,
Anglicans and Protestants, which resulted in a number of historic meetings and agreements.
John Paul II (Pope 1978- ) . known as one of the most influential leaders of the twentieth century.
Believed to be instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe.
Known also for his firm, orthodox Catholic position on matters concerning ordination of women and
contraception.
Billy Graham (1918- . ) American evangelist. Very well known because of his revival crusades and
writing. He has been a close friend and adviser of several American presidents.
Synod of Bishops. A periodic meeting of Catholic bishops from all over the world established in 1965 by
Pope Paul VI.
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication. A coulcil of the Holy See involved in
questions touching on the instruments of social communication.
Lutheran Church in America.
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Department of the Holy See established in 1542, by
Pope Paul III with the task "to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe
errors and false doctrines".
Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas (1985). A special commission
established by the Primate of the Anglican Church to examine the strengths, problems and needs of the
Church's life and mission in Urban Priority Areas.
United Church of Christ.
United States Catholic Conference. Founded in 1996 to address the issues of the church as a part of the
larger society. Members include Bishops, clergy, lay persons and the religious in the United States of
America.
xvi
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. The official leadership body of the Roman Catholic
Church in the US. Formed in July 2001 through a merger of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops
and United States Catholic Conference.
Oxford Declaration (1990). A declaration on the effect of the Christian faith against the economic realities
of life. It was issued jointly by Anglican theologians, economists, church leaders & business managers
from different parts of the world.
Chewning, Eby and Roels. R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of
Faith, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester, 1990. This book is especially significant as it is a project of the US
Christian College coalition in which over eighty faculty members of business departments of Christian
colleges co-operated. Therefore, it can be taken as being fairly representative of contemporary evangelical
views on business.
Lutheran Church in Canada.
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994). An official exposition/description of the teachings of the
Catholic Church
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC)
Synod of Russian Orthodox Church.
Working Group of Public Policy and Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada
(ELCIC) (1996). The unit within the ELCIC that deals with all public and social issues including
developing programmes for poverty alleviation.
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany. Council which governs the activities of the Evangelical
Church of Germany – a body of different denominations of churches in Germany united under one head.
German Episcopal Conference (Catholic). The assembly of all catholic Bishops in Germany.
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria. The assembly of all catholic Bishops in Nigeria.
Amsterdam Declaration (2000). Joint report presented at the conclusion of a gathering in Amsterdam,
convoked by Dr. Billy Graham, of some 10,000 evangelists, theologians and church leaders in evangelical
churches from over 200 countries.
United Methodist Church.
Assemblies of God.
xvii
CHAPTER 1 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 1
CHAPTER 1 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 1
9
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9
Solidarity among all human beings and hierarchy of responsibilities ................... 10
Hierarchy of responsibilities ................................................................................... 14
Co-operation as a form of solidarity ....................................................................... 16
Additional material on solidarity ........................................................................ 17
Additional material on hierarchy of responsibilities .......................................... 24
Wealth and material goods in a Christian perspective............................................ 25
The goodness and danger of material goods ........................................................... 26
Relative unimportance of material goods................................................................ 27
Detachment.............................................................................................................. 28
Later Christian teachings ......................................................................................... 30
Additional material on Christian teachings on the value of material goods....... 32
Work in a Christian perspective ................................................................................ 43
Practical consequences ............................................................................................ 47
Additional material on work in a Christian perspective ..................................... 48
Introduction
Most of this book will be devoted to examining what Christianity has to teach about very
concrete business issues such as pricing, advertising, salaries, and the fiduciary duties of
employees. There could be a grave danger of missing the wood for the trees if we were to
plunge straight away to consider such relatively narrow questions. The Christian tradition
contains a rich set of teachings on work, economic activity and social relations that have
a direct bearing on business activities. Somebody who is steeped in these teachings will
necessarily take a very different approach to business issues from that of somebody who
has a purely secular perspective on his work. A Christian not only applies different moral
norms in specific aspects of his business activities; his whole approach to work is
different.
A Christian sees other human beings in a characteristic light: all of them are actual or
potential children of God; they are also his “neighbours,” whom he tries to love. He also
has a distinctive attitude to wealth and material goods. For him they are both blessings
from God and a source of serious dangers to his Christian life, which should be handled
with appropriate precautions.
For many people work is a way (often unpleasant) to earn a living, a test of their skills
and capacities, and the occasion of establishing relationships with other people. Beyond
this, Christians see in their work a means of uniting themselves to God by co-operating
with him in his work of creation and salvation, and a way to make ready material for
God’s eternal kingdom.
9
Intellectuals, academics, politicians, artists, media practitioners and professional people
often look on businessmen with a hardly veiled disdain. Often businesspeople themselves
also fail to see anything especially admirable in the way in which they make a living. In
contrast, Christianity teaches that business people follow a vital Christian vocation at the
service of the common good of the society. The vocational view of their work that
Christians are enjoined to take is in the sharpest contrast with the way most people view
their “careers.” Rather than concentrating on identifying the job opportunities which will
better provide him with a high standard of living and a prestigious status, the main
concern of a Christian in choosing a job is how it will fit in with the specific vocation to
which he feels called by God. He sees his profession itself as a crucial part of that
vocation.
Many businessmen have as their motto “business is business” and define business success
exclusively in terms of the bottom line. For a Christian, on the other hand, all activities
(business activities very much included) have to be measured by the same moral
standards. Christians are also challenged by their faith to have a deep commitment to
establish and promote human rights, justice and solidarity—also through their
professional activities.
Finally, and perhaps most decisively, a Christian does not seek “success” as his ultimate
objective. Whatever the apparent immediate success or failure of his efforts, he knows
that “in the Lord [his] labour is not in vain” (1 Cor 15:58).
The preceding paragraphs provide the barest sketch of the background beliefs of a
Christian businessman. This chapter and the next discuss at greater length the themes I
have outlined here. I hope, however, that even this rapid summary makes it clear that
those beliefs, if deeply held, cannot possibly be peripheral to a Christian’s work. Beyond
the specific demands of any concrete moral norms, the Christian faith is bound to
transform radically his attitude to his work.
Solidarity among all human beings and hierarchy of responsibilities
In order to understand the Christian conception of business, it is essential to know what
the Christian tradition has to teach on how human beings are meant to relate to each
other.
There is a sharp contrast between the Christian teachings in this area and the ideas that
are often taken for granted in business life. It is perhaps significant that the metaphor of
business life as a jungle is so popular among business people, and that the phrase
“business is business” is invoked so often to try to justify the application of different and
special standards in this area of life. The implicit idea would seem to be that business is a
realm in which it is all right for each one to think only about himself.
The Christian conception of what relations among human beings ought to be like is the
very opposite of the law of the jungle. Christianity preaches love of neighbour and this is
10
not just an inspiring injunction, not meant to be taken literally when serious and practical
decisions have to be taken. On the contrary, a Christian has to love his neighbour not only
in church or in social occasions, but also in business, and even in war. There is a striking
insistence throughout the Christian tradition on the need to take with the utmost
seriousness the commandment of love for one’s neighbour.
Scripture depicts man as a social being who should never be indifferent to his brothers.
For this reason, a basic vice the Bible attacks constantly is lack of solidarity, indifference
towards the plight of others.
When the prophet Jeremiah announces the coming deportation to Babylon, he offers the
following explanation for this terrible punishment:
Their houses shall be turned over to others, their fields and wives together; for I will
stretch out my hand against the inhabitants of the land, says the Lord. For from the least
to the greatest of them, every one is greedy for unjust gain; and from prophet to priest,
every one deals falsely (Jer 6:12-13).
It should be noted that the original expression that the Revised Standard Version
translates as “every one is greedy for unjust gain” is more literally translated as “every
one seeks his own benefit.” The point, of course, is that the root of the sins of Israel is
that each person has restricted his concern to his own immediate interests and thereby
broken the bonds of solidarity linking them with each other.
This fault was not of recent origin. The Bible tells us that the instauration of the
monarchy had its origin in the corruption of the sons of Samuel; we are also explicitly
told that this corruption resulted from their “turning aside after gain,” another way of
“seeking their own benefit”:
Yet his sons did not walk in his ways, but turned aside after gain; they took bribes and
perverted justice (1 Sam 8:3).
However, by itself the institution of the monarchy did not solve the problem. In fact,
many of the kings also became selfish in their attitude and used their position to enrich
themselves while neglecting the people entrusted to their care. This happened, for
instance, to King Jehoiakim, who is described as an oriental despot who oppresses his
subjects:
Do you think you are a king because you compete in cedar? … But you have eyes and
heart only for your dishonest gain, for shedding innocent blood, and for practicing
oppression and violence (Jer 22:15-17).
Selfishness was not confined to kings. We are told that traders and landlords were equally
selfish:
They have all turned to their own way, each to his own gain, one and all (Is 56:11).
11
All of this represented a radical betrayal of God’s law:
You shall love your neighbour as yourself: I am the Lord (Lv 18:19).
What the Bible shows us again and again is a picture of men who narrow down the
horizon of their concerns to their own immediate interests and in doing so separate
themselves from their fellow human beings and from God. Among many other places, an
example of this double separation can be found in the following passage of Ezekiel:
You make gain of your neighbors by extortion; and you have forgotten me, says the Lord
God (Ezk 22:12).
The standard of love for one’s neighbour was limited in the Old Testament, for it was
restricted to the circle of the Jewish nation. Our Lord transcended these limits and made it
clear that he expected his disciples to do the same. This is taught, for instance, in the
parable of the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:30-37) the point of which is precisely that we must
consider that anyone in need is our neighbour, irrespective of national limits. That Our
Lord meant to extend to everybody without restrictions the duties that traditionally were
enjoined on the Jews only towards their fellow Jews was made abundantly clear by his
explicit instruction that one should love even one’s enemies:
But love your enemies, and do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return; and your
reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High; for he is kind to the
ungrateful and the selfish. Be merciful, even as your Father is merciful (Lk 6:35-36).
The way this doctrine is repeated and enacted throughout the New Testament is well
known and there is no need to rehearse it here. Much less well known, and extremely
impressive, is the way this standard was applied by the first generations of Christians.
Thus, for instance, still during the first century of the Christian era, Clement (bishop of
Rome 92-101) tells in a letter that some Christians, moved by their desire to help other
Christians who found themselves in situations of extreme need, had resorted to selling
themselves into slavery to raise the necessary funds:
We know that many among ourselves have given themselves up to chains in order to
redeem others; many have surrendered themselves to slavery and provided food for
others with the price they received for themselves.1
Obviously, such people took quite seriously the commandment to love one’s neighbour
as oneself.
Quotations from Fathers of the Church could be multiplied indefinitely and the reader
will find a good number of them in the “Additional material” section. At this point it will
be enough to bring two quotations of Saint John Chrysostom (344-407). The issue which
concerns him here is what a Christian should do with his own qualities and talents. The
1
St. Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corinthians, 1.2.
12
advice is clear and to the point: make sure that you use them for the common good; care
for your neighbours.
Everyone is bound to make full use of what he has for the common good. If it is wisdom
that you have, or power, or wealth, or whatever, let it not be for the ruin of your fellowservants nor for your own ruin… 2
This is the rule of the most perfect Christianity, its most exact definition, its highest point,
namely, the seeking of the common good. Paul himself states it when he says: “Even as I
also am of Christ” For nothing can so make a man an imitator of Christ as caring for his
neighbors.3
Taking now a thousand-year leap we come to Saint Thomas Moore (1477-1535), a man
who, having occupied the highest positions in government, should not be suspected of
being an impractical dreamer. He offers the following advice to somebody who has
several options open to him:
You might, by the advice which it is in your power to give, do a great deal of good to
mankind, and this is the chief design that every good man ought to propose to himself in
living.4
And a little later, in the same work, he adds:
Reason directs us that we should consider ourselves as bound by the ties of good-nature
and humanity to use our utmost endeavours to help forward the happiness of all other
persons.5
John Calvin (1509-1564) enjoins the same standard using very similar words; the only
difference being that instead of referring to procuring the “happiness” of our neighbour
he speaks of our neighbour’s “tranquility”:
Since the Lord has bound the whole human race by a kind of unity, the safety of all ought
to be considered as entrusted to each. Accordingly, we are required faithfully to do what
in us lies to defend the life of our neighbour; to promote whatever tends to his tranquility,
to be vigilant in warding off harm, and, when danger comes, to assist in removing it.6
A very important point in the Christian conception of love and service to others is that, in
its highest exponents (including Our Lord himself), this behaviour is not presented as
being “altruistic”, that is to say, as consisting in sacrificing one’s own interests to those of
others. On the contrary, Our Lord specifically said that “whoever loses his life will
preserve it” (Lk 17:33)7 and that “it is more blessed to give than to receive” (Acts 20:35).
In other words, in the Christian vision this readiness to put one’s talents and efforts to the
2
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, LXXVII, 3.
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Letter to the Corinthians, XXV, 3.
4
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
5
St. Thomas More, Utopia
6
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Bk 2, Ch. 8, 39.
7
See also Mt 10:39; Mt 16:25; Mk 8:35; Jn 12:25.
3
13
service of others is precisely the most direct road to finding personal fulfillment. In recent
times, this idea has been stressed by Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
Man can fully discover his true self only in a sincere giving of himself.8
This statement of Vatican II has received added prominence because John Paul II has
highlighted it frequently in his preaching, often referring to it as “the law of the gift.”
George Weigel has often commented on this “law”, describing it as “the fundamental
challenge of the moral life in classic Catholic terms: the challenge to make ourselves a
gift to others. Everything else—including rules and laws, prescriptions and
proscriptions—revolves around that. Giving ourselves equips us to be the kind of people
who can live with God, a Trinity of self-giving Persons, forever.”9
Lastly, to bring this series of references down to very recent times, the following
quotation from the Amsterdam Declaration (2000), prepared by a large group of
prominent evangelicals, is appropriate:
The gospel proclaims the kingship of the loving Creator who is committed to justice, to
human life and the welfare of his creation. So evangelism will need to be accompanied by
obedience to God’s command to work for the good of all in a way that is fitting for the
children of the Father who makes his sun shine on the evil and the good and sends his
rain on the righteous and the unrighteous alike.10
Hierarchy of responsibilities
Should one conclude from this that as one should love everybody, one owes exactly the
same duties to everybody? As some have put it: Does the precept of universal charity
forbid a father to spend money in providing a good education for his son for so long as
there remains anywhere on earth another child who needs the money more urgently (e.g.,
to avoid starvation)? Not according to the Christian tradition. A clear point that emerges
from the teachings of the New Testament and from those of later Christians is that while
our love should not exclude anybody, our responsibilities to others are ordered in a
hierarchy so that some have precedence over others. This is an idea of great practical
importance that should always be emphasized in discussing the Christian precept of
charity. The frequent failure to do so results in many people finding themselves unable to
figure out how they could possibly practice a universal charity and concluding that the
task is simply beyond them.
The hierarchy of our responsibilities cannot be defined in abstract terms with
mathematical precision, but its main outlines are clear enough. For instance, in the Epistle
to the Galatians Saint Paul states that, other things being equal, we have a stronger
responsibility towards the brothers in the faith:
8
Gaudium et Spes, n. 24.
George Weigel, The Truth of Catholicism, New York, Harper Collins, 2001, p. 75.
10
Amsterdam Declaration, n. 11.
9
14
So then, as we have opportunity, let us do good to all men, and especially to those who
are of the household of faith (Gal 6:10).
And in the First Epistle to Timothy he states in very strong terms the special duty we
have towards our relatives, and more especially towards the members of the closer
family.
If any one does not provide for his relatives, and especially for his own family, he has
disowned the faith and is worse than an unbeliever (1 Tm 5:8).
One certainly does not get the impression that Saint Paul would think it an acceptable
excuse for not providing adequate education for one’s son that one had donated all his
income to Oxfam for the relief of hunger in some far away land.
Reflecting on these and similar texts, Saint Augustine (354-430) articulates a general
criterion for ordering our different responsibilities:
All men are to be loved equally. But since you cannot do good to all, you are to pay
special regard to those who, by the accidents of time, or place, or circumstance, are
brought into closer connection with you.11
The main principle that Saint Augustine proposes for ordering our different
responsibilities to different people seems to be one of proximity: the closer a person is to
oneself by reason of any circumstance, the more closely united to oneself that person is
and that should be taken as an index of one’s responsibilities to her. It is especially
important to notice that neither Saint Augustine nor any other Christian author referred to
in this section says that a Christian should not love those who are far; in fact, Saint
Augustine states explicitly that all men are to be loved equally. The reason offered by
Saint Augustine to prioritize our concerns is a practical one: one cannot do good to all,
and therefore for the sake of effectiveness one has to concentrate one’s efforts on some
people. On whom? On those whom God has placed closer to oneself. Why? Saint
Augustine does not discuss this issue explicitly but his underlying rationale seems clear
enough. If God had wanted me to give priority in my efforts to a different set of people,
he would have placed me nearer to them. Obviously God’s creative action is informed by
his purposes and therefore the fact that a person is closer to some than to others can be
taken (of course, together with other factors) as an indication of God’s purposes for that
person.
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) agrees squarely with Saint Augustine on this matter
and he also favours the criterion of proximity of connection:
We ought to be most beneficent towards those who are most closely connected with us.12
11
12
St Augustine, Christian Doctrine, Bk I, Ch. 28.
St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 31, a. 3.
15
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) elaborates on the practical implications of vocational
responsibilities for ordering the lives and choices of ordinary people. He does not
hesitate, for instance, in taking a person’s specific vocational responsibilities as an
indication that a counsel of Our Lord is not specifically addressed to that person:
Charity not only does not permit fathers of families to sell all things to the poor; it also
commands them to accumulate honestly what is needed for the education and support of
wife, children and servants.13
It is interesting to notice how Saint Francis de Sales lists the need to support a person’s
servants among the priority obligations of that person. This, of course, is perfectly
consistent with the criterion of proximity to which we have been referring. Additionally,
it has a special interest for a businessman. It seems clear that Saint Francis de Sales
would have judged that a business owner has a priority responsibility to do what is
needed (e.g., in terms of re-investment, of level of salaries, of business expansion) to
ensure the prosperity of his business, and therefore of his employees (the typical modern
equivalent to Francis de Sales’ “servants”).
Co-operation as a form of solidarity
It is also possible to misunderstand the commandment of love of neighbour, especially as
it applies to the field of business, by unthinkingly translating “loving” as “free giving” (in
the sense of doing something for somebody without expecting anything in return). It
would follow from this, for instance, that a businessman would be the better Christian the
less he charged for his goods, the more accommodating he was towards his suppliers, or
the more reluctant he was to close down an unprofitable factory. There is no warrant in
the Christian tradition for such drastic over-simplifications. We will reserve a discussion
of the relevant issues for later sections in this book. It will be enough to observe at this
point that two persons, each of which is full of Christian love for the other, can very well
choose to co-operate in a common project for their joint (not one-sided) advantage and
there is nothing in the structure of that relationship that in any way is opposed to or
undermines their Christian love. Considered in themselves, as general types of behaviour,
neither “free-giving” nor “co-operation” are more loving than the other. After all,
behaviours in themselves do not love; only persons do. Which type of behaviour will be
more appropriate at a given moment as an expression of Christian love will depend on the
circumstances of the case. Generally speaking, one should expect that co-operation will
be most often the appropriate way of interaction between competent, self-sufficient
persons, who are the typical actors in modern, developed, market-oriented economies. As
we will see, this does not exclude that in some situations the Christian duty to help those
unable to help themselves may come to the fore, but the understanding of many important
issues in business ethics can easily be vitiated if what is a special case is assumed to be
the general rule.
13
St Francis de Sales, Treatise on the Love of God, bk. 8, ch. 6.
16
Additional material on solidarity
Then the five men departed, and came to La'ish, and saw the people who were there, how
they dwelt in security, after the manner of the Sido'nians, quiet and unsuspecting, lacking
nothing that is in the earth, and possessing wealth, and how they were far from the
Sido'nians and had no dealings with any one. … the Danites came to La'ish, to a people
quiet and unsuspecting, and smote them with the edge of the sword, and burned the city
with fire. And there was no deliverer because it was far from Sidon, and they had no
dealings with any one (Jgs 18:7 & 27-28).
He who withholds kindness from a friend forsakes the fear of the Almighty (Jb 6:14).
But Jason slew his countrymen without mercy, not considering that prosperity against
one's own kindred is a very great evil (2 Mc 5:6).
Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their toil. For if they fall,
one will lift up his fellow; but woe to him who is alone when he falls and has not another
to lift him up. Again, if two lie together, they are warm; but how can one be warm alone?
And though a man might prevail against one who is alone, two will withstand him. A
threefold cord is not quickly broken (Sir 4:9-12).
For they reasoned unsoundly, saying to themselves … Let us oppress the poor just man,
and not spare the widow, nor honour the ancient grey hairs of the aged (Wis 2:1&10).
With three things my spirit is pleased, which are approved before God and men: The
concord of brethren, and the love of neighbours, and man and wife that agree well
together (Sir 25:1).
Father and mother are treated with contempt in you; the sojourner suffers extortion in
your midst; the fatherless and the widow are wronged in you (Ezk 22:7).
And they come to you as people come, and they sit before you as my people, and they
hear what you say but they will not do it; for with their lips they show much love, but
their heart is set on their gain. And, lo, you are to them like one who sings love songs
with a beautiful voice and plays well on an instrument, for they hear what you say, but
they will not do it. (Ezk 33:31-32).
Thus says the Lord: "For three transgressions of Israel, and for four, I will not revoke the
punishment; because they sell the righteous for silver, and the needy for a pair of shoes—
they that trample the head of the poor into the dust of the earth, and turn aside the way of
the afflicted; a man and his father go in to the same maiden, so that my holy name is
profaned.” (Am 2:6-7).
Therefore because you trample upon the poor and take from him exactions of wheat, you
have built houses of hewn stone, but you shall not dwell in them; you have planted
pleasant vineyards, but you shall not drink their wine (Am 5:11).
Thus says the Lord of hosts… show kindness and mercy each to his brother (Zc 7:9).
Thus says the Lord of hosts, Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy each to his
brother, do not oppress the widow, the fatherless, the sojourner, or the poor; and let none
of you devise evil against his brother in your heart (Zc 7:9-10).
17
Then I will draw near to you for judgment; I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers,
against the adulterers, against those who swear falsely, against those who oppress the
hireling in his wages, the widow and the orphan, against those who thrust aside the
sojourner, and do not fear me, says the Lord of hosts (Mal 3:5).
But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you
may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on
the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust (Mt 5:44-45).
And as you wish that men would do to you, do so to them (Lk 6:31).
By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another (Jn
13:35).
The commandments, "You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You shall not
steal, You shall not covet," and any other commandment, are summed up in this sentence,
"You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Rom 13:9).
Let no one seek his own good, but the good of his neighbor (1 Cor 10:24).
For the body does not consist of one member but of many … The eye cannot say to the
hand, "I have no need of you," nor again the head to the feet, "I have no need of you."
But God has so composed the body … that the members may have the same care for one
another. If one member suffers, all suffer together; if one member is honored, all rejoice
together (1 Cor 12:14-26).
For you were called to freedom, brethren; only do not use your freedom as an
opportunity for the flesh, but through love be servants of one another. For the whole law
is fulfilled in one word, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." But if you bite and
devour one another take heed that you are not consumed by one another (Gal 5:13-15).
Bear one another's burdens, and so fulfil the law of Christ (Gal 6:2).
So then, as we have opportunity, let us do good to all men, and especially to those who
are of the household of faith (Gal 6:10).
So if there is any encouragement in Christ, any incentive of love, any participation in the
Spirit, any affection and sympathy, complete my joy by being of the same mind, having
the same love, being in full accord and of one mind. Do nothing from selfishness or
conceit, but in humility count others better than yourselves. Let each of you look not only
to his own interests, but also to the interests of others (Phil 2:1-4 ).
See that none of you repays evil for evil, but always seek to do good to one another and to
all (1 Thes 5:15).
Do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such sacrifices are pleasing to
God (Heb 13:16).
He who says he is in the light and hates his brother is in the darkness still. He who loves
his brother abides in the light, and in it there is no cause for stumbling (1 Jn 2:9-10).
18
By this we know love, that he laid down his life for us; and we ought to lay down our lives
for the brethren. But if any one has the world's goods and sees his brother in need, yet
closes his heart against him, how does God's love abide in him? Little children, let us not
love in word or speech but in deed and in truth (1 Jn 3: 16-18).
Beloved, let us love one another; for love is of God, and he who loves is born of God and
knows God. He who does not love does not know God; for God is love (1 Jn 4:7-8).
Beloved, if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another. No man has ever seen
God; if we love one another, God abides in us and his love is perfected in us (1 Jn 4:1112).
If any one says, "I love God," and hates his brother, he is a liar; for he who does not love
his brother whom he has seen, cannot love God whom he has not seen. And this
commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also (1
Jn 4:20-21).
For this is the message which you have heard from the beginning, that we should love
one another (1 Jn 3:11).
Above all hold unfailing your love for one another, since love covers a multitude of sins.
Practice hospitality ungrudgingly to one another. As each has received a gift, employ it
for one another, as good stewards of God's varied grace (1 Pt 4:8-10).
Saint Clement of Rome (Bishop of Rome 92-101) – The strong are not to ignore the weak,
and the weak should respect the strong. The rich must provide for the poor, and the poor
should thank God for giving him someone to meet his needs. 14
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Do not live entirely isolated, having retreated into
yourselves, as if you were already justified, but gather instead to seek the common good
together.15
The Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Now, then, listen to me: Live in peace with one
another, care for one another, help one another. Do not enjoy God’s creatures
excessively and all by yourselves, but give a share also to those who are in need.16
Tertullian (160 - c. 220) – Our care for the derelict and our active love have become our
distinctive sign before the enemy…See, they say, how they love one another and how
ready they are to die for each other.17
Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258) – The captivity of our brethren must be reckoned as our
captivity, an the grief of those who are endangered is to be esteemed as our grief…
Christ is to be contemplated in our captive brethren…18
14
St. Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corintians 38.1.
Letter of Barnabas, 4.10.
16
The Shepherd of Hermas, 17.2.
17
Tertullian, Apologia, 39.
18
St. Cyprian, Epistle 59.
15
19
Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258) – We have a public and communal prayer, and when we pray,
we pray not for one person, but for the whole people, because we the whole people form
unity. God, teacher of peace and concord, who taught us unity wanted each man to pray
for all even as he himself bore us all in one.19
Lactantius (fourth century) – God, who has not given intelligence to the other animals,
made them safe from danger and attacks by natural protection, whereas, because he
made man uncovered and weak, he gave him intelligence so as to teach him wisdom.
Moreover, he gave him the love for piety so that man might kindly regard his fellowman,
and love him, and cherish him, and protect him from all dangers. Humanity, therefore, is
the greatest bond that unites men together and whoever violates it must be regarded as
impious and parricidal…20
Lactantius (fourth century) – Because God is merciful, he wishes that men should live in
society and that we should see in each human being our own nature. We do not deserve
to be set free in dangers if we do not help others; we do not deserve aid if we refuse it to
others.
Saint Basil (329-379) – Nothing, indeed, is so comparable with our nature as living in
society and in dependence upon one another and as loving our own kind. How, our Lord
himself gave us the seeds of these qualities and expected them to yield in due time, for he
said: “A new commandment I give to you: that you love one another.“21
Saint Basil (329-379) – Again, apart from this consideration, the doctrine of charity of
Christ does not permit one to be concerned solely with one’s own private interest.
“Charity“, says the Apostle, “seeks not her own”. 22
Saint Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329-390) – How can we enjoy pleasures amidst the
calamities of our brethren? May God preserve me from being rich while they are
indigent, from enjoying robust health if I do not try to cure their diseases, from eating
good food, clothing myself well and resting in my home if I do not share with them a
piece of my bread and give them, in the measure of my abilities, part of my clothes and if
I do not welcome them into my home… 23
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – We are bound by the law of nature to act for the good of
all.24
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – The law of nature that binds on all mankind is that we help
each other as being all parts of the same body.25
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Thus, in accordance with the will of God and the bonds of
nature, we ought to assist one another, to vie with one another in doing good works, to
lay, as it were, all our advantages before all, and (to use the words of the Scripture) to
19
St. Cyprian, On the Lord’s Prayer., VIII.
Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, 6.10.
21
St. Basil, Long Rules, Answer to Third Question.
22
St. Basil, Long Rules, Answer to Seventh Question.
23
St. Gregory of Nazianzus, On the Love for the Poor, XIV, 19.
24
St Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 4, 25.
25
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. III, 3, 19.
20
20
bring help to each other from a feeling of devotion or of duty, by giving money, or by
doing something, one way or another, so that among us the good of the society may be
increased. Let no one shirk from these duties for fear of danger but let him consider all
affairs of the society, whether good or evil, as their own concern. 26
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – God in his wisdom fostered our mutual love through
our treaties and commerce. Look how God has filled the universe with many goods, but
to each part of the earth he has given its particular fruits. In this we, impelled by our
needs we communicate with one another, give to others what we have overmuch and
receive what we lack. Thus we increase our love for our brethren. 27
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – He who livesf or himself only and overlooks all
others, is useless, he is not even a man, he does not belong to the human race. 28
Saint Augustine (354-430) – He, therefore, loves his neighbour as himself who does not
wish evil to happen to him even as he does not wish it for himself; but, if anything good
comes to him, he gladly shares it, even as he hopes to receive and to attain good at the
hands of others. The Christian is directed not only to refrain from evil but to do good. 29
Saint Augustine (354-430) – …It is not enough not to harm your neighbour if you do not
also do as much good as you can to him.30
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – ...they thought that man is not bound to seek other
than his own good. But this opinion... is contrary to right reason, which judges the
common good to be better than the good of the individual. 31
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – It is not enough that peace and concord reign
among the citizens: love also must prevail. Justice prevents them from injuring one
another; it does not require them to help one another. Yet it often happens that some need
aid which falls under no obligation of justice. Here charity steps in and summons us to
further service in the name of the love we owe to God.32
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – Nature labors for her own interests… but grace does
not consider what may be advantageous or profitable to herself, but rather what may be
profitable to many.33
Calvin (1509-1564) – No member [of the Christian body] holds his gifts to himself, or for
his private use, but shares them among his fellow members, nor does he derive benefit
save from those things which proceed from the common profit of the body as a whole.
Thus the pious man owes to his brethren all that it is in his power to give.34
26
St Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, 135.
St. John Chrysostom, Homily on Perfect Charity, 1.
28
John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, LXXVII, 6.
29
St. Augustine, De Vita Christiana, Ch. 10.
30
St. Augustine, On the Sermon on the Mount, bk. I, ch. XX, n. 67.
31
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 47, a. 10.
32
St. Thomas Aquinas, Contra Gentes, III, 129.
33
Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ, bk. III, ch. 54.
34
John Calvin, Institutes, bk. iii, ch. vii, Par. 5.
27
21
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Because it is the duty of Christian charity that
each individual be not solicitous for himself alone, but that he be also active in the cause
of his neighbor; and that, while he attends to his own interests, he forget not the interests
of others.35
Laud (1573-1645) – If any man be so addicted to his private, that he neglect the common
state, he is void of the sense of piety, and wisheth peace and happiness to himself in vain.
For, whoever he be, he must live in the body of the Commonwealth and in the body of the
Church.36
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Do all the good you possibly can to the bodies and souls of
men.37
C. S. Lewis (1898 -1963) – For in self-giving, if anywhere, we touch a rhythm not only of
all creation but of all being. For the Eternal Word also gives Himself in sacrifice; and
that not only on Calvary… From before the foundation of the world He surrenders
begotten Deity back to begetting Deity in obedience. And as the Son glorifies the Father,
so also the Father glorifies the Son... From the highest to the lowest, self exists to be
abdicated and, by that abdication, becomes the more truly self...38
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – In our times a special obligation binds us to make
ourselves the neighbor of every person without exception, and of actively helping him
when he comes across our path.39
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – … God did not create man for life in isolation, but for
the formation of social unity…
This communitarian character is developed and consummated in the work of Jesus
Christ… He sanctified those human ties, especially family ones, which are the source of
social structures…
This solidarity must be constantly increased until that day on which it will be brought to
perfection. Then, saved by grace, men will offer flawless glory to God as a family beloved
of God and of Christ their Brother.40
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – In order to reach this perfection the faithful should use
the strength dealt out to them by Christ's gift, so that, following in his footsteps and
conformed to his image, doing the will of God in everything, they may wholeheartedly
devote themselves to the glory of God and to the service of their neighbor.41
John Paul II (pope 1978- ) – Collaboration in the development of the whole person and
of every human being is in fact a duty of all towards all.42
35
Catechism of the Council of Trent , On The Lord’s Prayer.
William Laud, Sermon before His Majesty, June 19, 1621.
37
John Wesley, A Plain Account Of Christian Perfection, Question 35.
38
C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, Ch. 10.
39
Gaudium et Spes, n. 27.
40
Gaudium et Spes, n. 32.
41
Lumen Gentium, n. 40.
42
Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 31.
36
22
John Paul II (pope 1978- ) – [Solidarity] is not a feeling of vague compassion or shallow
distress at the misfortunes of so many people, both near and far. On the contrary, it is a
firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good, that is to say,
to the good of all and of each individual because we are all really responsible for all.43
Oxford Declaration (1990) – God gives talents to individuals for the benefit of the whole
community. Human work, should be a contribution to the common good (Ephesians
4:28). The modern drift from concern for community to preoccupation with self,
supported by powerful structural and cultural forces, shapes the way we work. Individual
self-interest can legitimately be pursued, but only in a context marked by the pursuit of
the good of others.44
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – It is necessary that all participate, each
according to his position and role, in promoting the common good. This obligation is
inherent in the dignity of the human person. 45
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – It is the responsibility of all
persons to contribute to the well being of the community according to the gifts that have
been entrusted to them.46
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – What does our God require
of us? Simply stated, God requires that we accept our responsibility for each other.47
United States Catholic Conference (1999) – Powerful social, economic and cultural
forces encourage us to retreat from our neighbor into lifestyles of individualism,
excessive consumption and “me-first” politics. The Gospel, in contrast, urges us to be
persons for others, deeply committed to the well-being of all members of the human
family.48
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – Solidarity and justice in fact form the heart of all biblical and
Christian ethics.49
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – Before anything else, solidarity means that men are closely linked
among themselves and form a community which shares the same destiny. Men who are
aware that they are closely linked recognize and pursue common interests and do not
seek selfishly their own benefit when this harms third parties or the community.50
43
Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 38.
Oxford Declaration, 1990, n. 22.
45
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1913.
46
What Does Our God Require of Us? A Statement Adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
47
What Does Our God Require of Us? A Statement Adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
48
United States Catholic Conference, In All Things Charity: A Pastoral Challenge for the New Millennium
(1999)
49
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice (1997) para. 2.
50
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice (1997) para. 116.
44
23
Additional material on hierarchy of responsibilities
Tertullian (160 - after 220) – For although that is a greater charity, which is shown to
strangers, it has no priority over that which is due to one's neighbours.51
Saint Ambrose (c. 339 - 397) – But first we must always see that we help those of the
household of faith …True liberality also must be tested in this way: that we despise not
our nearest relatives, if we know they are in want. For it is better for thee to help thy
kindred.52
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Primarily, therefore, his own household are his care, for the
law of nature and of society gives him readier access to them and greater opportunity of
serving them. And hence the apostle says, "Now, if any provide not for his own, and
specially for those of his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an
infidel."53
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – We ought to be most beneficent towards those who
are most closely connected with us.54
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – When we are commanded to love our neighbor "as
ourselves," the love of self is set before love of our neighbor. … And again when we are
commanded (Ga. 6:10) to "work good . . . especially to those who are of the household of
the faith," and when a man is blamed (1 Tm. 5:8) if he "have not care of his own, and
especially of those of his house," it means that we ought to love most those of our
neighbors who are more virtuous or more closely united to us….
It follows from the very words, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor" that those who are nearer
to us are to be loved more.55
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – And we must also know that to avoid evil is in our
power, but we are incapable of doing good to everyone. Thus St. Augustine says that we
should love all, but we are not bound to do good to all. But among those to whom we are
bound to do good are those in some way united to us.56
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – Now if someone wishes to borrow from you an amount so
large that you would be ruined if it were not repaid, and you could not spare it from your
own needs, then you are not bound to make the loan. Your first and greatest obligation is
to provide for the needs of your wife and children and servants; you must not divert from
them what you owe them.57
51
Tertullian, Against Marcion, IV, 16.
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. I, ch. 30.
53
St. Augustine, The City of God, XIX, 14.
54
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II q. 31, a. 3.
55
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 44, a. 8.
56
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Ten Commandments (4th Commandment).
57
Martin Luther, On Commerce and Usury.
52
24
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – In goods belonging to nature and for preserving
bodily life, one must help (outside of extreme necessity) first among others the wife, because
she is of one flesh with the man. 2. The children [in equal need, the children are to be helped
first, then the parents...]. 3. The parents, and indeed the father before the mother. 4. The
brothers and sisters, then the neighbours, the servants and the other members of the
family.58
John Wesley (1703-1791) – It is allowed, (1) That we are to provide necessaries and
conveniences for those of our own household: (2) That men in business are to lay up as
much as is necessary for the carrying on of that business: (3) That we are to leave our
children what will supply them with necessaries and conveniences after we have left the
world: And, (4) That we are to provide things honest in the sight of all men, so as to
“owe no man any thing:” But to lay up any more, when this is done, is what our Lord has
flatly forbidden.59
Assemblies of God (2001) – Jesus tells us in John 8:31-32 that by obeying His Word we
demonstrate that we are His disciples. In practice this means we accept and implement
God-given priorities. The highest priority is God himself. The next priority is our spouse
if we are married. Next in line comes our children. For unmarried children, relationships
with parents and other members of the family is the second priority. Paul suggests that
these responsibilities as well as our testimony before the church and the watching world
are objective criteria by which we may evaluate our Christian maturity (1 Tm 5:8).60
Wealth and material goods in a Christian perspective
Many Christian businesspeople find themselves in an ambiguous position when they try
to consider their professional activity in the light of their faith. As businessmen they are
only too aware that they are engaged in the creation of economic goods and services, that
is to say, in the production of wealth. However, they cannot fail to realize that some
rather uncomplimentary things are said in the Bible about those who love money or place
their trust in riches. Unfortunately, for many people this results in a sneaky suspicion that
if they were truly good Christians they would be doing something more worthy than just
“making money” and that their occupation somehow condemns them to a second-class
status as Christians.
In seeking to ascertain the attitude that a Christian should have towards material goods
the logical place where to look for guidance is the Bible. In investigating the teachings of
Scripture on these matters some people have concluded that what we find in the New
Testament contradicts the teachings of the Old Testament. However, I do not think this is
the case. While there is a difference of emphasis, the basic teachings of the Old
Testament are consistent with those of the New.
58
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. II, Cap. II, Tract. III, Dub I, 27.
John Wesley, The Danger of Riches.
60
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
59
25
The goodness and danger of material goods
An examination of all the relevant texts in their context shows that both the Old and the
New Testaments teach two fundamental ideas: that material goods in themselves are good
and that they are dangerous. The difference of emphasis can perhaps be captured best by
saying that while the Old Testament stresses the goodness of material goods, the New
Testament lays emphasis on the danger they pose for the salvation of man. But the Old
Testament does not fail to make reference to the danger of riches and the New Testament
teaches clearly that in themselves material goods are good and necessary.
Two other teachings found in both the Old and New Testaments further witness to the
fact that there is consistency in the views of material goods presented throughout
Scripture. They are that even if material goods are good in themselves, they certainly are
not the most important goods for man; and that in order to use material goods well, a
basic attitude of detachment from them is required.
The idea that material things are good in themselves is already found in the first book of
the Bible, in a text that has capital importance in order to reach a proper understanding of
the Christian conception of creation:
And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good (Gn 1:31).
In the account of the work of creation offered by the Book of Genesis, after each
successive stage of creation it is stated that God saw what he had created and it was good.
This reaches a climax at the completion of creation when God, surveying the sum total of
his work, concludes that it is “very good.” This is in the sharpest contrast with dualistic
metaphysical positions, quite common among neighbouring peoples, which considered
that material things are fundamentally evil and ascribed their creation to an evil principle
different from God. The teaching of Genesis is very clear: whatever men may afterwards
make of it, the material world, as created by God and considered in itself, is very good.
A similar conclusion can also be drawn from the fact that material goods are repeatedly
presented as God’s blessings, which show his favour towards those who receive them:
And Isaac sowed in that land, and reaped in the same year a hundredfold. The Lord
blessed him, and the man became rich, and gained more and more until he became very
wealthy (Gn 26:12-13).61
However, the Old Testament does not neglect to make often a complementary point.
Even though riches are good in themselves, they can be used badly and then they are
dangerous. Perhaps they are most dangerous because when men see that all their needs
are covered and are not pushed by the pressure of circumstances to keep asking God for
the next meal, their tendency is to feel self-sufficient and abandon God:
61
Old Testament books repeteadly state explicitly that riches are blessings from the Lord. See for instance
Gen 24:34-35 (Abraham); Gen 27:28 (Jacob); Gen 39:2-5 and 23 (Joseph); Dt 7:12-15 (the people); Job
42:12 (Job); 2 Sam 5:10 (David).
26
Lest, when you have eaten and are full, and have built goodly houses and live in them,
and when your herds and flocks multiply, and your silver and gold is multiplied, and all
that you have is multiplied, then your heart be lifted up, and you forget the Lord your
God (Dt 8:12-14).
But when they had fed to the full, they were filled, and their heart was lifted up; therefore
they forgot me (Hos 13:6).
These two teachings are also to be found in the New Testament even though, as I pointed
out before, what is stressed more now is the danger of riches. This does not mean,
however, that there is any retreat from the basic teaching that material goods in
themselves are something good and that they must be seen as gifts from God. It is
significant, for instance, that one of the things that Our Lord himself taught us to ask
from the Father is precisely to “give us each day our daily bread” (Lk 11:3; Mt 6:10).
Also Saint Paul, in a context in which he is clearly referring to money and material
goods, speaks of material goods as being blessings from God, very much in the tradition
of the Old Testament:
And God is able to provide you with every blessing in abundance, so that you may
always have enough of everything (2 Cor 9:8).
As for the dangers of riches, among many other references which may be found in the
“Additional material” section, the following is well-known:
And Jesus looked around and said to his disciples, "How hard it will be for those who
have riches to enter the kingdom of God! … It is easier for a camel to go through the eye
of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Mk 10:23-25).
Saint Paul repeats more than once the same basic idea:
But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation, into a snare, into many senseless and
hurtful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is the
root of all evils; it is through this craving that some have wandered away from the faith
and pierced their hearts with many pangs (1 Tm 6: 9-10).
Relative unimportance of material goods
To complete the teaching that can be drawn from the Bible on the value of material
goods, we can now make a quick reference to two subordinate but very important ideas
that also can be found in it and to which I have already made reference. The first is that
even though material goods are good, they are not the most important things in life. To
begin with, being external to man, they are inferior to intrinsic aspects of his personality
such as wisdom, good character, love and fear of God:
[Wisdom] cannot be gotten for gold, and silver cannot be weighed as its price. It cannot
be valued in the gold of Ophir, in precious onyx or sapphire. Gold and glass cannot equal
it, nor can it be exchanged for jewels of fine gold (Jb 28: 15-17).
27
Better is a little that the righteous has than the abundance of many wicked (Ps 37:16).
Better is a little with the fear of the Lord than great treasure and trouble with it. Better is a
dinner of herbs where love is than a fatted ox and hatred with it (Prv 15:16-17).
Our Lord himself stresses this idea:
For what does it profit a man if he gains the whole world and loses or forfeits himself (Lk
9:25).
Also, material goods cannot give us security or serenity in the face of the many
uncertainties of life:
Let him not trust in emptiness, deceiving himself; for emptiness will be his recompense
(Jb 15:31).
He who trusts in his riches will wither, but the righteous will flourish like a green leaf (Pr
11:28).
Our Lord emphasized this idea in a memorable way when he depicted God as calling
“fool” the man who felt secure because he had an abundance of grain in his barns.62
Finally, material goods avail us nothing after death:
Be not afraid when [the wicked] becomes rich, when the glory of his house increases. For
when he dies he will carry nothing away; his glory will not go down after him. (Ps 49:1617).
Riches do not profit in the day of wrath, but righteousness delivers from death (Prv 11:4).
Detachment
Still another idea that follows from the ones we have already considered and that is also
taught, though with different degrees of emphasis, both in the Old and the New
Testaments, is that it is very important to cultivate a basic attitude of detachment from
material goods. This idea has become familiar enough in later Christian reflection:
material goods are good servants but terrible masters. Thus, for instance, Sirach tells us:
He who loves money will not be satisfied with money; nor he who loves wealth, with
gain: this is also vanity (Sir 5:10).
Our Lord taught the importance of this attitude of detachment from material goods not
only with words but, first and foremost, with his own example. To begin with, he was
born in circumstances in which he lacked the most basic amenities:
62
Lk 12:20-23.
28
And while they were there, the time came for her to be delivered. And she gave birth to
her first-born son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths, and laid him in a manger,
because there was no place for them in the inn (Lk 2:6-7).
Later on in life he shows that in order to fulfil his mission he is ready to live an
uncomfortable life and to make do without many things that most of us would consider
necessities:
And Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have nests; but the Son of
man has nowhere to lay his head" (Mt 8:20).
Our Lord made it clear in his teaching that the important question is where a man has his
heart, that is to say, what is it that he loves. He stressed that man must not put his heart on
riches. Saint Paul repeated the same teaching:
Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on earth (Col 3:2).
Keep your life free from love of money, and be content with what you have (Heb 13:5).
At this point, one may question whether this attitude of being “free from love of money”
should lead a Christian not to make any effort to make money. This, however, does not
follow from the texts we have considered and in fact that is not what later Christian
teachers have taught.
While the books of Scripture, and most especially those of the New Testament, insist on
the importance of not loving money, they also, as we have seen, recommend that we pray
for our daily bread and stress the need to earn a living and provide for the needs of one’s
dependents:
If any one does not provide for his relatives, and especially for his own family, he has
disowned the faith and is worse than an unbeliever (1 Tm 5:8).
In fact, Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), in this as in so many other things reflecting
the entire patristic tradition, specifically states that man must endeavour to obtain
material goods, in so far as he needs them to discharge his responsibilities:
Man's good [in respect of external goods] consists in a certain measure, in other words,
that man seeks, according to a certain measure, to have external riches, in so far as they
are necessary for him to live in keeping with his condition of life.63
The point is expressed very clearly: riches are not to be sought “for their own sake,” as
something that one loves and of which one tries to get as much as one possibly can; but
rather “according to a certain measure” which is determined by what one needs to
discharge one’s responsibilities (in Aquinas’ language: “to live in keeping with his
condition in life”).
63
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 118, a. 1.
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The above applies most directly to the ordinary man who has to earn a living, but the
same ideas clarify what should be the attitude of the manager and the businessman. They
should also keep their hearts “free from the love of money.” But it will be right for them
to seek to obtain material resources in so far as they need them to carry out the business
projects in which they are involved, and if these projects are very large, they may have to
seek to obtain a lot of resources. The key point, however, is that those resources are
sought because they are necessary to carry out a project that is ultimately justified by the
service it will provide to other human beings, not as a means to the self-aggrandizement
of the manager or businessman concerned.
Later Christian teachings
We have already all the main elements that are needed to build a balanced and realistic
view of the value of material goods and of what our attitude towards them should be. In
the early years of Christianity there were some vacillations that in part originated in some
people whose enthusiasm easily outran their learning and good judgment, and in part, and
more dangerously, proceeded from the infiltration in the Church of Manichean ideas
which held that material things were intrinsically evil. However, very soon a balanced
conception that took account of all the teachings to be found in the Bible, and not only of
a few texts taken out of context, definitely gained the upper hand. An especially
influential early teacher on this issue was Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215):
Imagine a man who holds his possessions, his gold, silver and houses, as the gifts of God;
who serves the God who gave them by using them for the welfare of mankind; who knows
that he possesses them more for the sake of his brethren than his own; who is superior to and
not a slave of his possessions; who does not go about with his possessions in his heart or let
himself be enclosed within them; who is always engaged in some good and holy work; and
who, should he be deprived of them, is able to bear their removal as cheerfully as their
abundance. Such a man is the one whom the Lord calls ‘blessed’ and ‘poor in spirit.’ He is
worthy to inherit the kingdom of heaven; he is not the rich man who cannot obtain life.64
Clement of Alexandria discussed the proper attitude to material goods in several of his
works, and a selection of the most representative passages can be found in the
“Additional material” section. But the above reference already contains in embryo all the
main elements of a Christian view of material things: recognition of the goodness of
material things (gifts of God), using them for good purposes, being master of them rather
than being enslaved by them, and recognizing their relative unimportance in the overall
scheme of things to the point of being equally cheerful in abundance and in need.
Many other Fathers of the Church repeat the same basic ideas. Here it will be enough to
quote briefly Saint Augustine (354-430), as a representative of the West, and Saint John
Chrysostom (344-407), representing the East:
God then alone is to be loved; and all this world, that is, all sensible things, are to be
despised, while, however, they are to be used as this life requires.65
64
65
Clement of Alexandria, Who is the rich Man Who is Saved?, 16.
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, Ch. 20.
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I speak in this way not because wealth is a sin; no, it is a sin not to share it among the
poor, to make bad use of it. Nothing that God has made is evil; everything is good and
very good. Therefore also riches are good, on condition that they may not be masters of
those who possess them, on condition that they may put a remedy to poverty.66
Over a thousand years later the same basic ideas can be found on the lips of John Wesley
(1703-1701), the founder of Methodism:
“The love of money”, we know, “is the root of all evil;” but not the thing itself. The fault
does not lie in the money, but in them that use it. It maybe used ill: And what may not?
But it likewise may be used well… In the hands of [God’s] children, it is food for the
hungry, drink for the thirsty, raiment for the naked: It gives to the traveller and the
stranger where to lay his head. By it we may supply the place of a husband to the widow;
and of a father to the fatherless.67
To conclude the references offered here, we find once again a synthetic formulation of
the ideas we have been repeating in Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
Man can rightly love the things, which God has created, and ought to do so. He can
receive them from God and respect and reverence them as flowing constantly from the
hand of God. Grateful to his Benefactor for these creatures, using and enjoying them in
detachment and liberty of spirit, man is led forward into a true possession of them, as
having nothing, yet possessing all things.68
I would like to stress that this section does not intend to provide a summary of all that the
Christian tradition has to teach about the proper use of the goods of the earth. The human
heart proves once and again its great capacity to get unduly attached to material things
and the experience of centuries has taught repeatedly that very special precautions are
needed to handle them safely. I have said next to nothing here about such matters and
about the lessons distilled from experience on the precautions that it is necessary to take
to handle money and wealth without actually getting attached to them. Even more
important, I have made only the briefest reference to the fundamental Christian teaching
that God has created the goods of the earth to satisfy the needs of all human beings. This
most important doctrine will be examined in a later chapter. I opened this section by
remarking that many Christians feel ambivalent about the worth of devoting much of
their efforts to the creation of wealth. The material I have discussed in this section was
only such as was necessary to help understand that there is nothing in the Christian view
of wealth to justify such misgivings. Material goods are gifts of God and devoting oneself
with a sense of vocation to the production of such goods in order to help one’s
neighbours to live better lives is in itself a work of charity.
Certainly, there is an element of danger in this vocation, but this is also true of many
other Christian vocations. From this it only follows that it will be important to adopt
66
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Letter to the Corintians, XIII, 5.
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
68
Gaudium et Spes, 37.
67
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appropriate precautions in order to minimize these dangers. Also, it is very easy to misuse
material goods in such a way that they become, for oneself and for others, a source of
harm. Again, this is very important and an awareness of it will have to inform much of
what we will say in later chapters. The fundamental point, however, is that orthodox
Christian teaching has been consistent through the ages in holding that one of the ways in
which men can love their neighbour and express their love for God is precisely by
engaging in the production of economic goods which will help their neighbours to satisfy
their needs.
Additional material on Christian teachings on the value of material goods
And he humbled you and let you hunger and fed you with manna, which you did not
know, nor did your fathers know; that he might make you know that man does not live by
bread alone, but that man lives by everything that proceeds out of the mouth of the Lord
(Dt 8:3).
But Israel waxed fat, and kicked; you waxed fat, you grew thick, you became sleek; then
he forsook God who made him, and scoffed at the Rock of his salvation (Dt 32:15).
God answered Solomon, "Because this was in your heart, and you have not asked
possessions, wealth, honor, or the life of those who hate you, and have not even asked
long life, but have asked wisdom and knowledge for yourself that you may rule my people
over whom I have made you king, wisdom and knowledge are granted to you. I will also
give you riches, possessions, and honor, such as none of the kings had who were before
you, and none after you shall have the like" (2 Chr 1:11-12).
Then Job arose, and rent his robe, and shaved his head, and fell upon the ground, and
worshiped. And he said, "Naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked shall I
return; the Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord" (Jb
1:20-21).
Let him not trust in emptiness, deceiving himself; for emptiness will be his recompense
(Jb 15:31).
There was nothing left after he had eaten; therefore his prosperity will not endure (Jb
20:21).
[Wisdom] cannot be gotten for gold, and silver cannot be weighed as its price. It cannot
be valued in the gold of Ophir, in precious onyx or sapphire. Gold and glass cannot
equal it, nor can it be exchanged for jewels of fine gold. No mention shall be made of
coral or of crystal; the price of wisdom is above pearls. The topaz of Ethiopia cannot
compare with it, nor can it be valued in pure gold (Jb 28:15-19).
If I have made gold my trust, or called fine gold my confidence; if I have rejoiced because
my wealth was great, or because my hand had gotten much ... This also would be an
iniquity to be punished by the judges, for I should have been false to God above (Jb
31:24-28).
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If they hearken and serve him, they complete their days in prosperity, and their years in
pleasantness (Jb 36:11).
The man greedy for gain curses and renounces the Lord (Ps 10:3).
Better is a little that the righteous has than the abundance of many wicked (Ps 37:16).
Be not afraid when one becomes rich, when the glory of his house increases. For when he
dies he will carry nothing away; his glory will not go down after him (Ps 49:16-17).
The righteous shall see, and fear, and shall laugh at him, saying, "See the man who
would not make God his refuge, but trusted in the abundance of his riches, and sought
refuge in his wealth!" (Ps 52:6-7).
If riches increase, set not your heart on them (Ps 62:10).
The earth has yielded its increase; God, our God, has blessed us (Ps 67:6).
Praise the Lord. Blessed is the man who fears the Lord, who greatly delights in his
commandments! … Wealth and riches are in his house; and his righteousness endures for
ever. (Ps 112:1 and 3)
In the way of thy testimonies I delight as much as in all riches (Ps 119:14).
Lead me in the path of thy commandments, for I delight in it. Incline my heart to thy
testimonies, and not to gain! (Ps 119: 35-36).
The law of thy mouth is better to me than thousands of gold and silver pieces (Ps 119:72).
Therefore I love thy commandments above gold, above fine gold( Ps 119:127).
May our garners be full, providing all manner of store; may our sheep bring forth
thousands and ten thousands in our fields; may our cattle be heavy with young, suffering
no mischance or failure in bearing; may there be no cry of distress in our streets! Happy
the people to whom such blessings fall! Happy the people whose God is the Lord! (Ps
144:13-15).
He who trusts in his riches will wither, but the righteous will flourish like a green leaf
(Prv 11:28).
Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues with injustice (Prv 16:8).
A rich man's wealth is his strong city, and like a high wall protecting him (Prv 18:11).
The reward for humility and fear of the Lord is riches and honor and life (Prv 22:4).
Better is a poor man who walks in his integrity than a rich man who is perverse in his
ways (Prv 28:6).
Two things I ask of thee; deny them not to me before I die: Remove far from me falsehood
and lying; give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with the food that is needful for
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me, lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, "Who is the Lord?" or lest I be poor, and steal,
and profane the name of my God (Prv 30:7-9).
He who loves money will not be satisfied with money; nor he who loves wealth, with
gain: this also is vanity (Sir 5:10).
If a man offered for love all the wealth of his house, it would be utterly scorned (Sg 8:7).
Or what advantage hath the boasting of riches brought us? All those things are passed
away like a shadow, and like a post that runneth. And as a ship that passeth through the
waves: whereof when it is gone by, the trace cannot be found, nor the path of its keel in
the waters (Wis 5:8-10).
Neither did I compare unto [wisdom] any precious stone: for all gold in comparison of
her, is as a little sand, and silver in respect to her shall be counted as clay (Wis 7:9).
And if riches be desired in life, what is richer than wisdom, which maketh all things? (
Wis 8:5).
Health of the soul in holiness of justice, is better then all gold and silver: and a sound
body, than immense revenues (Sir 30:15).
Gold is a stumbling block to them that sacrifice to it: woe to them that eagerly follow
after it, and every fool shall perish by it (Sir 31:6).
Good things were created for the good from the beginning, so for the wicked, good and
evil things. The principal things necessary for the life of men, are water, fire, and iron,
salt, milk, and bread of flour, and honey, and the cluster of the grape, and oil, and
clothing. All these things shall be for good to the holy, so to the sinners and the ungodly
they shall be turned into evil. (Sir 39:30-32).
Riches and strength lift up the heart: but above these is the fear of the Lord (Sir 40:26).
Because of the iniquity of his covetousness I was angry, I smote him, I hid my face and
was angry (Is 57:17).
Then you shall see and be radiant, your heart shall thrill and rejoice; because the
abundance of the sea shall be turned to you, the wealth of the nations shall come to you.
A multitude of camels shall cover you, the young camels of Midian and Ephah; all those
from Sheba shall come. They shall bring gold and frankincense, and shall proclaim the
praise of the Lord. All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered to you, the rams of Nebai'oth
shall minister to you; they shall come up with acceptance on my altar, and I will glorify
my glorious house (Is 60:5 –7).
But you shall be called the priests of the Lord, men shall speak of you as the ministers of
our God; you shall eat the wealth of the nations, and in their riches you shall glory (Is
61:6).
Let not the rich man glory in his riches; but let him who glories glory in this, that he
understands and knows me, that I am the Lord who practice steadfast love, justice, and
righteousness in the earth (Jer 9:23-24).
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Where are the princes of the nations, and they that rule over the beasts that are upon the
earth? That take their diversion with the birds of the air. That hoard up silver and gold,
wherein men trust, and there is no end of their getting? Who work in silver and are
solicitous, and their works are unsearchable. They are cut off, and are gone down to hell,
and others are risen up in their place( Bar 3:16-19).
In the abundance of your trade you were filled with violence, and you sinned (Ezk 28:16).
And they come to you as people come, and they sit before you as my people, and they
hear what you say but they will not do it; for with their lips they show much love, but
their heart is set on their gain (Ezk 33:31).
E'phraim has said, "Ah, but I am rich, I have gained wealth for myself": but all his riches
can never offset the guilt he has incurred (Hos 12:8).
But when they had fed to the full, they were filled, and their heart was lifted up; therefore
they forgot me (Hos 13:6).
You shall eat in plenty and be satisfied, and praise the name of the Lord your God, who
has dealt wondrously with you. And my people shall never again be put to shame (Jl
2:26).
Woe to him who gets evil gain for his house, to set his nest on high, to be safe from the
reach of harm! (Hab 2:9).
Neither their silver nor their gold shall be able to deliver them on the day of the wrath of
the Lord (Zep 1:18).
Tyre has built herself a rampart, and heaped up silver like dust, and gold like the dirt of
the streets. But lo, the Lord will strip her of her possessions and hurl her wealth into the
sea, and she shall be devoured by fire (Zc 9:3-4).
But he answered, "It is written, 'Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that
proceeds from the mouth of God.'" (Mt 4:4).
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Mt 5:3).
Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust consume and where
thieves break in and steal, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither
moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your
treasure is, there will your heart be also (Mt. 6:19-21).
No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he
will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.
Therefore I tell you, do not be anxious about your life, what you shall eat or what you
shall drink, nor about your body, what you shall put on. Is not life more than food, and
the body more than clothing? (Mt 6:24-25).
Therefore do not be anxious, saying, 'What shall we eat?' or 'What shall we drink?' or
'What shall we wear?' For the Gentiles seek all these things; and your heavenly Father
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knows that you need them all. But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all
these things shall be yours as well (Mt 6:31-33).
As for what was sown among thorns, this is he who hears the word, but the cares of the
world and the delight in riches choke the word, and it proves unfruitful (Mt 13:22).
And others are the ones sown among thorns; they are those who hear the word, but the
cares of the world, and the delight in riches, and the desire for other things, enter in and
choke the word, and it proves unfruitful (Mk 4:18-19).
And Jesus looking upon him loved him, and said to him, "You lack one thing; go, sell
what you have, and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come,
follow me.” At that saying his countenance fell, and he went away sorrowful; for he had
great possessions. And Jesus looked around and said to his disciples, "How hard it will
be for those who have riches to enter the kingdom of God!… It is easier for a camel to go
through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God." (Mk 10:2123).
But woe to you that are rich, for you have received your consolation. Woe to you that are
full now, for you shall hunger (Lk 6:24-25).
And as for what fell among the thorns, they are those who hear, but as they go on their
way they are choked by the cares and riches and pleasures of life, and their fruit does not
mature (Lk 8:14).
For what does it profit a man if he gains the whole world and loses or forfeits himself?
(Lk 9:25).
And he said to them, "Take heed, and beware of all covetousness; for a man's life does
not consist in the abundance of his possessions." (Lk 12: 15).
For life is more than food, and the body more than clothing. (Lk 12:23).
But God said to him, “Fool! This night your soul is required of you; and the things you
have prepared, whose will they be?” So is he who lays up treasure for himself, and is not
rich toward God. And he said to his disciples, Therefore I tell you, do not be anxious
about your life, what you shall eat, nor about your body, what you shall put on. For life is
more than food, and the body more than clothing. (Lk 12:20-23).
And do not seek what you are to eat and what you are to drink, nor be of anxious mind.
For all the nations of the world seek these things; and your Father knows that you need
them. Instead, seek his kingdom, and these things shall be yours as well (Lk 12:29-31).
And when they had eaten their fill, he told his disciples, "Gather up the fragments left
over, that nothing may be lost.” (Jn 6:12).
And they sold their possessions and goods and distributed them to all, as any had need
(Acts 2:45).
Because we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen; for the
things that are seen are transient, but the things that are unseen are eternal (2 Cor 4:18).
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For you know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that though he was rich, yet for your
sake he became poor, so that by his poverty you might become rich (2 Cor 8:9).
Not that I complain of want; for I have learned, in whatever state I am, to be content. I
know how to be abased, and I know how to abound; in any and all circumstances I have
learned the secret of facing plenty and hunger, abundance and want (Phil 4:11-12).
For I have learned, in whatever state I am, to be content. I know how to be abased, and I
know how to abound; in any and all circumstances I have learned the secret of facing
plenty and hunger, abundance and want. I can do all things in him who strengthens me
(Phil 4:11-13).
Set your minds on things that are above, not on things that are on earth (Col 3:2).
Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: fornication, impurity, passion, evil desire,
and covetousness, which is idolatry (Col. 3:5).
For everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with
thanksgiving (1 Tm 4:4).
There is great gain in godliness with contentment; for we brought nothing into the world,
and we cannot take anything out of the world; but if we have food and clothing, with
these we shall be content. (1 Tm 6:6-9).
But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation, into a snare, into many senseless and
hurtful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is the
root of all evils; it is through this craving that some have wandered away from the faith
and pierced their hearts with many pangs (1 Tm 6:9-10).
As for the rich in this world, charge them not to be haughty, nor to set their hopes on
uncertain riches but on God who richly furnishes us with everything to enjoy. They are to
do good, to be rich in good deeds, liberal and generous, thus laying up for themselves a
good foundation for the future, so that they may take hold of the life which is life indeed
(1 Tm 6:17-19).
Keep your life free from love of money, and be content with what you have; for he has
said, "I will never fail you nor forsake you" (Heb. 13:5).
For here we have no lasting city, but we seek the city which is to come (Heb 13:14).
For the sun rises with its scorching heat and withers the grass; its flower falls, and its
beauty perishes. So will the rich man fade away in the midst of his pursuits (Jas 1:11).
Love not the world, neither the things that are in the world. (1 Jn 2:15.
Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might
and honor and glory and blessing! (Rv 5:12).
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Alas, alas, for the great city that was clothed in fine linen, in purple and scarlet,
bedecked with gold, with jewels, and with pearls! In one hour all this wealth has been
laid waste (Rv 18:16-17).
The Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Blessed are those who possess such riches and
understand that riches are from the Lord. Those who understand this will be able to do
some good deed.69
The Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Foremost of all is the desire after another's wife or
husband, and after extravagance, and many useless dainties and drinks, and many other
foolish luxuries; for all luxury is foolish and empty in the servants of God.70
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Wealth, in fact, seems to me like a snake; it will
twist around the hand and bite unless one knows how to grasp it properly, dangling it
without danger by the point of the tail. In the same way, wealth, wriggling either in an
experienced or inexperienced grasp, tends to cling to the hand and bite unless a person
rises above it and uses it with discretion, so as to crush the beast by the charm of the
Word and escape unharmed.71
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – The possession of the necessities of life keep the
soul free and independent if it knows how to use earthly good wisely…72
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – The Lord, therefore, did not forbid us to be rich
but to be rich unjustly and insatiably.73
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Those concerned for their salvation should take
this as their first principle, that, although the whole creation is ours, it is made for the
sake of self-sufficiency, which anyone can obtain with a few things. Those who take
delight in what they have hoarded up in their storehouses are foolish in their greed.74
Saint Basil (329-379) – The Lord’s command does not teach that we have to reject and
flee the goods as though they are bad, but that we should administer them. And the one
who is condemned is condemned not because he possesses things, but because he makes
a bad use of what he possesses.75
Saint Basil (329-379) – If good things were of themselves bad, they would not have been
created by God.76
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Not all who possess riches are condemned by the divine
judgement, but those who not know how to use them.77
69
The Shepherd of Hermas, 56.5.
The Shepherd of Hermas, Twelfth Commandment, 2,1
71
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, 3.6.34.
72
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, IV, 5.
73
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, 3.6.
74
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, 2.3.38.
75
St Basil, The Short Rules, Question 92.
76
St. Basil, Homily in Times of Famine.
77
St. Ambrose, Exposition on the Gospel of Luke, VIII, 53, 69.
70
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Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Let the rich learn that evil does not consist in having
wealth, but in not putting it to good use; for just as riches are an obstacle to evil people,
they are also a means of virtue for good people.78
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Riches, then, give no assistance to living a blessed life, a
fact that the Lord clearly shows in the Gospel, saying: "Blessed are ye poor, for yours is
the kingdom of God. Blessed are they that hunger and thirst now, for they shall be filled.
Blessed are ye that weep now, for ye shall laugh." Thus it is stated as plainly as possible
that poverty, hunger, and pain, which are considered to be evils, not only are not
hindrances to a blessed life, but are actually so many helps toward it.79
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Avarice is not a fault inherent in gold, but in the man who
inherently loves gold, to the detriment of justice, which ought to be held in incomparably
higher regard than gold.80
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Seek what suffices, seek what is enough, and don’t desire
more. Whatever goes beyond that, produces anxiety not relief: it will weigh you down,
instead of lifting you up.81
Saint Augustine (354-430) – For it is not in that which is to pass away that we ought to
fix and place our treasure and our heart, but in that which ever abideth.82
Saint Augustine (354-430) – God then alone is to be loved; and all this world, that is, all
sensible things, are to be despised,--while, however, they are to be used as this life
requires.83
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Those I attack are not the rich as such, only those
who misuse their wealth… Wealth is one thing, covetousness is another.84
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – This voluntary poverty and detachment cut at the
selfish root of many evils, and the new disciples showed that they had understood the
gospel teaching. This was not the recklessness of the kind shown by certain philosophers,
of whom some gave up their inheritance and others cast their gold into the sea: that was
no contempt of riches, but folly and madness. For the devil has always made it his
endeavour to disparage the things God has created, as if it were impossible to make good
use of riches.85
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For neither am I leading thee to the peak of entire
poverty, but for the present I require thee to cut off superfluities and to desire a
sufficiency alone… and that is superfluous which is more than we need. For when we are
78
St. Ambrose, Exposition on the Gospel of Luke, XIX, 8.
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. II, ch. 4.
80
St. Augustine, The City of God, 12,8.
81
St. Augustine, Sermon 85, 6.
82
St. Augustine, On the Sermon on the Mount, bk. II, ch. XIII.
83
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 20.
84
St. John Chrysostom, Fall of Eutropius, 2,3.
85
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on Acts, 7.
79
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able even without a thing to live health fully and respectably, certainly the addition of
that thing is a superfluity.86
Cassian (360-435) – The traditions of our Fathers and the authority of Scripture teach us
that there are three kinds of renunciation which each of us must endeavour to carry out
with all his strength… The third is to withdraw our heart from all things present and
visible and apply it only to the eternal and invisible.87
Saint Leo the Great (pope 440-461) – Christian doctrine teaches us that all goods come
from the Creator. Not only have we received from God spiritual and heavenly goods, but
also earthly and corporal riches have come to us from his generosity.88
Saint Leo the Great (pope 440-461) – Justly and wisely, then, must we use the gifts of
God, lest the means to good works should become a cause of sin. In their own nature, in
their own kind, riches are good, and most useful to human society; I mean when they are
handled by men of good and generous heart, when they are not squandered by the
prodigal or hidden by the miser, for by ill hoarding or foolish spending they are alike
lost.
Saint Gregory the Great (pope 590-604) – Therefore the crime does not lie in wealth, but
in the affection. All things God has created are good, but he who makes a bad use of
good things dies, as by indigestion of gluttony, by the bread by which he should have
lived.89
Saint Gregory the Great (pope 590-604) – All of us who enter the arena of the faith are
committed to fight against evil spirits. The devils possesses nothing in this world and
therefore, since they enter the lists naked, we too must fight naked. Because, if someone
who is clothed fights against someone who goes naked, he will soon be dragged down,
since his enemy has something to get a grip on. And what are the things of this world if
not a kind of apparel?90
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – Riches are neither good not bad for the spirit. Making use
of them is good; their abuse is bad.91
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – For imperfect happiness, such as can be had in this
life, external goods are necessary, not as belonging to the essence of happiness, but by
serving as instruments to happiness, which consists in an operation of virtue, as stated in
Ethic. i, 13. For man needs in this life, the necessaries of the body, both for the operation
of contemplative virtue, and for the operation of active virtue, for which latter he needs
also many other things by means of which to perform its operations.92
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – The first sin [committed out of the desire for
temporal things] is that man, because of an inordinate desire, seeks those things which
86
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Second Letter to the Corinthians, 19.3.
Cassian, Conferences, 3,6
88
St. Leo the Great, Sermon 10, 1.
89
St. Gregory the Great, On the Book of Job, Pt. I, bk. X, ch. 30.
90
St. Gregory the Great, Homilies on the Gospels, 32, 2.
91
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, VI.10.
92
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 4, a. 7.
87
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go beyond his state and condition of life. He is not satisfied with what befits him. Thus, if
he be a soldier and desires clothes, he will not have them suitable for a soldier, but
rather for a knight; or if he be a cleric, clothes fit for a bishop. This vicious habit
withdraws man from spiritual things, in that it makes his desires cleave to transitory
things. The Lord taught us to avoid this vice by instructing us to ask for the temporal
necessities of this present life as they are in accord with the position of each one of us.
All this is understood under the name 'bread.' And so He does not teach us to pray for
that which is luxurious, nor for variety, nor for what is over-refined, but for bread which
is common to all and without which man’s life could not be sustained.93
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Two things are required for an individual man to
lead a good life. The first and most important is to act in accordance with virtue since
virtue is what makes one live well. The second—and it is secondary and a means to the
first—is a sufficiency of the material goods that are necessary for virtuous action.94
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – It is vanity, therefore, to seek riches which must perish,
and to trust in them.95
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – Realize that the more you prosper in worldly
things, the more you expose yourself to misery, because you run the risk of trusting too
much in the false security that such things offer.96
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – The positive part of the Commandment, which
consists in this, that if riches abound, we set not our hearts upon them, that we be
prepared to sacrifice them for the sake of piety and religion, that we contribute cheerfully
towards the relief of the poor, and that, if we ourselves are poor, we bear our poverty
with patience and joy. And indeed, if we are generous with our own goods, we shall
extinguish (in our own hearts) the desire of what belongs to another.97
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – The faithful should next be taught that God
suffered the Hebrew Patriarchs to wander for so long a time, and their posterity to be
oppressed and harassed by galling servitude, in order to teach us that none are friends of
God except those who are enemies of the world and pilgrims on earth, and that an entire
detachment from the world gives us an easier access to the friendship of God.98
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – While they use the world and the things of this life,
they use all such purely and honestly, and no further than is needful for their condition -such are the truly devout.99
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – I would fain see united in your heart both riches
and poverty, a great care and a great contempt for temporal things.
Do you take much greater pains than is the wont of worldly men to make your riches
useful and fruitful? … My child, our possessions are not ours,--God has given them to us
93
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on The Lord’s Prayer, (4th Petition).
St. Thomas Aquinas, De Regime Principum, Ch. 15.
95
Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, bk. I, ch. 1.
96
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 3.
97
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Ninth and Tenth commandments.
98
Catechism of the Council of Trent, First Commandment.
99
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, I.2.
94
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to cultivate, that we may make them fruitful and profitable in His Service, and so doing
we shall please Him. And this we must do more earnestly than worldly men, for they look
carefully after their property out of self-love, and we must work for the love of God.100
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Indeed [money] is unspeakably precious, if we are wise and
faithful stewards of it; if we employ every part of it for such purposes as our blessed Lord
has commanded us to do.101
John Wesley (1703-1791) – For, let the world be as corrupt as it will, is gold or silver to
blame? ‘The love of money,’ we know, ‘is the root of all evil,’ but not the thing itself. The
fault does not lie in the money, but in them that use it. It may be used ill: and what may
not? But it may likewise be used well: it is full applicable to the best, as to the worst,
uses.102
Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) – And these goods ought indeed to be enough both to meet the
demands of necessity and decent comfort and to advance people to that happier and
fuller condition of life which, when it is wisely cared for, is not only no hindrance to
virtue but helps it greatly.103
Paul VI (pope 1963-1978) – Not that material prosperity of itself precludes the activity of
the human spirit. On the contrary, the human spirit, a increasingly free of its bondage to
creatures, can be more easily drawn to the worship and contemplation of the Creator.
However, modern civilization itself often complicates the approach to God, not for any
essential reason, but because it is excessively engrossed in earthly affairs.104
Paul VI (pope 1963-1978) – An ever growing supply of possessions is not to be so highly
valued either by nations or by individuals as to be considered the ultimate goal. For all
development has a twofold effect: on the one hand it is necessary for man so that he
develop himself as a human being more and more, on the other it imprisons him as it
were if it is sought as the highest good beyond which one is not to look. When this takes
place hearts are hardened, minds are closed, men unite not to foster friendship but to
gain advantage and as a consequence easily fall into opposition and disunity.
Consequently the exclusive quest for economic possessions not only impedes man's
development as a human being but also opposes his true greatness. For both nations and
men who are infected with the vice of avarice give clearest evidence of moral
underdevelopment.105
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Since property and other forms of private ownership of
external goods contribute to the expression of the personality, and since, moreover, they
furnish one an occasion to exercise his function in society and in the economy, it is very
important that the access of both individuals and communities to some ownership of
external goods be fostered.106
100
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.15.
John Wesley, The Good Steward.
102
John Wesley, The Use of Money.
103
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 75
104
Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, n. 41.
105
Pope Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, 19.
106
Gaudium et Spes, n. 71.
101
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Billy Graham (1918- ) – Jesus said a man's life does not consist in the abundance of the
things which he possesses. Money is a good slave but a bad master. Property is to be
used, enjoyed, shared, given, but not hoarded. Paul said that the love of money was the
"root of all evil" (1 Tm 6:10). Wealth has its place and its power, but it is not entitled to
occupy the throne or swing the scepter. Covetousness puts money above manhood. It
shackles its devotee and makes him its victim. It hardens the heart and deadens the noble
impulses and destroys the vital qualities of life.107
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – It is the love of them that is so dangerous (1 Tm 6:10).
Christians do not necessarily need to feel guilty if they are financially rewarded or
promoted to a higher-ranking position; but we must be careful not fall in love with
maintaining our own personal success.108
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Jesus talked about the dangers of becoming attached
to money more than he talked about any other subject except the kingdom of God. Money
must be a very important subject.
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Gaining personal wealth is not an adequate goal for
Christians. But when God does give us wealth we are to use it as good stewards to
increase the quality of life for others both by generous giving and thoughtful investment.
109
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – In economic matters, respect for human
dignity requires the practice of the virtue of temperance, so as to moderate attachment to
this world's goods.110
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – All Christ's faithful are to direct their
affections rightly, lest they be hindered in their pursuit of perfect charity by the use of
worldly things and by an adherence to riches which is contrary to the spirit of
evangelical poverty.111
Work in a Christian perspective
We already find a treatment of the subject of work in the most ancient Christian text. The
Book of Genesis teaches that work is not just something that men have to do to make a
living, nor purely a punishment imposed on men as a result of original sin.112 According
107
Billy Graham, Peace with God, Ch. 17.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 14.
109
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 226.
110
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2407.
111
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2545.
112
It is true that in punishment for original sin God tells Adam “Cursed is the ground because of you; in
toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall
eat the plants of the field. In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground” (Gen
3:17-19). But this is not presented as the origin of man’s duty to work. As it is said in the text, Genesis had
already referred to man’s mission to work at the time of man’s creation, before he ever disobeyed God. In
108
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to Genesis work is an essential element of the mission that God had originally decided to
entrust to man.
The Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it (Gn
2:15).
And God blessed them, and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth
and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and
over every living thing that moves upon the earth" (Gn 1:28).
Because work is thus linked to God’s plan for man, even common everyday work,
unremarkable to all appearances, can be seen as prayer, as something that, when done
conscientiously, unites man to God:
[Conscientious craftsmen] shall strengthen the state of the world, and their prayer shall be
in the work of their craft, applying their soul, and searching in the law of the most High
(Sir 38:39).
The fact that Christ himself spent most of his adult life working as a craftsman, doing
ordinary and unspectacular work, and that he was known to be a worker has great
importance in assessing the value of human work from a Christian perspective:
Is not this the carpenter's son? (Mt 13:55).
Is not this the carpenter? (Mk. 7:3).
It is also very significant that Christ describes God’s continuing activity as work and that
he asserts that he works in imitation of his Father:
My Father works hitherto and I work (Jn 5:17).
For many centuries, and in part even until our own days, intellectuals, rulers and
aristocrats in most societies have scorned most types of work as mere drudgery. Against
this background, the history of the Christian ideas about work can be seen as a process of
gaining a progressively deeper insight into the basic teachings about work contained in
the Bible and identifying the reasons why work is valuable.
A first aspect of the value of work was clear from the very early years of the Christian
era. It was a lesson of daily experience that idleness corrodes a man’s character, makes
him unable to pursue holiness and is a source of many other vices. Accordingly work, a
stable occupation, was prescribed for all Christians as we can see both in the Didache
(80-90) and in the Didascalia Apostolorum (early 3rd Century):
fact God himself is portrayed in the Bible as creating, forming, building and planting (Gen. 1:1, 2:7,19; Ps
127:1; Amos 9:15), that is to say, as working. The new element that appears as a result of sin is not work
itself, but its toilsome character.
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But if [a Christian] intends to settle among you and is a craftsman, let him work for his
living; if he has no trade or craft, use your judgement in providing for him, so that a
follower of Christ will not live idle in your midst.113
Teach your children crafts that are agreeable and befitting religion, lest through idleness
they give themselves to wantonness.114
Work has also value because it is an instrument of Christian charity. In a world in which
so many people are in need, work provides an obvious avenue to generate the resources
necessary to satisfy those needs. As Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) pointed out,
working, if one is in a position to do so, is an imperative derived from the love of
neighbour:
We rightly have hands to help ourselves and contribute as much as we can to the
sustenance to those who are bodily handicapped. If anyone, even if healthy, lives in
idleness, he is unhappier than those who suffer from fever… The lazy are rightly detested
by all, for they breach God’s laws, are the plague of the sick’s table and get their own
soul to decompose more and more.115
John Calvin (1509-1564) repeats the same idea over a thousand years later:
Let this, then be our method of showing good will and kindness, considering that, in regard to
everything that God has bestowed upon us, and by which we can aid our neighbour, we are his
stewards, and are bound to give an account of our stewardship.116
From a Christian perspective another very important attribute of work is that through it
man becomes a co-operator in God’s own creative activity. Man can contribute to the
work of creation, not indeed in the sense that he can ever truly bring being out of nothing,
as God does, but in the more limited sense that he can complete the work of God, bring
out its potentialities and render it more capable of satisfying human needs and of
reflecting new aspects of God’s glory. This point, already suggested in the passages of
Genesis quoted above, has received renewed attention in more recent times. C. S. Lewis
(1898-1963), for instance, makes the point that we should work not just in order to satisfy
our neighbours’ immediate needs; beyond that, our objective should be to build a better
world:
[We should place the strongest] emphasis on our duty to leave the world, even in a temporal
sense, “better” than we found it. In the fullest parabolic picture that He gave of the
Judgement, Our Lord seems to reduce all virtue to active beneficence: and although it would
be misleading to take that one picture in isolation from the Gospel as a whole, it is sufficient
to place beyond doubt the basic principles of the social ethics of Christianity.117
113
Didache, Ch. 5.
Didascalia.
115
St. John Chrysostom, Homily I on Priscilla and Aquila.
116
John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, III.
117
C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, Ch. 7.
114
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We find the same idea in Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
That men, working in harmony, should renew the temporal order and make it
increasingly more perfect: such is God’s design for the world.118
Through his work man not only shares in God’s work of creation; he also shares directly
in Christ’s work of redemption. First, through work well done Christians further a very
important aspect of the work of evangelization—that of structuring human activities and
institutions according to Christian values and principles. Pope Paul VI (pope 1963-1978)
makes this point clearly and adds that this apostolic task is the special competence of the
lay faithful in the Church:
[The lay faithful’s] own field of evangelizing activity is the vast and complicated world
of politics, society and economics, as well as the world of culture, of the sciences and the
arts, of international life, of the mass media. It also includes other realities which are
open to evangelization, such as human love, the family, the education of children and
adolescents, professional work, and suffering. The more Gospel-inspired lay people there
are engaged in these realities, clearly involved in them, competent to promote them, and
conscious that they must exercise to the full their Christian powers which are often
repressed and buried, the more these realities will be at the service of the Kingdom of
God and therefore at the service of salvation in Jesus Christ, without in any way losing or
sacrificing their human content but rather pointing to a transcendent dimension which is
often disregarded.119
The very action of working, in so far as it is done in personal union with Christ, already
furthers Christ’s work of redemption. As Vatican Council II (1962-1965) states:
We hold that through labor offered to God man is associated with the redemptive work of
Jesus Christ, Who conferred an eminent dignity on labor when at Nazareth He worked
with His own hands.120
At an even deeper and more mysterious level, human work carried out in a Christian
spirit, as Vatican Council II (1962-1965) proclaims, furthers the project of the redemption
by rendering a human contribution to the construction of the kingdom of God:
Now, the gifts of the Spirit are diverse: while He calls some to give clear witness to the
desire for a heavenly home and to keep that desire green among the human family, He
summons others to dedicate themselves to the earthly service of men and to make ready
material for the kingdom of heaven by this ministry of theirs.121
Still another important positive aspect of work is that in working man must engage his
abilities and skills and it is often the need to accomplish certain results in his work that
moves him to stretch himself and develop his powers in a way that would not have
occurred but for the demands of his work. The Council of the Evangelical Church in
118
Apostolicam Actuositatem, 7.
Paul VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi, n. 60.
120
Gaudium et Spes, 67.
121
Gaudium et Spes, 38.
119
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Germany and The German Catholic Episcopal Conference make the point in an
ecumenical joint statement (1997):
Work is part of human life. It is especially through work that man can develop his
capacities and his energy and participate in the life of society.122
Practical consequences
It is clear therefore that the Christian vision of work goes much beyond seeing it as an
unfortunate necessity derived from the fact that we have to wrestle from nature the
elements necessary for survival. That Christian vision of work is perhaps best
summarised in the words of Saint Josemaría Escrivá, who did so much in promoting an
awareness of it: “Work, all work, bears witness to the dignity of man, to his dominion
over creation. It is an opportunity to develop one's personality. It is a bond of union with
others, the way to support one's family, a means of aiding in the improvement of the
society in which we live and in the progress of all humanity… For a Christian these
horizons extend and grow wider. For work is a participation in the creative work of God.
When he created man and blessed him, he said: ‘Be fruitful, multiply, fill the earth, and
conquer it. Be masters of the fish of the sea, the birds of heaven and all living animals on
the earth.’ And, moreover, since Christ took it into his hands, work has become for us a
redeemed and redemptive reality. Not only is it the background of man's life, it is a
means and path of holiness. It is something to be sanctified and something which
sanctifies.”123
If work is so important for a Christian, some consequences follow about the way he
should work. In the first place, a Christian should work hard and work well. The Bible’s
frequently praises industrious people and condemns the lazy:
So I saw that there is nothing better than that a man should enjoy his work, for that is his
lot (Sir 3:22).
Do you see a man skilful in his work? He will stand before kings; he will not stand before
obscure men (Prv 22:29).
The sluggard is pelted with a dirty stone, and all men will speak of his disgrace (Sir
22:1).
Two later references, one from Saint Basil the Great (329-379) and another from John
Wesley (1703-1791) will have to suffice here to illustrate how this teaching retained
value in later centuries. It is especially worthy of note that in both cases the duty to work
well is founded on religious considerations:
122
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, Towards Solidarity
with the Unemployed (1985) i, 2.
123
Saint Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, New Rochelle, N. Y., Scepter, 1974, n. 47.
47
Everyone should be devoted to his own trade, applying himself to it enthusiastically and
accomplishing it blamelessly with ready zeal and careful attention, as if God were his
overseer.124
Use all possible diligence in your calling. Lose no time. If you understand yourself, and
your relation to God and man, you know you have none to spare… Never leave anything
till tomorrow, which you can do today. And do it as well as possible. Do not sleep or
yawn over it: Put your whole strength to the work. Spare no pains. Let nothing be done
by halves, or in a slight and careless manner. Let nothing in your business be left undone,
if it can be done by labour or patience.125
Also, the exalted view of work that Christians have cannot but influence the way in
which they choose jobs. If one is aware that in working one is associating oneself to the
divine work of creation and redemption and contributing to the preparation of material
for the Kingdom of God, one should not be guided exclusively by criteria of money,
prestige, and avoidance of effort in choosing between alternative jobs. For a Christian the
choice of job is a vocational issue in which the essential consideration is how one can
best contribute to God’s plans for oneself and for the whole world.
Then, given the crucial role of work in God’s plans for man, a Christian should be
extremely reluctant to give to another human being a job which demands purely routine
and mechanical work. A man who is deprived of the opportunity to do meaningful work
is being denied something central to his humanity.
It should also be clear that conventional judgments on the relative worth or importance of
different jobs need deep revision. Obviously, judging the worth of a certain job on the
basis of the income it provides or the social prestige it has is an untenable position for a
Christian. But even criteria such as the degree of skill it demands or the importance of the
needs it satisfies, are also inadequate. If the ultimate significance of work depends on its
being a means to co-operate in the divine work of creation and redemption and its making
ready material for the kingdom of God, it should be obvious that the work of a surgeon or
a statesman stand on the same plane as the efforts of a street-sweeper. What is decisive is
not the “objective value” of one’s efforts (puny in any case in the perspective of eternity),
but the degree to which the work was carried out in faith, hope and charity. In other
words, the value of any work ultimately depends not on what type of work it is but on the
way it is done.
Additional material on work in a Christian perspective
Thou hast given him dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things
under his feet (Ps 8:6.)
Let the favor of the Lord our God be upon us, and establish thou the work of our hands
upon us, yea, the work of our hands establish thou it (Ps 90:17).
124
125
St. Basil, Long Rules, Q. 41.
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
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How long will you lay there, O sluggard? When will you arise from your sleep? A little
sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to rest, and poverty will come upon you
like a vagabond, and want like an armed man (Prv 6:9-11).
A slack hand causes poverty, but the hand of the diligent makes rich. A son who gathers
in summer is prudent, but a son who sleeps in harvest brings shame (Prv 10:4-5).
Like vinegar to the teeth, and smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to those who send him
(Prv 10:26).
Commit your work to the Lord, and your plans will be established (Prv 16:3).
I passed by the field of a sluggard, by the vineyard of a man without sense; and lo, it was
all overgrown with thorns; the ground was covered with nettles, and its stone wall was
broken down. Then I saw and considered it; I looked and received instruction. A little
sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to rest, and poverty will come upon you
like a robber, and want like an armed man (Prv 24:30-34).
The virtue of these things is come to the knowledge of men, and the Most High hath given
knowledge to men, that he may be honoured in his wonders (Sir 38:6 6).
Cursed is he who does the work of the Lord with slackness (Jer 48:10).
And on the second day you shall offer a he-goat without blemish for a sin offering; and
the altar shall be cleansed, as it was cleansed with the bull. When you have finished
cleansing it, you shall offer a bull without blemish and a ram from the flock without
blemish. … For seven days you shall provide daily a goat for a sin offering; also a bull
and a ram from the flock, without blemish, shall be provided (Ezk 43:22-23 and 25).
And on the seven days of the festival he shall provide as a burnt offering to the Lord
seven young bulls and seven rams without blemish, on each of the seven days; and a hegoat daily for a sin offering (Ezk 45:23).
On the day of the new moon he shall offer a young bull without blemish, and six lambs
and a ram, which shall be without blemish (Ezk 46:6).
The burnt offering that the prince offers to the Lord on the sabbath day shall be six lambs
without blemish and a ram without blemish (Ezk 46:4).
When you offer blind animals in sacrifice, is that no evil? And when you offer those that
are lame or sick, is that no evil? Present that to your governor; will he be pleased with
you or show you favor? says the Lord of hosts (Mal 1:8).
Cursed be the cheat who has a male in his flock, and vows it, and yet sacrifices to the
Lord what is blemished (Mal 1:14).
So, whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God (1 Cor
10:31).
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For you remember our labor and toil, brethren; we worked night and day, that we might
not burden any of you, while we preached to you the gospel of God (1 Thes 2:9 ).126
But we exhort you, brethren, to do so more and more, to aspire to live quietly, to mind
your own affairs, and to work with your hands (1 Thes. 4:10-11).
Now we command you, brethren, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that you
keep away from any brother who is living in idleness and not in accord with the
tradition that you received from us. For you yourselves know how you ought to
imitate us; we were not idle when we were with you … For even when we were
with you, we gave you this command: If any one will not work, let him not eat. For
we hear that some of you are living in idleness, mere busybodies, not doing any
work.Now such persons we command and exhort in the Lord Jesus Christ to do
their work in quietness and to earn their own living (2 Thes 3:6-12).
Didascalia apostolorum (early 3rd Century) – Be occupied in the things of the Lord or
engaged upon your work, and never be idle.
Saint Clement of Rome (bishop of Rome 92-101) – The good workman receives the bread
for his work with boldness, while the bad and careless one does not look his employer in
the face.127
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Give yourself to the work of agriculture, and
while you cultivate the fields, know God. Navigate, you who dedicate yourself to
navigation; but not before invoking Him who governs the heavens.128
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Since we are convinced that God is to be found
everywhere, we plough our fields praising the Lord, we sail the seas and ply all our other
trades singing his mercies.129
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – Let the young persons of the Church endeavour to
minister diligently in all necessaries: mind your business with all becoming seriousness,
that so you may always have sufficient to support yourselves and those that are needy,
and not burden the Church of God. For we ourselves, besides our attention to the word of
the Gospel, do not neglect our inferior employments. For some of us are fishermen, some
tentmakers, some husbandmen, that so we may never be idle.130
Saint Benedict (480-547) – The cellarer should look upon all the vessels and goods of the
monastery as though they were the consecrated vessels of the altar.131
126
See also 2 Thes 3:9.
127
St. Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corinthians, 34.1.
Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus , X.
129
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, 7.
130
Apostolic Constitutions, II, 63.
131
St. Benedict, Rule.
128
50
Saint Jerome (349?-420) – Always do some good work, and the devil will always find you
occupied.132
Saint Basil (329-379) – It is clear therefore that we have to work, and work diligently. We
cannot turn our life of piety into an excuse for laziness or to evade our duties. On the
contrary. It is a reason for putting greater effort in our activity ...133
Saint Basil (329-379) – Because he who has given us energy to work will demand that
our deeds be proportionate to that strength. “To whom much is given, much will be
demanded from him.”134
Saint Leo the Great (pope 440-461) – Blessed is that poverty that does not feel
enraptured by the love of earthly goods, nor sets its ambition in increasing the riches of
this world, but which rather desires the goods of heaven.135
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – Even at the eleventh hour the Lord reprimands the idleness
of the labourers and they are sent to his vineyard. That same Lord told the apostles that
“the harvest is great and the labourers few.” … Do not become lazy in idleness, lest you
be told, like them: “What are you doing there idle all day long?”136
Calvin (1509-1564) – But he does not disparage man's labor or his effort and planning.
For any virtue of ours is worthy of praise if we employ it in our zeal for the fulfillment of
duty. The Lord does not want us to be like logs of wood, or to sit idle; he expects us to put
to use whatever abilities we may have.137
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – Be wholly taken up in diligent business of your lawful
callings, when you are not exercised in the more immediate service of God.138
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Be active. Give no place to indolence or sloth; give no
occasion to say, `Ye are idle, ye are idle.' Many will say so still; but let your whole spirit
and behaviour refute the slander. Be always employed; lose no shred of time; gather up
the fragments, that nothing be lost. And whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy
might.139
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Not that either the goodness or the power of God is a reason
for us to stand idle. It is his will that we should use all diligence in all things, that we
should employ our utmost endeavours, as much as if our success were the natural effect
of our own wisdom and strength.140
John Henry Newman (1801-1890) – For us, my dear Brethren, whose duties lie in this
seat of learning and science, may we never be carried away by any undue fondness for
132
St. Jerome, Letter to Rusticus.
St. Basil, Long Rules, Q. 37.
134
St. Basil, Long Rules, Q. 37.
135
St. Leo the Great, Sermon 95,2.
136
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, VI.9.
137
John Calvin, Commentaries (on Ps. 127:1-2).
138
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
139
John Wesley, A Plain Account Of Christian Perfection, Q. 35.
140
John Wesley, On the Sermon on the Mount, VI.
133
51
any human branch of study, so as to be forgetful that our true wisdom, and nobility, and
strength, consist in the knowledge of Almighty God. Nature and man are our studies, but
God is higher than all. It is easy to lose Him in His works. It is easy to become overattached to our own pursuit, to substitute it for religion, and to make it the fuel of pride.
Our secular attainments will avail us nothing, if they be not subordinate to religion.141
C.S. Lewis (1898-1963) – All the same, the New Testament, without going into details,
gives us a pretty clear hint of what a fully Christian society would be like. Perhaps it
gives us more than we can take. It tells us that there are to be no passengers or parasites:
if man does not work, he ought not to eat. Every one is to work with his own hands, and
what is more, every one's work is to produce something good: there will be no
manufacture of silly luxuries and then of sillier advertisements to persuade us to buy
them.142
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The work of Christ's redemption concerns essentially
the salvation of men; it takes in also, however, the renewal of the whole temporal order.
These orders are distinct; they are nevertheless so closely linked that God's plan is, in
Christ, to take the whole world up again and make of it a new creation, in an initial way
here on earth, in full realization at the end of time.143
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – All that goes to make up the temporal order: personal
and family values, culture, economic interests, the trades and professions, institutions of
the political community, international relations, and so on, as well as their gradual development—all these are not merely helps to man’s last end; they possess a value of their
own, placed in them by God, whether considered individually or as parts of the integral
temporal structure: “And God saw all that he had made and found it very good” (Gn.
1:31). This natural goodness of theirs receives an added dignity from their relation with
the human person, for whose use they have been created. And then, too, God has willed
to gather together all that was natural, all that was supernatural, into a single whole in
Christ, “so that in everything he would have the primacy” (Col. 1:18). Far from
depriving the temporal order of its autonomy, of its specific ends, of its own laws and
resources, or its importance for human well-being, this design, on the contrary, increases
its energy and excellence, raising it at the same time to the level of man’s integral vocation here below.144
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – By reason of their special vocation it belongs to the
laity to seek the kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and directing them
according to God’s will.145
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – When man develops the earth by the work of his hands or
with the aid of technology, in order that it might bear fruit and become a dwelling worthy of
the whole human family and when he consciously takes part in the life of social groups, he
carries out the design of God manifested at the beginning of time, that he should subdue the
141
John Henry Newman, Sermons on Various Occasions, Sermon 2.
C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity, bk. III, ch. 3.
143
Apostolicam Actuositatem, 5.
144
Apostolicam Actuositatem, 7.
145
Lumen Gentium, 31.
142
52
earth, perfect creation and develop himself. At the same time he obeys the commandment of
Christ that he place himself at the service of his brethren.146
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The Council exhorts Christians, as citizens of one city
and the other, to strive to perform their earthly duties faithfully in response to the spirit
of the gospel. They are mistaken who, knowing that we have here no abiding city but seek
one which is to come, think that they may therefore shirk their earthly responsibilities;
for they are forgetting that by faith itself they are more than ever obliged to measure up
to these duties, each according to one’s vocation.147
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – When men and women provide for themselves and their
families in such a way as to be of service to the community as well, they can justly
consider that by their labor they are unfolding the Creator's work, serving their fellow
men, and are contributing by their personal industry to the realization in history of the
divine plan.148
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – By his labor a man ordinarily supports himself and his
family, is joined to his fellow men and serves them, and can exercise genuine charity and
be a partner in the work of bringing divine creation to perfection. Indeed, we hold that
through labor offered to God man is associated with the redemptive work of Jesus Christ,
Who conferred an eminent dignity on labor when at Nazareth He worked with His own
hands. From this there follows for every man the duty of working faithfully and also the
right to work.149
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – For all their works, prayers and apostolic
undertakings, family and married life, daily work, relaxation of mind and body, if they
are accomplished in the Spirit--indeed even the hardships of life if patiently borne--all
these become spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ (cf. P. 2:5). In
the celebration of the Eucharist these may most fittingly be offered to the Father along
with the body of the Lord. And so, worshipping everywhere by their holy actions, the laity
consecrate the world itself to God.150
Roman Catholic Liturgy – God our Father, creator and ruler of the universe, in every
age you call man to develop and use his gifts for the good of others.151
Pontifical Council for Social Communications (1971) – All over the world, men are at
work on improving the conditions for human living … The Christian vision of man…sees
in this development a response—though usually an unconscious one—to the divine
command to “possess and master the world.” It also sees it as an act of co-operation in
the divine work of creation and conservation.152
Lutheran Church in America (1978) – God's righteous will for persons is that they serve
their Creator through responsible care for one another and for the creation (Mi 6:8; Ps.
146
Gaudium et Spes, 57.
Gaudium et Spes, 43.
148
Gaudium et Spes, 34.
149
Gaudium et Spes, 67.
150
Lumen Gentium, 34.
151
Opening Prayer, Mass of St. Joseph the Worker.
152
Pontifical Council for Social Communications, Communio et Progressio, n. 7.
147
53
8:6). We thus understand God's intention for "the human" to include responsible life in
community with God and neighbor and faithful stewardship of the world's resources.153
Lutheran Church in America (1980) – Work, the expending of effort for productive ends,
is a God-given means by which human creatures exercise dominion. Through work,
persons together are enabled to perpetuate life and to enhance its quality. By work they
are both privileged and obligated to reflect the Creator whose work they are.154
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Man is the image of God partly through the mandate
received from his creator to subdue, to dominate, the earth. In carrying out this mandate,
man, every human being, reflects the very action of the creator of the universe.155
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Work is a good thing for man--a good thing for his
humanity--because through work man not only transforms nature, adapting it to his own
needs, but he also achieves fulfillment as a human being and indeed in a sense becomes
"more a human being."156
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Man must work both because the Creator has commanded it
and because of his own humanity, which requires work in order to be maintained and
developed.157
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Man must work out of regard for others, especially his own
family, but also for the society he belongs to, the country of which he is a child and the
whole human family of which he is a member.158
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – By means of work man participates in the activity of God
himself.159
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Let the Christian who listens to the word of the living God,
uniting work with prayer, know the place that his work has not only in earthly progress,
but also in the development of the kingdom of God.
All persons are intended to respond in worship and work as one human family
according to the Creator's love: to propagate, nurture and extend human life and
enhance its quality; to protect and use wisely the world's resources; to participate with
God in the continuing work of creation; and to share equitably the product of that work
to the benefit of all people….
Work, the expending of effort for productive ends, is a God-given means by
which human creatures exercise dominion. Through work, persons together are enabled
153
A Social Statement on Human Rights: Doing Justice in God's World. Adopted by the Ninth Biennial
Convention of the Lutheran Church in America. Chicago, Illinois, July 12-19, 1978.
154
Economic Justice: Stewardship of Creation in Human Community. Statement adopted by the Tenth
Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Seattle, Washington, 1980.
155
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 4.
156
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 9.
157
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 16.
158
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 16.
159
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 26.
54
to perpetuate life and to enhance its quality. By work they are both privileged and
obligated to reflect the Creator whose work they are.160
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Working for the kingdom means acknowledging and
promoting God’s activity, which is present in human history and transforms it. Building
the kingdom means working for liberation from evil in all its forms. In a word, the
kingdom of God is the manifestation and the realization of God’s plan of salvation in all
its fullness.161
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – Labor has great dignity, so great that all
who are able to work are obligated to do so. The duty to work derives both from God's
command and from a responsibility to one's own humanity and to the common good. The
virtue of industriousness is also an expression of a person's dignity and solidarity with
others. All working people are called to contribute to the common good by seeking
excellence in production and service.
Because work is this important, people have a right to employment.162
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – …the lay faithful must accomplish their work with
professional competence, with human honesty, with a Christian spirit, and especially as a
way of their own sanctification… Moreover, we know that through work offered to God,
an individual is associated with the redemptive work of Jesus Christ, whose labour with
his hands at Nazareth greatly ennobled the dignity of work.163
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The vocation of the lay faithful to holiness implies that life
according to the Spirit expresses itself in a particular way in their involvement in
temporal affairs and in their participation in earthly activities. Once again the Apostle
admonishes us: "Whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the
Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him" (1 Col 3:17). Applying the
Apostle's words to the lay faithful, the Council categorically affirms: "Neither family
concerns nor other secular affairs should be excluded from their religious program of
life." Likewise the Synod Fathers have said: "The unity of life of the lay faithful is of the
greatest importance: indeed they must be sanctified in everyday professional and social
life. Therefore, to respond to their vocation, the lay faithful must see their daily activities
as an occasion to join themselves to God, fulfil his will, serve other people and lead them
to communion with God in Christ.”164
Oxford Declaration (1990) – Work involves all those activities done, not for their own
sake, but to satisfy human needs. Work belongs to the very purpose for which God
originally made human beings. In Genesis 1:26-28, we read that God created human
beings in his image "in order to have dominion over ... all the earth.”
….
Because work is central to the Creator's intention for humanity, work has intrinsic value.
Thus work is not solely a means to an end. It is not simply a chore to be endured for the
sake of satisfying human desires or needs, especially the consumption of goods.
….
160
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 27.
John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, n. 15.
162
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
163
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 43.
164
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 17.
161
55
As those who are gifted by the Spirit and whose actions are guided by the demands of
love, Christians should do their work in the service of God and humanity.
….
The deepest meaning of human work is that the almighty God established human work as
a means to accomplish God's work in the world.165
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Human work proceeds directly from persons
created in the image of God and called to prolong the work of creation by subduing the
earth, both with and for one another. Hence work is a duty: "If any one will not work, let
him not eat." Work honors the Creator's gifts and the talents received from him. It can
also be redemptive. By enduring the hardship of work in union with Jesus, the carpenter
of Nazareth and the one crucified on Calvary, man collaborates in a certain fashion with
the Son of God in his redemptive work. He shows himself to be a disciple of Christ by
carrying the cross, daily, in the work he is called to accomplish. Work can be a means of
sanctification and a way of animating earthly realities with the Spirit of Christ.166
United States Catholic Conference (1999) – Social justice and the common good are
daily built up or torn down by the decisions and choices that we all make in every facet of
our lives. As family members, workers, owners, managers, investors, consumers and
citizens, we are called to use our talents and resources in the service of others.167
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) – The world’s attitude toward work
should not be the Christian’s attitude. Instead of viewing work as an unavoidable
necessity to be fulfilled with minimal effort, the Christian duty is expressed by
Ecclesiastes 9:10: "Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with all your might." And the
Christian must never forget that he or she represents Christ in the workplace. Not only is
work noble and God-ordained, it is also a vehicle for reaching the world for Christ, as
commanded in the Great Commission.168
165
Oxford Declaration, nn. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2427.
167
United States Catholic Conference, In All Things Charity: A Pastoral Challenge for the New Millennium
(1999).
168
Website.
166
56
CHAPTER 2 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 2
CHAPTER 2 – BASIC PRINCIPLES – 2 .................................................................... 57
Christian assessment of the value of trade and business ......................................... 57
Additional material on Christian assessment of the value of trade and business ..... 60
Commitment to Justice ............................................................................................... 62
Additional material on Commitment to Justice ........................................................ 66
Additional material on respect for the rights of every individual ............................. 70
Profit and business purpose ....................................................................................... 71
Additional material on profit and business purpose ................................................. 75
Vocation ....................................................................................................................... 77
Additional material on vocation................................................................................ 82
Significance of human actions.................................................................................... 84
Additional material on significance of human actions ............................................. 88
Moral criteria in economic decisions......................................................................... 91
Additional material on moral criteria in economic decisions ................................... 94
Christian assessment of the value of trade and business
We have just seen that work is to be held in very high consideration in a Christian
assessment of man’s activities. However, some readers may well have misgivings on
whether that positive assessment should extend to the specific work of traders and
businessmen. After all, there is no need to have read extensively in the Christian tradition
to have come across definitely unflattering opinions about their work.
We find in the Bible warnings about the dangers of trade. Examples are the following
strictures to be found in Sirach:
Two sorts of callings have appeared to me hard and dangerous: a merchant is hardly free
from negligence: and a huckster shall not be justified from the sins of the lips (Sir 26:29).
As a stake sticketh fast in the midst of the joining of stones, so also in the midst of selling
and buying, sin shall stick fast (Sir 27:2 2).
For merchants to find themselves joined in the same paragraph with hucksters is less than
a hearty endorsement of their calling. However, once one goes beyond superficial
impressions, the important point for our present purposes is that the biblical author is not
condemning trading as inherently immoral; he simply warns that it is an activity subject
to moral dangers.
If one were interested in making a collection of negative and dismissive statements on the
activities of traders, the works of Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) would not be a bad place to
start. A not untypical example (others can be found in the “Additional material” section)
is the following:
57
Nothing is more odious than for a man to have no love for a virtuous life, but instead to
be kept excited by an unworthy business in following out a low line of trade.1
Still, before jumping to conclusions, one should reflect, first of all, that this is very much
what lawyers would call an obiter dictum, that is to say, a statement by the way, clearly
not intended to convey a considered judgment on a clearly defined question. Secondly, in
so far as it mirrors, as it undoubtedly does, Saint Ambrose’s general view of the status of
trade as an occupation, it reflects much more his own prejudices (deriving from his
patrician birth, his previous profession as a high level civil servant, and the standards of
his cultural milieu) than the teachings of the Christian faith. This is shown both by the
fact that, in spite of his frequent unflattering comments about trade, Saint Ambrose never
formally forbade such activity to the faithful of his diocese and never stated in terms that
he thought that trade was an inherently immoral occupation; and by the fact that other
Fathers of the Church, often speaking in a more considered way, expressed very different
views on the issue. As an example of this we can offer here the ideas of Saint Augustine
(354-430) and Saint John Chrysostom (344-407), both of them roughly contemporaries of
Saint Ambrose. It is perhaps especially interesting that while Saint Augustine shares with
Saint Ambrose much the same low opinion about traders as a group, as the first part of
his statement makes clear, he is scrupulous in stating that the typical vices of traders are
not inherent in the activity itself:
The greedy tradesman blasphemes over his losses; he lies and perjures himself over the
price of his wares. But these are vices of the man, not of the craft, which can be exercised
without these vices.2
God wisely promoted mutual love through our own trade and dealings. Notice that God
filled the earth with goods, but gave each region its own peculiar products, so that, moved
by need, we would communicate and share among ourselves, giving others that of which
we have abundance and receiving that which we lack.
The same is true of each of us individually, for God did not grant all knowledge to all, but
rather medicine to one, construction to another, art to a third, so that we would love each
other because we need each other.3
Still, as other references that can be found in the “Additional material” section show, the
fact is that holding trading in low esteem was relatively common among the Church
Fathers. Besides the common views of their age, perhaps the single factor, which
contributed most to that attitude, was a defective understanding of economics. This point
is perhaps best exemplified in the following lines form Saint Augustine (354-430) and
Saint Jerome (349?-420):
If one does not lose, the other does not acquire.4
1
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III,9
St. Augustine, Commentary on the Psalms, on Ps. 70:15.
3
St. John Chrysostom, Homily on Perfect Charity, n. 1.
4
St. Augustine, As Fratres Eremo (sermon).
2
58
It is not without reason that the Gospel calls the riches of this earth ‘unjust riches,’ for
they have no other source than the injustice of men, and no one can possess them except
by the loss and the ruin of others.5
These texts show a lack of understanding of the specific way in which a trader creates
economic value, which, by the way, was not confined to the Church Fathers. Obviously,
in so far as trading is seen as a zero-sum activity in which a party can only win at the
expense of another (with the single exception of a just remuneration for “work done”),
traders are going to be perceived in a very poor light by teachers like the Fathers, who are
unanimous in stating that every man ought to love his neighbour and contribute to his
well-being. It is only in later times, when the experience of a more commercial
civilization has helped people to understand that traders actually create value through
their activities—often a great deal of value—that the cloud of suspicion hanging over
them will start to lift. In the history of Christian ideas and attitudes, that had already
happened by the 16th century. As examples of the attitudes that then started to prevail we
can bring here two different authors, almost exact contemporaries. One—Dominic Soto
(1495-1560)—a Catholic and a leading exponent of the Salamanca School, the other—
John Calvin (1509-1564)—a leading protestant reformer. As can be seen, while Calvin is
not blind to the typical faults of traders, he is well aware of their contribution to the
welfare of their fellow citizens. As for Soto, he is as explicit as one could desire on the
sources of the value created by merchants: what nowadays would be called time utility
and place utility:
Trading in ships cannot of course be condemned in itself, for the import and export of
goods bring no small advantage to men.
…The latter part of the verse makes it clear that the prophet is condemning commerce
because it has infected the land with many corruptions. For it too often happens that
riches bring self-indulgence, and superfluity of pleasures produces flabbiness, as we can
see in wealthy districts and cities [where there are merchants].6
Trade is necessary to society for not every province has in abundance what it needs; on
the contrary, because of the diversity of climes a province has an excess of the fruits and
activities in which other is lacking… And what we say of place can also be said of
time… if there were not some who buy goods in order to store them for a time, society
could not remain unharmed.7
The relation of all of this to the plans of God and the Christian vocation of those whose
calling is precisely to carry out a trade or business is already fully explicit in the work of
the Anglican bishop Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667):
For God provides the good things of the world to serve the needs of nature, by the labours
of the ploughman, the skill and pains of the artisan, and the dangers and traffic of the
merchant: these men are, in their callings, the ministers of the Divine Providence, and the
5
St. Jerome, Letter to Hedibia.
John Calvin, Commentaries (on Is 2:1).
7
Domingo de Soto, De Iustitia et Iure, bk. VI, a. 1.
6
59
stewards of the creation, and servants of a great family of God, the world, in the
employment of procuring necessities for food and clothing, ornament, and physic.8
And, of course, in our own times such ideas have become widely and peacefully
accepted. I will offer as an example among many possible ones a statement by the
American Catholic bishops (1986). Its special interest derives from the fact that this
crystal-clear recognition of the Christian value of business activities is contained in a
document that has been widely, and accurately, perceived as being mostly critical of
typical economic arrangements in a capitalist society.
Business people, managers, investors and financiers follow a vital Christian vocation
when they act responsibly and seek the common good. We encourage and support a
renewed sense of vocation in the business community.9
Additional material on Christian assessment of the value of trade
and business
[Be not ashamed] of the corruption of buying, and of merchants (Sir 42:5).
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Is it not vain for a merchant to journey by night and by day,
that he may be able to heap up treasures? Is it not vain for him to gather merchandise,
and to be much perturbed about its price, for fear he might sell it for less than he gave?
that he should strive everywhere for high prices, and thus unexpectedly call up robbers
against himself through their envy at his much-vaunted business; or that, without waiting
for calmer winds, impatient of delays, he should meet with shipwreck whilst seeking for
gain?10
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – It is plain, then, that what is virtuous is useful, and what is
useful is virtuous; also that what is useful is just, and what is just is useful. I can say this,
for I am speaking, not to merchants who are covetous from a desire to make gain, but to
my children.11
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – The holy man says that he has never been engaged in
business. For to get an increase in price is a sign not of simplicity but of cunning.12
Saint Jerome (347-420) – A merchant can seldom if ever please God.13
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Also [craftsmen and manual workers] can be
burdened with many sins in carrying out their work. That is because, besides their honest
tasks, they can easily engage in injustice in buying and selling.14
8
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, Ch. I, Sec. I.
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
10
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, I, 49, 252.
11
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, II, 6, 25.
12
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, II, 6, 37.
13
Quoted in 13 R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, InterVarsity Press, Leicester, 1990 p. 4.
14
St. John Chrysostom, Homily LXI on the Letter to the Romans, n. 2.
9
60
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Gain which is the end of trading, though not
implying, by its nature, anything virtuous or necessary, does not, in itself, connote
anything sinful or contrary to virtue: wherefore nothing prevents gain from being
directed to some necessary or even virtuous end, and thus trading becomes lawful. Thus,
for instance, a man may intend the moderate gain which he seeks to acquire by trading
for the upkeep of his household, or for the assistance of the needy: or again, a man may
take to trade for some public advantage, for instance, lest his country lack the
necessaries of life, and seek gain, not as an end, but as payment for his labor.15
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – But this Commandment is by no means
transgressed by those who desire to purchase or have actually purchased, at a fair price,
from a neighbor, the goods which he has for sale. Instead of doing him an injury, they, on
the contrary, very much assist their neighbor, because to him the money will be much
more convenient and useful than the goods he sells.16
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – It cannot be denied that buying and selling are necessary.
They cannot be dispensed with, and can be practiced in a Christian manner, especially
when the commodities serve a necessary and honourable purpose.17
John Calvin (1509-1564) – What reason is there,” wrote Calvin to a correspondent,
“why the income from business should not be larger than that from land-owning?
Whence do the merchant’s profits come, except from his own diligence and industry?18
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Therefore we must encourage technical progress and
the spirit of enterprise, we must foster the eagerness for creativity and improvement, and
we must promote adaptation of production methods and all serious efforts of people
engaged in production—in other words of all elements which contribute to economic
progress.19
Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas (1985) – If the
national standard of living is to grow, the process of wealth creation must be supported
wholeheartedly. The pursuit of efficiency in industry is to follow the Biblical insistence on
the proper stewardship of resources…20
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – …Everyone should make legitimate use of his
talents to contribute to the abundance that will benefit all and to harvest the just fruits of
his labor.21
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal
Conference (1997) – Entrepreneurs who invest their capital and use their decisionmaking capacities, braving the risk of competition, create jobs and deserve high
15
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II q. 77, a. 4.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Ninth and Tenth Commandments.
17
Martin Luther, On Trade and Usury.
18
John Calvin, letter (quoted in R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, London, 1936, p. 105).
19
Gaudium et Spes, 64.
20
Report of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas, Faith in the City, 1985,
9.28.
21
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2429.
16
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recognition, also from the moral point of view.22
Commitment to Justice
The Bible is full of references to justice. In fact, the hebrew root sdq appears in it over
five hundred times. From that root derive the terms sedeq and sedeqah, which are
translated into modern English as “justice.”
Before the crossing of the Jordan, Moses and the elders of Israel address the people
spelling out for them the terms of the covenant between Israel and the Lord. The
following is one of its main terms:
‘Cursed be he who perverts the justice due to the sojourner, the fatherless, and the
widow.’ And all the people shall say, 'Amen' (Dt 27:19).
An interesting aspect of this precept is that the standard used for justice is precisely the
respect for the weaker members of society. This is something that is found repeatedly in
the Bible23 and the reason for it is apparent. A prudent concern with our own interests is
usually more than sufficient motivation for most of us to treat with respect the wealthy
and the powerful. Such self-regarding considerations usually do not operate in relation to
those who in any given society are considered to be “nobodies”. However, by the mere
fact that they are human beings even such “nobodies” have an inherent value and dignity
that deserves respect and the Bible teachings aim at making people aware of that inherent
worth and disposed to act in ways consistent with it.
Why is God interested in having the Jews act according to that standard of justice? A
basic reason that is given often in the Bible is that the Jews are his people, with whom he
has a special relationship, and he wants them to be like he is. And God himself is just:
Of a truth, God will not do wickedly, and the Almighty will not pervert justice (Jb 34:12).
The Lord is just in all his ways (Ps 145:17).
God is described as a "God of justice" (Is 30:18) who loves justice (Is 61:8, cf. Ps 11:7;
33:5; 37:28: 99:4) and delights in it (Jer 9:23). God’s concern for justice is such that we
are told that Israel and Judah suffered the penalty of exile at least in part because of their
failure to act justly. The prophet Amos links the destruction of the northern kingdom and
the deportation of its people to their failure to practice justice:
“Therefore because you trample upon the poor and take from him exactions of wheat,
you have built houses of hewn stone, but you shall not dwell in them; you have planted
22
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal Conference, For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 142.
23
See, for instance, Ex 22:20-26; Ps 69:34; 82:3-4; Prov 14:21, 31: Is 3:14-15; Jer 22:16; Zek 7:9-10.
62
pleasant vineyards, but you shall not drink their wine... therefore I will take you into exile
beyond Damascus,” says the Lord, whose name is the God of hosts. (Am 5:11 & 27).24
With that biblical basis, the modern emphasis on the need for a strong commitment on the
part of Christians to promote justice should not come as a surprise. In the 20th Century
practically all-Christian churches have brought it to the forefront of their preaching and
teaching. It is important, however, to appreciate that rather than a change in the substance
of what is taught, what the modern emphasis on justice reflects is rather a different way
of systematizing and bringing together old ideas. While it is only in relatively recent
times that it has become common to present justice as a fundamental concept in
articulating the demands of the Christian faith, Christians had been stressing many
specific aspects and requirements of justice throughout the history of Christianity. We
have seen and will see numerous examples of this when discussing specific issues such as
solidarity, respect for the human dignity of employees, justice in exchanges, the duty to
care for the poor and needy, and the nature of ownership.
An example, among many others that could be presented, of this modern way of stressing
the Christian’s commitment to justice can be seen in the following Statement on Biblical
Justice of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada (1982):
Commitment to justice is intrinsic to Christian faith….
…
… Our commitment to seek justice … arises out of our relationship to God. The
commitment is intrinsic to the gospel, the good news of justification and sanctification
through Christ. All those who receive justification before God find themselves
immediately committed to expanding justice and overcoming the powers of sin and hate
that have disrupted relationships in God's creation.25
From the point of view of the business executive, some important practical implications
issue from this Christian commitment to promote justice. This is not just a matter of
keeping promises and respecting the legal rights of others, but demands a more general
attitude of being attentive always to ascertain what are the fair entitlements of others and
then making sure that such entitlements are respected, even when one is in a position to
make one’s own interests prevail.
The Christian’s commitment to justice also requires that he be committed to promoting
the common good of the societies in which he lives and does business. A Christian can
never be so focused on the needs and demands of the particular organization for which he
is responsible that he forgets the promotion of the good of the larger communities in
which he is involved, up to and including the general well-being of the whole human
family. We will consider this issues in detail in the section devoted to “The firm and the
community” in Chapter 8. Here, as an example, a statement issued by a prominent group
of evangelicals (1990) will suffice:
24
The same lot, because of similar causes, befell Judah soon afterwards. See Is 10:1-4 and Jr 5:26-31
“A Statement on Biblical Justice.” Adopted on July 8th, 1982, by the Eighth General Convention of The
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada.
25
63
God gives talents to individuals for the benefit of the whole community. Human work
should be a contribution to the common good (Eph 4:28). The modern drift from concern
for community to preoccupation with self, supported by powerful structural and cultural
forces, shapes the way we work. Individual self-interest can legitimately be pursued, but
only in a context marked by the pursuit of the good of others.26
As I mentioned above, the Christian commitment to justice has as a distinctive feature a
special emphasis on improving the lot of the weakest members of society. This
“preferential option for the poor,” as it is often called, is characteristic of the Christian
conception of human relations and will also be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7.
An example of it can be found in a document from the Lutheran Church in Canada
(1991):
The priority of development must be to restore the most vulnerable to full inclusion
within the human family. Development programmes and projects must seek to address
the needs of the poorest within our communities … and in other countries.27
Finally, the Christian emphasis on justice entails a commitment to giving full respect to
the human rights of every single person. This is especially relevant in a profession like
management in which often the pressure to obtain the best possible results for a firm puts
pressure on managers to sacrifice some people “for the common benefit.” This issue is
extremely complex and has been in recent decades at the center of heated debates among
philosophers and theologians.
In a world of scarce resources one cannot literally eat one’s cake and have it. It is very
common that the choice to pursue a certain objective entails that there are not enough
resources left to also pursue effectively a second objective, and usually such choices
favour some people and are detrimental to others. Thus, for instance, when one firm is
not doing well its managers may have to choose between improving the cost position of
the firm by letting some people go (which, of course, can be quite harmful to such
people) or preserving all current jobs (but also weakening the firm and making it more
difficult for it to offer good salaries and attractive opportunities to its workers, and
making it more likely that all jobs may be lost at a later date). Few people would argue
that any of the two alternatives is necessarily incompatible with Christian standards
merely because it is detrimental to the interests of certain people (although, of course,
both of them could fall short of Christian standards for other reasons). Most people agree
that it is appropriate to tolerate a lesser evil in order to avoid a greater evil or in order to
promote a greater good and there is nothing against this in the Christian tradition.
However, it is one thing to tolerate or accept some unavoidable collateral damage from
actions that are otherwise proper and which have as their main purpose a legitimate
objective, and a very different one, in the words of Saint Paul, “to do evil that good may
come.”28 Examples of this would be actions such as lying to some workers by telling
26
Oxford Declaration” (1990), n. 22.
Covenant for a Common Future: A Working Definition of Development, Adopted by GHDA (Lutheran)
March 1, 1991.
28
Rom 3:8.
27
64
them that their jobs are secure when in fact their names are on a list of people who are to
be dismissed in the very near future (“to prevent the bad news spreading prematurely,
with very bad effects for the company”) or bribing a government official to obtain a
contract (“as the only option which will save the company from liquidation and preserve
many jobs”). As I said before, such readiness to pursue the so-called “greatest good for
the greatest number,” even at the cost of cutting moral corners, is often considered hardheaded realism in the business world. However, Saint Paul was indignant that some
people had attributed such behaviour to him. Obviously, he considered it totally
incompatible with Christian standards.
And why not do evil that good may come? –as some people slanderously charge us with
saying. Their condemnation is just (Rom 3:8).
Saint Augustine (354-430) is also convinced that if an act is intrinsically opposed to
Christian standards, as would be the case, for instance, with lying, bribing, condemning
the innocent, or inducing somebody to sin, then such act cannot be justified by the fact
that it is considered necessary in order to avoid some grave harm or to obtain some great
benefit:
As for acts which are themselves sins, like theft, fornication, blasphemy, who would dare
affirm that, by doing them for good motives, they would no longer be sins, or, what is
even more absurd, that they would be sins that are justified?29
Saint Augustine did not reach lightly such a weighty conclusion. In fact, in arguing for it
he explicitly considered all sorts of imagined and real-life scenarios in which terrible
consequences would follow, for instance, from the refusal to tell a lie. He is firm in the
view that ultimately a man can only play his part to the best of his ability (i.e., doing all
the good he can while firmly refusing to do any evil) and for the rest he has to trust in
God’s mercy, wisdom and power. Similarly, Saint Thomas Aquinas—who also had
considered explicitly that in some extreme case terrible consequences may well follow if
a man refuses to do something that is evil—was also firm in his view that “doing evil that
good may come” is not a Christian way of acting.
No man ought to injure a person unjustly in order to promote the common good.30
In recent times the Catholic Church has repeatedly upheld the same principle. John Paul
II (pope 1978 - ) has done it in a very solemn and explicit way in his encyclical letter
Veritatis Splendor.
The "negative precepts" of the natural law are universally valid. They oblige each and
every individual, always and in every circumstance. It is a matter of prohibitions which
forbid a given action "semper et pro semper," without exception, because the choice of
this kind of behaviour is in no case compatible with the goodness of the will of the acting
person, with his vocation to life with God and to communion with his neighbour. It is
prohibited—to everyone and in every case—to violate these precepts. They oblige
29
30
St. Augustine, Against Lying, VII, 18.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 68, a. 3.
65
everyone, regardless of the cost, never to offend in anyone, beginning with oneself, the
personal dignity common to all.31
It is to be noted that John Paul II links the principle of never doing anything evil in order
to achieve a good purpose to the requirement to respect unconditionally the personal
dignity of every human being. This is the reason why I have presented this principle as an
exigency of justice, which in the Christian conception demands that every single man be
given his just entitlements. “It is expedient for you that one man should die for the
people” (John 11:50) may be a principle of political expediency but, if that man is being
murdered, it is a principle that is not compatible with the Christian conception of justice.
Additional material on Commitment to Justice
Justice, and only justice, you shall follow, that you may live and inherit the land which
the Lord your God gives you (Dt 16: 20).
Here I am; testify against me before the Lord and before his anointed. Whose ox have I
taken? Or whose ass have I taken? Or whom have I defrauded? Whom have I oppressed?
Or from whose hand have I taken a bribe to blind my eyes with it? Testify against me and
I will restore it to you (1 Sam 12:3).
I was a father to the poor, and I searched out the cause of him whom I did not know. I
broke the fangs of the unrighteous, and made him drop his prey from his teeth (Jb 29: 1617).
Let the nations be glad and sing for joy, for thou dost judge the peoples with equity (Ps.
67:4).
Righteousness and justice are the foundation of thy throne; steadfast love and faithfulness
go before thee (Ps 89:14).
The Lord works vindication and justice for all who are oppressed (Ps 103:7).
Blessed are they who observe justice, who do righteousness at all times! (Ps 106:3).
I know that the Lord maintains the cause of the afflicted, and executes justice for the
needy (Ps 140:12).
[The Lord] executes justice for the oppressed (Ps 146:7).
Evil men do not understand justice, but those who seek the Lord understand it completely
(Prv 28:5).
He who oppresses a poor man insults his Maker, but he who is kind to the needy honors
him (Prv 14:31).
31
John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor, n. 52.
66
Woe to those who decree iniquitous decrees, and the writers who keep writing
oppression, to turn aside the needy from justice and to rob the poor of my people of their
right, that widows may be their spoil, and that they may make the fatherless their prey!
(Is 10:1-2).
Is not this the fast that I choose: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the thongs of
the yoke, to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke? (Is 58:6).
For I the LORD love justice, I hate robbery and wrong (Is 61:8).
Their houses shall be turned over to others, their fields and wives together; for I will
stretch out my hand against the inhabitants of the land," says the Lord. "For from the
least to the greatest of them, every one is greedy for unjust gain; and from prophet to
priest, every one deals falsely (Jer 6:12-13).
I am the Lord who practice steadfast love, justice, and righteousness in the earth (Jer
9:24)
Woe to him who builds his house by unrighteousness, and his upper rooms by injustice;
who makes his neighbor serve him for nothing, and does not give him his wages (Jer
22:13).
Do justice and righteousness, and deliver from the hand of the oppressor him who has
been robbed. And do no wrong or violence to the alien, the fatherless, and the widow, nor
shed innocent blood in this place (Jer 22:3).
To turn aside the right of a man in the presence of the Most High, to subvert a man in his
cause, the Lord does not approve (Lam 3:35-36).
Thus says the Lord God: Enough, O princes of Israel! Put away violence and oppression,
and execute justice and righteousness; cease your evictions of my people, says the Lord
God (Ezk 45:9).
Hate evil, and love good, and establish justice in the gate; it may be that the Lord, the
God of hosts, will be gracious to the remnant of Joseph (Am 5:15).
I hate, I despise your feasts, and I take no delight in your solemn assemblies. Even
though you offer me your burnt offerings and cereal offerings, I will not accept them, and
the peace offerings of your fatted beasts I will not look upon. Take away from me the
noise of your songs; to the melody of your harps I will not listen. But let justice roll down
like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream (Am 5:21-24).
God has told you, O mortal, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you but to
do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God (Mi 6:8).
What does the Lord require of you, but to do justice, to love kindness and walk humbly
with your God (Mi 6:8).
67
Thus says the Lord of hosts, “Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy each to
his brother, do not oppress the widow, the fatherless, the sojourner, or the poor; and let
none of you devise evil against his brother in your heart" (Zc 7:9-10).
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Be just and fair in all you do. Always put yourself
in your neighbour's place, and put him into yours, and then you will judge fairly.32
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Moreover, by uniting their forces, let the laity so
remedy the institutions and conditions of the world when the latter are an inducement to
sin, that these may be conformed to the norms of justice.33
Synod of Bishops (1971) – Action on behalf of justice and participation in the
transformation of the world fully appear to us as a constitutive dimension of the
preaching of the Gospel, or, in other words, of the Church’s mission for the redemption
of the human race and its liberation from every oppressive situation.34
John Paul II (pope 1978-2005) – We must also become particularly sensitive to all
human suffering and misery, to all injustice and wrong, and seek the way to redress them
effectively. 35
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (1984) – Faithfulness to the Covenant
cannot be conceived of without the practice of justice. Justice as regards God and justice
as regards mankind are inseparable. God is the defender and the liberator of the poor.36
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for
righteousness, for they will be filled” (Mt 5:6). Have you ever gone for a long period
without food or water? Remember how your every thought was related to food or drink?
That is how Christians are to live their lives, thinking continually about righteousness
and justice. In business we are called to have a single-minded drive to find ways to
practice justice. It is first a hungering for Christ, which subsequently grows into a
longing for justice in the marketplace. 37
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Finally, doing justice involves opening the doors of
opportunity, within the bounds of our authority, to any person capable of accomplishing
the required tasks. This requires special efforts to tear down barriers from the past that
have discriminated against women and minority groups. Christians have responsibilities
to go as far as they can to assist people who are capable of growing sufficiently to be
competent in the jobs they seek to fill. If we desire to be just, we make efforts to train
those who are handicapped, deprived, inexperienced, or new to our country.38
32
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.36.
Lumen Gentium, n. 36
34
Justice in the World, Synod of Bishops 1971, Introduction.
35
John Paul II, On the Mystery and Worship of the Eucharist (1980), n. 6.
36
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Instruction On Certain Aspects Of The "Theology Of
Liberation", IV.
37
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 135.
38
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 30.
33
68
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Asserting and claiming rights can sometimes result
from pride or selfishness. Strident demands for recognition of rights can contradict the
biblical call to servanthood and humility. The Bible asks us to serve others and to seek
the rights of others. It says we should accept suffering and wrong rather than retaliate or
take revenge. Jesus stood meekly before his accusers and accepted their verdict of
crucifixion. In that situation he did not defend his rights, though he had the power to do
so. Therefore, when we face situations where rights are not honored, whether the
injustice is done to us or to another person or group, we must thoughtfully choose our
response. Injustice in business is always wrong, but there are a number of ways to
confront it.
Sometimes we should endure inconvenience or even suffering or financial loss in order to
serve.
…
We should not always be quiet. Sometimes justice requires that we state our rights and
defend them vigorously. We sometimes allow injustice to continue because we are afraid
to confront it.39
Lutheran Church in Canada (1991) – In God's incarnate and redemptive action in Jesus
Christ, Christians are set free to a baptismal vocation of service (diakonia) in the
restoration of creation (Rom 6). Gathered as a community (Koinonia) and enlivened by
the Holy Spirit, the marks of this service are the pursuit of justice, an endeavour for
peace, and the preservation of the integrity of creation.40
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Justice is the moral virtue that consists in the
constant and firm will to give their due to God and neighbour … Justice towards men
disposes one to respect the rights of each and to establish in human relationships the
harmony that promotes equity with regard to persons and to the common good.41
United States Catholic Conference (1995) – The call to economic justice is not a political
preference or ideological choice, but a response to the Scriptures and a requirement of
Catholic teaching.42
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal
Conference (1997) – Solidarity and justice constitute the heart of any biblical and
Christian ethics.43
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal
Conference (1997) – Commitment to man’s dignity and to his rights, to justice and
solidarity, is a constitutive element of the Church and a duty which derives from its faith
in the solidarity of God with men and from its mission to be a sign and instrument of
unity and peace in the world. 44
39
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 107.
40
Covenant for a Common Future: A Working Definition of Development, Adopted GHDA, March 1, 1991.
41
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1807.
42
United States Catholic Conference, A Decade After Economic Justice for All, 1995.
43
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 2.
44
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 111.
69
Amsterdam Declaration (2000) – Wherever Christ’s standards of peace and justice are
observed to any degree, to that degree the kingdom is anticipated, and to that extent
God’s ideal for human society is displayed.45
Additional material on respect for the rights of every individual
[Eleazar] by manfully giving up my life now, I will show myself worthy of my old age and
leave to the young a noble example of how to die a good death willingly and nobly for the
revered and holy laws (Mc 6:27-28).
For God made not death, neither hath he pleasure in the destruction of the living. For he
created all things that they might be: and he made the nations of the earth for health: and
there is no poison of destruction in them, nor kingdom of hell upon the earth (Wis 1:1314).
If I say to the wicked, 'You shall surely die,' and you give him no warning, nor speak to
warn the wicked from his wicked way, in order to save his life, that wicked man shall die
in his iniquity; but his blood I will require at your hand. But if you warn the wicked, and
he does not turn from his wickedness, or from his wicked way, he shall die in his iniquity;
but you will have saved your life (Ezk 3:18-19).
Susana groaned deeply; there is no escape for me, she said, either way. It is death if I
consent, and if I refuse I shall be at your mercy. Let me rather fall into your power,
through no act of mine, than commit sin in the Lord’s sight (Dan 13:21-22).
Do not be deceived: neither the immoral, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sexual
perverts, nor thieves, nor the greedy, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor robbers will inherit
the Kingdom of God (1 Cor 6:9-10).
See that none of you repays evil for evil, but always seek to do good to one another and to
all (1 Thes 5:15).
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – It often happens that man acts with a good
intention, but without spiritual gain, because he lacks a good will. Let us say that
someone robs in order to feed the poor: in this case, even though the intention is good,
the uprightness of the will is lacking. Consequently, no evil done with a good intention
can be excused. 'There are those who say: And why not do evil that good may come?
Their condemnation is just' (Rom 3:8)".46
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – Evil ought not to be done for anything in the world, nor
for the love of any man.47
45
Amsterdam Declaration (2000).
St. Thomas Aquinas, In Duo Precepta Caritatis et in Decem Legis Praecepta.
47
Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, bk. I, ch. 15.
46
70
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – For this is the real answer to every excessive claim made by
the collective. It is mortal; we shall live forever. There will come a time when every
culture, every institution, every nation, the human race, all biological life is extinct and
every one of us is still alive. Immortality is promised to us, not to these generalities. It
was not for societies or states that Christ dies, but for men … as organs in the Body of
Christ, as stones and pillars in the temple, we are assured of our eternal self-identity and
shall live to remember the galaxies as an old tale.48
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – Any moralist will tell you that the personal triumph of an
athlete or of a girl at a ball is transitory; the point is to remember that an empire or a
civilization is also transitory. All achievements and triumphs, in so far as they are merely
this-wordly achievements and triumphs, will come to nothing in the end.
… [these consideratiohns]may, and should, correct the tendency of some moderns to
talk as though duties to posterity were the only duties we had. I can imagine no man who
will look with more horror on the End than a conscientious revolutionary who has, in a
sense sincerely, been justifying cruelties and injustices inflicted on millions of his
contemporaries by the benefits which he hopes to confer on future generations:
generations who, as one terrible moment now reveals to him, were never going to exist.
Then he will see the massacres, the faked trials, the deportations, to be all ineffaceably
real, an essential part, his part, in the drama that has just ended: while the future Utopia
had never been anything but a fantasy.49
John Paul II (1978-) – There exist acts which "per se" and in themselves, independently
of circumstances, are always seriously wrong by reason of their object.50
John Paul II (1978-) – The Church has always taught that one may never choose kinds of
behaviour prohibited by the moral commandments expressed in negative form in the Old
and New Testaments. As we have seen, Jesus himself reaffirms that these prohibitions
allow no exceptions.51
John Paul II (1978-) – Martyrdom, accepted as an affirmation of the inviolability of the
moral order, bears splendid witness both to the holiness of God's law and to the
inviolability of the personal dignity of man, created in God's image and likeness. This
dignity may never be disparaged or called into question, even with good intentions,
whatever the difficulties involved. Jesus warns us most sternly: "What does it profit a
man, to gain the whole world and forfeit his life? " (Mk 8:36).
Martyrdom rejects as false and illusory whatever "human meaning" one might claim to
attribute, even in "exceptional" conditions, to an act morally evil in itself. Indeed, it even
more clearly unmasks the true face of such an act: it is a violation of man's "humanity",
in the one perpetrating it even before the one enduring it.52
Profit and business purpose
48
C. S. Lewis, “Membership” in The Weight of Glory and other Essays, MacMillan, New York, 1980.
C.S. Lewis, The World’s Last Night , in Fern-seed and Elephants.
50
John Paull II, Reconciliatio et Paenitentia, n. 17.
51
John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor, n. 52.
52
John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor, n. 92.
49
71
“The purpose of business is to make a profit.” Probably this is the single phrase that is
heard most often in business circles. The fact that it is repeated so frequently already
should put us on our guard. For a saying to be so popular it must be capable of offering
something to everybody. Well, there is no doubt that this maxim is ambiguous enough.
Taken in a certain sense, and subject to some important qualifications, it is perfectly
acceptable to a Christian. However, if it is taken in a different sense, it can be made into
the battle cry of an aggressively unchristian conception of business life and economic
activity. Therefore, rather than waste time fighting over “the true sense” of what is an
incurably ambiguous phrase, it will be more profitable to start from the beginning and
look into the sources of the Christian tradition to find what can be learned about the
proper Christian attitude to profit.
In the first book of the Bible we already find a description of a highly profitable
commercial transaction, and there is not the slightest hint of censure in it. After having
accumulated as much grain as he could during the years of plenty, Joseph sold it during
the years of famine at a great profit. By the time he was done he had managed to acquire
for Pharaoh all the money and all the cattle that were to be found in Egypt and Canaan,
and also to keep the peoples of these countries from dying of hunger into the bargain!
And Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt and in the land
of Canaan, for the grain, which they bought; and Joseph brought the money into
Pharaoh's house. And when the money was all spent in the land of Egypt and in the land
of Canaan, all the Egyptians came to Joseph, and said, "Give us food; why should we die
before your eyes? For our money is gone." And Joseph answered, "Give your cattle, and I
will give you food in exchange for your cattle, if your money is gone." So they brought
their cattle to Joseph; and Joseph gave them food in exchange for the horses, the flocks,
the herds, and the asses: and he supplied them with food in exchange for all their cattle
that year (Gn 47:14-17).
A similarly positive reference to profit is found in the Book of Proverbs. There, the
ability to make profits is mentioned among the qualities of a good wife:
A good wife who can find? She is far more precious than jewels… She perceives that her
merchandise is profitable (Prv 30: 10 and 18).
On the basis of these precedents, Saint Irenaeus (c. 130 - c. 200) can write about the
pursuit of profit as something to be taken for granted by a Christian:
But even now, when we are in the faith, we do acquire such things. For who is there that
sells and does not wish to make a profit from the buyer? … Or who is there that carried
on a trade and does not do it in order to earn a livelihood thereby?53
However, not everything in the Bible is praise for profit. Scripture also contains many
warnings about the danger of setting one’s heart on the pursuit of money. Those warnings
were presented in the second section of the first chapter. The following is an example:
53
St. Ireneus, The Refutation and Overthrow of Knowledge Falsely so-Called, bk. IV, 30. 1.
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If I have made gold my trust, or called fine gold my confidence; if I have rejoiced because my
wealth was great, or because my hand had gotten much ... This also would be an iniquity to
be punished by the judges, for I should have been false to God above (Jb 31:24-28).
Beyond this, the Bible also makes it clear that for profit to be honest, it has to be obtained
in the right manner:
Like the partridge that gathers a brood which she did not hatch, so is he who gets riches
but not by right; in the midst of his days they will leave him, and at his end he will be a
fool (Jer 17:11).
The above brief references show that no unambiguous reply can be given to the question
“Are profits good?” They will be good if they are obtained in the right way and if man
can keep the right attitude towards them. Otherwise they are bad.
This attitude of fundamental approval subject to strong qualifications is what we find
throughout the Christian tradition. Many examples could be given but the two following
references, from Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Wesley (1703-1791) are as good as
any:
How can there be anything good then in trade? How can it be without sin when such
injustice [such as the profit motive] is the chief maxim and the rule of the whole
business? On such a basis trade can be nothing but robbing and stealing the property of
others.54
Gain all you can, by common sense, by using in your business all the understanding,
which God has given you. It is amazing to observe how few do this; how men run on in
the same dull track with their forefathers.55
At first sight, these two excerpts seem to directly oppose each other: One would seem to
condemn profit while the other enjoins it. However, a more careful examination of the
two passages already indicates what a study of their wider contexts, and of the other
things these two religious leaders have said on this issue, makes abundantly clear: while
each of them stresses a different aspect of the question (and this creates the appearance of
flat opposition), the fact is that the points in reference to profit on which Luther and
Wesley (and most other Christian leaders of note) agree are many more, and more
important, than those on which perhaps they would disagree. The key to understanding
how these apparent differences can be reconciled is that each of the passages quoted
stresses one of the two main ideas about profit that, as I have just indicated, run in
parallel from the very beginning of the Christian tradition: i) profit in itself is good and
even praiseworthy, but ii) it is also dangerous and can be obtained in the wrong way.
54
Martin Luther, "Trade and Usury," in On Moral Business: Classical and Contemporary Resources for
Ethics in Economic Life, ed. Max Stackhouse, Dennis P. McCann, Shirley J. Roels, and Preston N.
Williams (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995), p. 175.
55
John Wesley, The Use of Money.
73
In his quotation Luther addresses directly what we could call the dangerous side of profit:
a profit that is erected in the role of supreme master. He denies what Wesley would not
dream of affirming, that profit can ever rightly be made “the chief maxim” and exclusive
rule of our business activities. As we have seen, the Bible already made it abundantly
clear that the pursuit of money could never be the highest aim of a human being, and the
prophet Jeremiah made more specifically the point that profit should be made “by right”.
What Luther condemns is the tendency, unfortunately so common among business
people, of making profit itself the definition and measure of that “right.” On the other
hand John Wesley, building on a much sounder understanding than Luther of the role of
profit as an indicator of the value created in one’s business activities, in praising profit is
simply praising initiative and commitment to one’s calling.
In practice the key point is to define accurately the right way in which to obtain a profit.
This is done, for instance, in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994):
Economic life is not meant solely to multiply goods produced and increase profit or
power; it is ordered first of all to the service of persons, of the whole man, and of the
entire human community.56
This point is essential to a Christian understanding of business. Economic activity has to
be directed to the service of human beings (and through that to the service of God, even
though this is not the issue directly in point here). Anything short of that will fail to meet
the Christian standard of right human action.
Once this is understood one will have to hasten to add that honestly earning one’s living
and rendering oneself able to satisfy the needs of one’s dependents is certainly one way,
and not an inconsequential one, of serving persons. One would also have to add that
profits are absolutely necessary to provide for the continuity and expansion of any
business firm; and that they also provide a most useful indicator of how well a firm
succeeds in creating value for its customers. All of these are also important ways in
which to serve persons and the entire human community. That these points are consistent
with a Christian understanding of economic life is shown, for instance, by Chewning,
Eby and Roels (1990):
Profit is necessary. Without profit a business cannot survive. It will not provide a return
for the owners and investors who take risks to keep it going. Nor will it have resources to
invest in further growth. Profit is not a dirty word!57
The most basic point, however, is that, following the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
obtaining profit should never be at the expense of “the whole man” and of “the entire
human community.” These ultimately define the ways in which profits can be obtained
“by right”. In a way it is uncontroversial that people (including Christian people) engage
in business activities “to make a profit,” that is to say, to earn a living. But speaking more
56
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2426.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp. 199-200.
57
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rigorously “making a profit” can never be an adequate definition of the ultimate purpose
of a Christian. For him, profit will always be a means to more ultimate ends: “the service
of persons, of the whole man, and of the entire human community” first and, through this
and intimately linked to it, co-operation with God in the attainment of his plans for the
world and in the expression of his glory.
Additional material on profit and business purpose
The man greedy for gain curses and renounces the Lord (Ps 10:3).
The earth has yielded its increase; God, our God, has blessed us (Ps 67:6).
E'phraim has said, "Ah, but I am rich, I have gained wealth for myself": but all his riches
can never offset the guilt he has incurred (Hos 12:8).
Woe to him who gets evil gain for his house, to set his nest on high, to be safe from the
reach of harm! (Hab 2:9).
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – …Gain …though not implying, by its nature,
anything virtuous or necessary, does not, in itself, connote anything sinful or contrary to
virtue: wherefore nothing prevents gain from being directed to some necessary or even
virtuous end.58
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – [A contract of society] takes place when some
people agree to contribute some things which are appropriate to make profit or to render
a fruit … in order to obtain jointly a profit, which profit (or in its case losses) will be
shared among themselves.59
USA Catholic Bishops (1919) – Capital likewise has its rights. Among them is the right to
"a fair day's work for a fair day's pay," and the right to returns which will be sufficient to
stimulate thrift, saving, initiative, enterprise, and all those directive and productive
energies which promote social welfare.60
Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) – Those who are engaged in producing goods, therefore, are
not forbidden to increase their fortune in a just and lawful manner; for it is only fair that
he who renders service to the community and makes it richer should also, through the
increased wealth of the community, be made richer himself according to his position.61
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The ultimate and basic purpose of economic
production does not consist...in profit...; it is directed to the service of man.62
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – In fact, the purpose of a business firm is not simply to make
a profit, but is to be found in its very existence as a community of persons who in various
58
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II q. 77, a. 4.
St Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub XIV, 904.
60
USA Catholic Bishops, Pastoral Letter, 1919.
61
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 136.
62
Gaudium et Spes, n. 64
59
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ways are endeavoring to satisfy their basic needs, and who form a particular group at the
service of the whole of society.63
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The Church acknowledges the legitimate role of profit as an
indication that a business is functioning well. When a firm makes a profit, this means that
productive factors have been properly employed and corresponding human needs have
been duly satisfied. But profitability is not the only indicator of a firm's condition. It is
possible for the financial accounts to be in order, and yet for the people--who make up
the firm's most valuable asset--to be humiliated and their dignity offended…. Profit is a
regulator of the life of a business, but it is not the only one; other human and moral
factors must also be considered which, in the long term, are at least equally important for
the life of a business.64
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Ownership of the means of production, whether in industry
or agriculture, is just and legitimate if it serves useful work. It becomes illegitimate,
however, when it is not utilized or when it serves to impede the work of others, in an
effort to gain a profit which is not the result of the overall expansion of work and the
wealth of society.65
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – A theory that makes profit the exclusive norm
and ultimate end of economic activity is morally unacceptable.66
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – The use of financial resources solely in
pursuit of short-term profits can stunt the production of needed goods and services; a
broader vision of managerial responsibility is needed.67
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Based on a purely economic conception of man
[Neoliberalism] considers profit and the law of the market as its only parameters, to the
detriment of the dignity and the respect due to individuals and peoples.68
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Since profit making alone is a shallow and limited
goal for Christians in business, what are some other goals worthy of committed
Christians? Look at the Point for Discussion. You'll see at least four ways to extend
God's shalom in business:
1. To provide goods and services that enhance the lives of individuals and society.
Christians who truly believe they're making better vacuum cleaners or more reliable, fuel
-efficient cars can be serving God's kingdom. Their primary purpose, however, is not
profit, but service to individuals and society.
2. To create and maintain jobs. What better way to serve God than to create meaningful
work for people? Work that supports families financially and psychologically and
harnesses their creative energies is kingdom work.
3. To provide a fair return for committed investors and owners. Increasing the wealth of
shareholders is not a company's only goal, but it is an appropriate goal because of the
63
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 35.
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 35.
65
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 43.
66
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2424.
67
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, 1986, n. 113.
68
John Paul II, Ecclesia in America, n. 56.
64
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risks investors have taken. Returns to owners also provide family income or retirement
security. It is a way of rewarding them for the venture of capitalizing the business.
4. The allocation of business resources to community projects. Businesses can use their
talents to support worthy charities, improve the culture of their community, support
higher education, or contribute to a host of other social needs.
For Christians the relevant question is how to best balance these multiple goals. 69
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Business success for Christians is defined in terms of
service. It is not enough to look at the bottom line of the financial statement to determine how
well a firm is doing. We must also look at such factors as how the firm treats its employees;
whether or not it uses natural resources carefully; and whether or not the products it makes
lead to a better life for those who use them. 70
Vocation
The idea that there is a hierarchy among a person’s responsibilities, which we discussed
above, is part of a wider conception. In the Christian view, God has a specific plan for
every human being; each of them has been created for a special purpose and has a
concrete mission or vocation, which in turn entails a specific set of responsibilities. In the
Old Testament we find many cases of God calling individuals for specific purposes. A
good example is the calling of Moses when the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a
flame of fire out of the midst of a bush, which burned without being consumed:
And now, behold, the cry of the people of Israel has come to me, and I have seen the
oppression with which the Egyptians oppress them. Come, I will send you to Pharaoh that
you may bring forth my people, the sons of Israel, out of Egypt (Ex 3:9-10).
Another example is the calling of the prophet Jeremiah:
Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated
you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations (Jer 1:5).
It should be noted that in this text God is represented as saying that he chose Jeremiah
even before he had been born. There are several other places in Scripture where we read
that God chose certain people for special missions when they were still in their mother’s
womb.71 God’s choice is not a consequence of the previous behaviour and the merits of
an individual. Rather, the calling comes before man’s actions.
The vocational understanding of human life is very well expressed in the following
passage of Cardinal Newman (1801-1890):
69
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 201.
70
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 15.
71
See also, for instance, Dt, 7:6-8; Is 49:1-5 and Lk 1:15.
77
Every one who breathes, high and low, educated and ignorant, young and old, man and
woman, has a mission, has a work. We are not sent into this world for nothing; we are not
born at random... [God] creates every soul, He lodges it in the body, one by one, for a
purpose. He needs, He deigns to need, every one of us. He has an end for each of us; we
are all equal in His sight, and we are placed in our different ranks and stations, not to get
what we can get out of them for ourselves, but to labour in them for Him. As Christ has
his work, we too have ours; as He rejoiced to do His work we much rejoice in ours also.72
It follows from all of this that to live our lives well it is essential to identify the vocation
to which God is calling us and to strive to live it out in our life. The point is made very
clearly by Saint Paul:
Only, let every one lead the life, which the Lord has assigned to him, and in which God
has called him. This is my rule in all the churches (1 Cor 7:17).
All the different vocations are complementary to each other in the sense that they all are
elements in God’s grand design for men and the whole universe. God has a single plan of
salvation and he offers every single human being the possibility of contributing towards
it.
For as in one body we have many members, and all the members do not have the same
function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of
another. Having gifts that differ according to the grace given to us, let us use them: if
prophecy, in proportion to our faith; if service, in our serving; he who teaches, in his
teaching; he who exhorts, in his exhortation; he who contributes, in liberality; he who
gives aid, with zeal; he who does acts of mercy, with cheerfulness (Rom 12:4-8).
How do we identify our own personal vocation? As we have seen, a vocation is a calling
to carry out a mission. Therefore it is a work, an assignment given by God so that a
human being will contribute to his loving plans towards mankind. It follows that the main
issue in trying to ascertain my own vocation is not to identify the type of activity that I
enjoy most, but rather to ascertain the most important unmet needs I can see around me to
whose satisfaction I can, given my capacities, make a contribution. That conjunction of
needs, opportunities for service, and capacities, provides the most solid indicator of a
person’s place in God’s overall plans.73 Part of the quotation from the Letter to the
Romans that was given a few paragraphs before is again relevant here:
Having gifts that differ according to the grace given to us, let us use them: if prophecy, in
proportion to our faith; if service, in our serving; he who teaches, in his teaching; he who
exhorts, in his exhortation; he who contributes, in liberality; he who gives aid, with zeal;
he who does acts of mercy, with cheerfulness (Rom 12:5-8).
72
Henry Newman, “God’s Will the End of Life,” in Discourses to Mixed Congregations.
In many discussions of how one should “discern” one’s vocation, the person’s spontaneous likes and
dislikes are emphasized as a sign of that vocation. I do not deny that these factors have to be borne in mind,
but, if one examines the main Christian sources, their role is secondary. They have to be taken into account
because it is highly unlikely that anybody will perform very well at a task that he finds consistently
unappealing, but the ultimate purpose of a Christian must be to serve God’s plan to the best of his ability,
not to have the best possible time.
73
78
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) also takes it for granted that a person’s talents are an important
indicator of his vocation:
This does not, of course, mean that it is for anyone a mere toss-up whether he should
sweep rooms or compose symphonies. A mole must dig to the glory of God and a cock
must crow. We are members of one body, but differentiated members, each with his own
vocation. A man’s upbringing, his talents, his circumstances, are usually a tolerable index
of his vocation.74
A person’s vocation is not limited to some special moments or tasks. It would not be a
fair rendering of the Christian conception of vocation to think of, say, Winston Churchill
as having been created by God for the purpose of leading Britain during World War II.
This would be part of the truth, but not the whole truth. God’s providence embraces
everything and accordingly God must have had very definite expectations from Winston
Churchill at all periods of his life and in all his different roles. Not only as the Prime
Minister of Britain, but also as a young boy in school and in his family circle; as a young
man in the army in India and South Africa; as a junior politician; as a family man, as a
member of some social clubs, a friend, a parishioner, a writer, and so on. In other words,
it would not be in accordance with the Christian conception of vocation to think that
one’s role in God’s plans is limited to a few crucial actions. If this were so most of one’s
time would be outside God’s plan and, so to speak, “surplus to requirements.” One could
feel free to use this “free portion” of one’s life in any way that suited one’s whims,
provided only, of course, that one did not go contrary to God’s law in those “free”
periods. If things were so, it would be evidence that God was a very imperfect planner,
able to cope with only a relatively limited number of variables. On the contrary, in the
Christian conception God’s mind has an infinite reach and his power is infinite, so that he
is capable of integrating in one single plan all the incidents of all the lives of all human
beings. In fact, Scripture makes it very clear that he expects that each of us will devote to
his service the whole of his life, every minute of it:
So, whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God (1 Cor
10:31).
No room is left here for dividing one’s life into two portions, “God’s portion” and “my
own.” Saint Peter emphasizes the point by stating that we must see ourselves as stewards
of God’s gifts, which therefore are not “our own” to use as we please. He buttresses his
point with the statement that the objective is that God may be glorified “in everything”:
As each has received a gift, employ it for one another, as good stewards of God's varied
grace: whoever speaks, as one who utters oracles of God; whoever renders service, as one
who renders it by the strength which God supplies; in order that in everything God may
be glorified through Jesus Christ (1 Pt 4:10-11).
All of this is so, it must be emphasized, not because God is like a possessive master who
insists on getting the last ounce of effort from his slaves. It is a fundamental tenet of
orthodox Christian belief that God, being infinitely happy and self-sufficient from all
74
C.S. Lewis, “Learning in War Time,” in Fern-seed and Elephants.
79
eternity, has nothing to gain from the activities of human beings. The reason why God
demands a total commitment to his plans from his children is that there is no better way
for any of them to conduct his life than co-operating in God’s plan. Insofar as one is
faithful to the vocation one has received from God, one co-operates in that plan, knowing
that God is counting on that co-operation to advance a purpose that is unimaginably
greater and more valuable than any purpose one could devise for oneself. That being the
case, holding back and half-hearted co-operation are purely and simply recipes for
wasting one’s life.
It follows from all of this that one’s activities in business must also have a vocational
significance. In this sphere of one’s life, like in all others, one can contribute or fail to
contribute to God’s overall plan for mankind. Business is also an area in which one can
give glory to God by freely co-operating in his plan.
Vatican Council II (1962-1965), for instance, repeatedly speaks of the engagement by lay
people in temporal affairs as being an important part of their vocation:
By reason of their special vocation it belongs to the laity to seek the kingdom of God by
engaging in temporal affairs and directing them according to God’s will.75
Saint Josemaría Escrivá, a person who played a truly pioneering role within the Catholic
Church in helping lay people appreciate the essential unity between their human and
divine vocations made this point in the following words: “You have worked in your
profession for years, established professional and personal friendships with your
colleagues, helped to solve the problems of your companies and your communities…
Well then: I remind you once again that all this is not foreign to God's plan. Your human
vocation is a part - and an important part - of your divine vocation.”76
And the Catholic bishops of the U.S., following the lead of Vatican Council II, not only
speak of business activities in vocational terms, but they refer to them as constituting “a
vital Christian vocation.”
Business people, managers, investors and financiers follow a vital Christian vocation
when they act responsibly and seek the common good. We encourage and support a
renewed sense of vocation in the business community.77
Among managers and professional people it is very common to think of their successive
professional activities as a “career.” The typical person chooses the most attractive and
prestigious career among those open to him and then plans his different career moves
with a view to occupying progressively higher-status and better-paying jobs. If the career
is very successful he will have attained financial security at a relatively young age and
will be able to take an early retirement.
75
Lumen Gentium, 31.
Saint Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, New Rochelle, N. Y., Scepter, 1974, n. 46.
77
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
76
80
Things look very differently if instead of “my career” one is thinking of “my vocation.”
As I pointed out above, from this perspective the fundamental issue is not how to attain
the most prestigious and rewarding positions but rather to identify the position or
positions where one can make the most useful contribution.
Emphasis on vocation, and therefore on contribution and on fidelity to God, puts a
premium on continuity in an area of activity. The person whose main interest is to
advance his career will tend to seize eagerly any opportunity to move up from worker to
supervisor; from professor to dean; or, in the terminology of professional partnerships,
from “grinder” to “minder” and then to “finder.” By contrast, a person who is trying to
live out a vocation will always keep in mind the possibility that the world may be losing a
fine professor (or worker, or consultant) only to get an indifferent dean (or supervisor, or
“finder”). This is not a question of general rules, as in many cases taking advantage of the
opportunity for a career move may be precisely a way to make an even better
contribution. But the fact is that people who do their work with a vocational sense are
more likely to take into account that the more experience they acquire in an area of
activity the more effective they are likely to be and this will make them markedly
reluctant to change jobs just because the new job is more prestigious or promises better
earnings.
Of course, to discharge one’s responsibilities in life there will be need for money and
accordingly how to earn the money one needs is an important consideration in choosing
jobs. But, even so, looking at things from the point of view of vocation still makes a
considerable difference: the issue is not how “to earn as much money as possible” but
“how to earn the money I need to meet my responsibilities, in a way compatible with the
other aspects of my vocation.”
From the perspective of vocation the key issue is not “success.” As I will discuss in the
next section, it is simply impossible to judge reliably in this world how effectively one’s
actions have contributed to the establishment of God’s kingdom. What God demands
from people who are trying to co-operate with him is not success but fidelity to his
standards.
Finally, while retirement (often long-awaited) usually marks the end of a career, there is
no retirement from one’s vocation. The person who is trying to live out God’s plans for
him never feels free to stop working. Of course, at some point in life one may have to
slow down and even curtail radically certain types of activities. But one will still be doing
one’s best, in the different circumstances in which he finds himself, to devote all his
energies, many or few, to the service of men and God.
I hope that the preceding considerations help to appreciate the difference that looking at
work from a vocational perspective makes. This perspective makes it clear that a person’s
work is his response to a personal calling from God. Therefore pulling back from full
dedication to that work is also pulling back from a closer personal relationship with God.
Ultimately, a vocational view of work and business means that they are a part, and an
important part, of one’s personal relationship with God, of one’s religious life.
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Additional material on vocation
Now the Lord said to Abram, "Go from your country and your kindred and your father's
house to the land that I will show you. And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless
you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless
you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless
themselves." So Abram went, as the Lord had told him; and Lot went with him. Abram was
seventy-five years old when he departed from Haran (Gn 12:1-4).
"For you are a people holy to the Lord your God; the Lord your God has chosen you to be a
people for his own possession, out of all the peoples that are on the face of the earth. It was
not because you were more in number than any other people that the Lord set his love upon
you and chose you, for you were the fewest of all peoples; but it is because the Lord loves
you, and is keeping the oath which he swore to your fathers, that the Lord has brought you
out with a mighty hand, and redeemed you from the house of bondage, from the hand of
Pharaoh king of Egypt (Dt 7:6-8).
He chose David his servant, and took him from the sheepfolds; from tending the ewes that
had young he brought him to be the shepherd of Jacob his people, of Israel his inheritance
(Ps 78: 70-71).
But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, the offspring of Abraham, my friend;
you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, saying to
you, "You are my servant, I have chosen you and not cast you off"; fear not, for I am with
you, be not dismayed, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will help you, I will uphold
you with my victorious right hand (Is 41:8-10).
But now thus says the Lord, he who created you, O Jacob, he who formed you, O Israel:
"Fear not, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine” (Is 43:1).
And he said to me, "Son of man, I send you to the people of Israel, to a nation of rebels, who
have rebelled against me; they and their fathers have transgressed against me to this very
day” (Ezk 2:3).
Then Amos answered Amazi'ah, "I am no prophet, nor a prophet's son; but I am a herdsman,
and a dresser of sycamore trees, and the Lord took me from following the flock, and the Lord
said to me, 'Go, prophesy to my people Israel'” (Am 7:14-15).
Jesus answered, "The first is, 'Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one; and you
shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your
mind, and with all your strength'” (Mk 12:29-30).
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but the
same Lord; and there are varieties of working, but it is the same God who inspires them all in
every one. To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good (1 Cor 12:47).
82
Whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus (Col 3:17).
And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving
thanks to God the Father through him (Rv 2:23).
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – God so prepares and endows those, whom He chooses
for some particular office, that they are rendered capable of fulfilling it.78
John Calvin (1509-1564) – The Lord enjoins every one of us, in all the actions of life, to have
respect to our own calling. He knows the boiling restlessness of the human mind, the
fickleness with which it is borne hither and thither, its eagerness to hold opposites at one in
its grasp, its ambition. Therefore, lest all things should be thrown into confusion by our folly
and rashness, he has assigned distinct duties to each in the different modes of life…Every one
in his particular mode of life will, without repining, suffer its inconveniences, cares,
uneasiness, and anxiety; persuaded that God has laid on the burden. This, too, will afford
admirable consolation, that in following your proper calling, no work will be so mean and
sordid as not to have a splendor and value in the eye of God.79
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Every calling stands in special need of some special
virtue; those required of a prelate, a prince, or a soldier, are quite different; so are those
beseeming a wife or a widow, and although all should possess every virtue, yet all are not
called upon to exercise them equally, but each should cultivate chiefly those which are
important to the manner of life to which he is called.80
Henry Newman (1801-1890) – Yet observe what the matter of fact was: He raised up Elijah
for a certain definite work, and for that alone, neither more nor less. First, the Prophet
executed the Divine sentence upon Baal’s priests, in his own person; next, he was bidden to
anoint Jehu for the same work,—a purpose which Elisha brought to effect. But he did no
more; to this his mission was limited. How different from our usual way of viewing things!
We are accustomed to say that nothing is done, unless all is done; but God’s thoughts are not
our thoughts, neither our ways His ways.81
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – The place for which [the Creator] designs [creatures] in His
scheme of things is the place they are made for. When they reach it their nature is fulfilled
and their happiness attained: a broken bone in the universe has been set, the anguish is over.
When we want to be something other than the thing God wants us to be, we must be wanting
what, in fact, will not make us happy.82
John Paul II (pope 1978- ) – All individuals … have their own part to play and their own place
in God's mysterious plan and in the universal history of salvation.83
78
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, III, q. 27, a. 4.
John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, III.
80
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.1.
81
Henry Newman, “Elijah, the Prophet of the Latter Days,” in Sermons in Various Occasions.
82
C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, Ch. 3.
83
John Paul II, Slavorum Apostoli, 19b.
79
83
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Indeed, as a person with a truly unique life story, each is called
by name to make a special contribution to the coming of the Kingdom of God. No talent, no
matter how small, is to be hidden or left unused.84
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The Council is able then to indicate the proper and special sense
of the divine vocation which is directed to the lay faithful. They are not called to abandon the
position that they have in the world. Baptism does not take them from the world at all, as the
Apostle Paul points out: "So, brethren, in whatever state each was called, there let him remain
with God" (1 Co 7:24). On the contrary, he entrusts a vocation to them that properly concerns
their situation in the world. The lay faithful, in fact, "are called by God so that they, led by the
spirit of the Gospel, might contribute to the sanctification of the world, as from within like
leaven, by fulfilling their own particular duties. Thus, especially in this way of life, resplendent
in faith, hope and charity they manifest Christ to others." Thus for the lay faithful, to be
present and active in the world is not only an anthropological and sociological reality, but in
a specific way, a theological and ecclesiological reality as well. In fact, in their situation in
the world, God manifests his plan and communicates to them their particular vocation of
"seeking the Kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and by ordering them according
to the plan of God."85
Significance of human actions
Christians and people with a purely secular outlook can share many ethical ideas.
Nothing prevents a person who has not accepted the Christian revelation from having
strong convictions about the sanctity of human life, the value of truthfulness, or the
importance of justice. There are some key issues, however, in which the Christian faith
makes a decisive difference. One of them is the ultimate significance and importance of
human actions. On this point believers and non-believers are bound to have strikingly
different views.
A person without religious beliefs can work very hard to do what is right, but if he is
clear-sighted he will have to recognize that it is quite possible (indeed, experience
constantly teaches us that it is highly likely) that his best efforts may be nullified by the
actions (or non-action) of others or by adverse circumstances. At any rate, it is quite
unlikely that, as far as human beings can see, whatever he does will make much of a
difference in the long term. Ultimately, in the view of the non-religious person, it is
certain that whatever he does will come to nothing once the world comes to its inevitable
end. In this worldview every man is fighting a war that is known in advance to be
ultimately lost.
Christian revelation gives us a very different perspective on the significance of human
actions.
Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work
of the Lord, knowing that in the Lord your labor is not in vain (1 Cor 15:58).
84
85
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 56.
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, Ch. 1.
84
It is perhaps worthwhile to reflect for a moment on this statement of Saint Paul, if only to
notice that it is unqualified. Saint Paul does not state that the Christian’s successful
labour which has resulted in lasting fruits is not in vain. He just states plainly and as a
matter of course that the labour of a Christian—successful or unsuccessful, appreciated
by others or not, whose fruits remain for centuries or are quickly destroyed—is not in
vain. Obviously, the attitude to work of the person who believes this is likely to be very
different from that of the person who is aware that ultimately (or possibly in the very
short term) his best efforts are to count for nothing.
It is well known that Christians believe in a doctrine of judgment and that they expect to
be rewarded or punished in the next life according to their deeds. This is an obvious way
in which their efforts “will not be in vain.” This doctrine becomes progressively clearer
in the Old Testament, and is often repeated by Our Lord himself:
Therefore I will judge you, O house of Israel, every one according to his ways, says the
Lord God (Ezk 18:30).
For the Son of man is to come with his angels in the glory of his Father, and then he will
repay every man for what he has done (Mt 16:27).
However, this is not all. It is possible to understand the eternal punishment or reward that
every human being will get as being extrinsic to their actions and in actual fact this is the
way in which many non-Christian religions conceive it. It is as if an adult were to
promise a small boy that if he can jump over a certain height he will give him some
sweets. If the boy succeeds in his jump and gets the sweets as promised, the fact remains
that of itself jumping does not produce sweets. Strictly speaking his reward results from
the adult’s decision and actions and has no intrinsic connection with the boy’s own
actions. A contrasting example would be that of a person who exercises regularly in order
to get better health. After one year of exercises he has got the expected reward and is in
better health. In this case the reward is not something that of itself is unrelated to the
activity, as was the case with the sweets, but rather its natural consequence; the reward is
intrinsically related to the activity. Well, it is an important feature of the Christian
doctrine about the future life that the rewards it promises are intrinsically related to our
choices and actions in this present life.
Attaining the kingdom of God, which is the ultimate reward that a Christian expects for
his efforts, is a purely supernatural event that results from God’s actions; no merely
human effort can bring it about. However, that ultimate reward is not purely extrinsic to
men’s actions; instead it flows from them. Certainly it is God who ultimately creates his
kingdom, but He has freely wanted to do so, not by a new creation from nothing, but by a
process that uses, transforms and elevates men’s actions. Ultimately men really cooperate with God and their actions make a real contribution—totally dependent on, and
subordinated to, God’s action, to be sure—to the ultimate saving plan of God.
It is significant in this respect that in the passages I will quote presently Saint Paul
approves the idea that the just man’s righteousness “endures for ever” and Saint John
85
quotes the Spirit as stating that the deeds of the just “follow them.” There is in both cases
an obvious sense of continuity between actions in this world and the situation in the
world to come. Both passages fit much better the idea of some kind of persistence of
men’s deeds than that of a future reward that is extrinsic to actions in this world.
As it is written, "He scatters abroad, he gives to the poor; his righteousness endures for
ever" (2 Cor 9:9).
And I heard a voice from heaven saying, "Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the
Lord henceforth." "Blessed indeed," says the Spirit, "that they may rest from their labors,
for their deeds follow them!" (Rv 14:13).
In which way do our actions in this world persist in the next? Most obviously through
their effect on our character. The person who performs a just action is thereby shaping
himself as a just person while he who acts in an unloving manner is becoming more
selfish. This point is well made in the Oxford Declaration (1990):
Human work has consequences that go beyond the preservation of creation to the
anticipation of the eschatological transformation of the world. They are, of course, not
ushering in the kingdom of God, building the "new heavens and a new earth." Only God
can do that. Yet their work makes a small and imperfect contribution to it for example, by
shaping the personalities of the citizens of the eternal kingdom which will come through
God's action alone.86
It is to be noted that the evangelical authors of the Oxford Declaration do not claim that
men are building the new heavens and the new earth through their own unaided efforts.
This was the claim of some more extreme versions of the theology of liberation, which
set them in radical contradiction to basic tenets of the Christian tradition. Some liberation
theologians hoped that human action by itself would bring about total human liberation.
Against these purely human utopias the Oxford Declaration reflects faithfully the
authentic Christian hope by insisting that only God’s action can bring about the new
heavens and the new earth and that the work of men only “makes a small and imperfect
contribution to it.” Still, that contribution is real and it is affirmed in the passage quoted.
It should also be noted that the Oxford Declaration does not assert that the effect of
human actions on the character of their authors is the only connection between these
actions and the definitive kingdom; on the contrary, that is cited only as an example of
such connections. Which other connections can there be? We are here in highly
speculative territory in which there is room for legitimate differences among orthodox
Christians. It is a fact, however, that there are some strong hints in Scripture that human
actions themselves can somehow last as building blocks for the kingdom—building
blocks that will have to be decisively transformed by the re-creative action of God, but
building blocks nevertheless. Besides some of the passages we have already quoted that
seem to point in this direction, the following verses of the First Epistle to the Corinthians
are significant:
86
Oxford Declaration (1990), n. 18.
86
Each man's work will become manifest; for the Day will disclose it, because it will be
revealed with fire, and the fire will test what sort of work each one has done. If the work
which any man has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a reward (1 Cor 3:1314).
Be that as it may, the Oxford Declaration at least nodded in this direction and, even more
clearly, Vatican Council II (1962-1965), in a passage that has attracted much attention,
makes a similar point:
When we have spread on earth the fruits of our nature and our enterprise . . . according to
the command of the Lord and in his Spirit, we will find them once again, cleansed this
time from the stain of sin, illuminated and transfigured, when Christ presents to his
Father an eternal and universal kingdom.87
Still, we do not need to define here the exact way in which our present actions contribute
to the building of God’s eternal kingdom. What matters most for our present purposes is
the clear Christian teaching that in spite of apparent failures and contradictions nothing
that is done with the upright purpose of serving God’s kingdom is ever lost. Obviously
this is a great incentive to act well and it has been perceived in this way throughout
Christian history. Here two quotations that bring up this clearly will suffice. The first is
from Saint Justin Martyr (died c. 165) and the second from Saint Thomas Aquinas (12241274):
Everyone walks, according to the merit of his actions, towards eternal punishment or
eternal salvation. If all men were aware of this, nobody would for a second choose evil
…88
If, however, this life in which we live were all, we would not have this great incentive to
live well, for whatever we do would be of little importance … But we believe that we
shall receive eternal rewards in the resurrection for whatsoever we do here. Hence, we are
anxious to do good …89
Of course, I am taking now for granted a point that has already been established in
previous sections. A person working in a business undertaking can thereby be serving
other human beings and God, and ultimately contributing to the kingdom of God. The
point with which I am directly concerned here is that a Christian working in that spirit
can be very detached from the human outcome of his efforts. As far as human beings can
judge he may succeed or fail, but immediate success or failure, or even the long-term
impact of his work in human history, is not his ultimate objective.
The practical upshot of all this is that while a Christian manager will try to get the best
possible results (this is part of living faithfully his vocation), for him it is more important
to be faithful to his calling than to be “successful.” And precisely because he knows that
apparent “successes” and “failures” are not the most important standard by which to
87
Gaudium et Spes, n. 39.
St. Justin, First Apology, XII.
89
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Apostles’ Creed, 11th Article.
88
87
evaluate his actions he should be able to withstand much more easily disappointment and
apparent failure. This tends to result in a characteristic combination of working very hard
and with as much initiative as possible and at the same time being very detached from
immediate results. Germain Grisez, an author who has built his moral theology on a keen
awareness of the eschatological dimension of human actions, describes this very well:
“When false expectations eventually encounter hard realities, optimism gives way to
pessimism and cynicism. Then, rather than faithfully doing the good which is possible,
even Christians often give in to discouragement and abandon their vocational
commitments. To forestall this, they should live, not by optimism, which lacks realism
about evil, but by hope, which counts on God to overcome it. While hope motivates
efforts to overcome evil and do every good possible in this world, it anticipates limited
success and much frustration; but counting on God for the ultimate overcoming of evil
and the perfection of creation, hopes never gives in to discouragement.”90
Another important practical consequence of the Christian view on the ultimate
significance of human actions is that it makes people less inclined to cut corners or
compromise their standards in their eagerness to attain certain results. Ultimately, a
Christian is aware that the real importance of his work depends on whether or not it
provides a contribution to God’s building of his eternal kingdom. The type of expediency
that tries to achieve results by betraying Christian standards and teachings is perfectly
useless from that perspective.
Still another important consequence of these ideas about the ultimate significance of
human actions is that no person who truly believes them can possibly think that he is
indispensable in any role. In this way of looking at things every effort is important, but
only God’s recreative action is really indispensable. The awareness of this has led many
Christians to adopt a characteristic policy of declining to scheme and struggle in order to
achieve or retain positions of power or influence
Additional material on significance of human actions
Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor sinners in the congregation of
the righteous (Ps 1:5).
The Lord rewarded me according to my righteousness; according to the cleanness of my
hands he recompensed me (Ps 18:20).
For God will bring every deed into judgment, with every secret thing, whether good or
evil (Sir 12:14).
For inquisition shall be made into the thoughts of the ungodly: and the hearing of his
words shall come to God, to the chastising of his iniquities (Wis 1:9).
90
Germain Grisez, The Way of the Lord Jesus – Vol. 2: Living a Christian Life, Quincy, Illinois, Franciscan
Press, pp. 127-128.
88
Thus they reasoned, but they were led astray, for their wickedness blinded them, and they
did not know the secret purposes of God, nor hope for the wages of holiness, nor discern
the prize for blameless souls (Wis 2:21-22).
For the fruit of good labours is glorious (Wis 3:15).
They shall come with fear at the thought of their sins, and their iniquities shall stand
against them to convict them (Wis 4:20).
All mercy shall make a place for every man according to the merit of his works (Sir
16:16).
And he said to me, "You are my servant, Israel, in whom I will be glorified." But I said, "I
have labored in vain, I have spent my strength for nothing and vanity; yet surely my right
is with the Lord, and my recompense with my God" (Is 49:3-4).
For I the Lord love justice, I hate robbery and wrong; I will faithfully give them their
recompense, and I will make an everlasting covenant with them (Is 61:8).
Blessed is the man who trusts in the Lord, whose trust is the Lord. He is like a tree
planted by water, that sends out its roots by the stream, and does not fear when heat
comes, for its leaves remain green, and is not anxious in the year of drought, for it does
not cease to bear fruit (Jer 17:7-8).
I the Lord search the mind and try the heart, to give to every man according to his ways,
according to the fruit of his doings (Jer 17:10).
[The Lord’s] eyes are open to all the ways of men, rewarding every man according to his
ways and according to the fruit of his doings (Jer 32:19).
House of Israel, in future I mean to judge each of you by what he does—it is the Lord
Yaveh who speaks (Ezk 18:31).
The Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of
sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire; there men will weep and
gnash their teeth (Mt 13:41-42).
And they will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life (Mt.
25:46).
Judge not, and you will not be judged; condemn not, and you will not be condemned;
forgive, and you will be forgiven; give, and it will be given to you; good measure, pressed
down, shaken together, running over, will be put into your lap. For the measure you give
will be the measure you get back (Lk 6:37-38).
They will come forth, those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those
who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment (Jn 5:29).
For he will render to every man according to his works: … There will be tribulation and
distress for every human being who does evil, the Jew first and also the Greek, but glory
89
and honor and peace for every one who does good, the Jew first and also the Greek (Rom
2:6,9-11).
He who plants and he who waters are equal, and each shall receive his wages according
to his labor (1 Cor 3:8).
For this slight momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond
all comparison (2 Cor 4:17).
For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each one may receive
good or evil, according to what he has done in the body (2 Cor 5:10).
The point is this: he who sows sparingly will also reap sparingly, and he who sows
bountifully will also reap bountifully (2 Cor 9:6).
Do not be deceived; God is not mocked, for whatever a man sows, that he will also reap
(Gal 6:7).
And let us not grow weary in well-doing, for in due season we shall reap, if we do not
lose heart (Gal 6:9).
Knowing that whatever good any one does, he will receive the same again from the Lord
(Eph 6:8).
And the twenty-four elders who sit on their thrones before God fell on their faces and
worshiped God, saying, "We give thanks to thee, Lord God Almighty, who art and who
wast, that thou hast taken thy great power and begun to reign. The nations raged, but thy
wrath came, and the time for the dead to be judged, for rewarding thy servants, the
prophets and saints, and those who fear thy name, both small and great, and for
destroying the destroyers of the earth. (Rv 11:16-18).
Let us rejoice and exult and give him the glory, for the marriage of the Lamb has come,
and his Bride has made herself ready; it was granted her to be clothed with fine linen,
bright and pure--for the fine linen is the righteous deeds of the saints (Rv 19:7-8).
Also another book was opened, which is the book of life. And the dead were judged by
what was written in the books, by what they had done (Rv 20:12).
Behold, I am coming soon, bringing my recompense, to repay every one for what he has
done (Rv 22:12).
Saint Justin (died c. 165) – We hold this view, that it is alike impossible for the wicked,
the covetous, the conspirator and for the virtuous, to escape the notice of God, and that
each man goes to everlasting punishment or salvation according to the value of his
actions.91
91
St. Justin, First Apology, XII.
90
IV Lateran Council (1215) – [Christ] will come at the end of the world; he will judge the
living and the dead; and he will reward all, both the damned and the elect, according to
their works.92
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – [The mission of the Church] is to proclaim and
establish among all peoples the kingdom of Christ and of God, and she is on earth, the
seed and the beginning of that kingdom.93
Catholic Synod of Bishops (1971) – Let Christians therefore be convinced that they will
yet find the fruits of their own nature and effort cleansed of all impurities in the new
earth which God is now preparing for them, and in which there will be the kingdom of
justice and love, a kingdom which will be fully perfected when the Lord will come
himself.
… The radical transformation of the world in the Paschal Mystery of the Lord gives full
meaning to the efforts of men…94
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Working for the kingdom means acknowledging and
promoting God’s activity, which is present in human history and transforms it. Building
the kingdom means working for liberation from evil in all its forms. In a word, the
kingdom of God is the manifestation and the realization of God’s plan of salvation in all
its fullness.95
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal
Conference (1985) – What man does in this world certainly has a reflection also in the
other one, beyond history, as is shown in the “parables about the stewards” in the new
testament. (cfr. Mt. 24, 14f; Mc 12, 1f).96
Moral criteria in economic decisions
We all have often heard the expression “business is business.” Most times it is used to
assert that economic decisions should be judged by purely economic criteria, keeping the
economic sphere separated from all others, and most especially from those of ethics and
religion.
Understood in this way, the history of Christian thought is a long denial of the claim that
“business is [exclusively] business”. On the contrary, from the earliest books of Scripture
we are taught that God’s sovereignty spreads to all spheres of man’s life.
And now, Israel, what does the Lord your God require of you, but to fear the Lord your
God, to walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve the Lord your God with all your heart
and with all your soul, and to keep the commandments and statutes of the Lord, which I
command you this day for your good? (Dt 10: 12-13).
92
IV Lateran Council, De Fide Catholica, Ch. 1.
Lumen Gentium, 5.
94
Catholic Synod of Bishops, Justice in the World (1971), Part IV.
95
John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, n. 15.
96
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and Catholic German Episcopal Conference, Assuming
responsibility for the creation (1985), 68.
93
91
God demands to be served “with all your heart, and with all your soul.” God is not asking
that man devote to him some hours per week, or that he perform some religious rituals.
He offers to make man an associate in the development of his purposes and bring him
into his own intimate life, and asks in return for total commitment. Part of the
commitment that God demanded when he entered into a covenant with Israel was that the
chosen people keep his commandments and statutes and these contained provisions for all
important areas of life, very much including economic matters. Thus, for instance, in
God’s law there were rules on how to treat slaves (Ex 21:2), payment of salaries (Dt
24:14-15), cultivation of fields (Ex 23:10-11), pledges (Ex 22:26-27), lending (Dt 15:7-8;
Dt 23:19; Lev 25:37), and buying and selling (Lv 19:35-36; Dt 25:13-16).
For the Lord is righteous, he loves righteous deeds; the upright shall behold his face.(Ps
11:7).
Throughout the Bible it is often stated that God is righteous and that he loves people who
are (or, rather, are trying to be) righteous. In line with the Mosaic covenant, he does not
confine his demands to religious worship, but above all he wants man’s love. For this it is
indispensable that man make an effort to imitate God’s righteous character. This point is
made very clearly by the prophet Micah:
With what shall I come before the Lord, and bow myself before God on high? Shall I
come before him with burnt offerings, with calves a year old? Will the Lord be pleased
with thousands of rams, with ten thousands of rivers of oil? Shall I give my first-born for
my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul? He has showed you, O
man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you but to do justice, and to love
kindness, and to walk humbly with your God? (Mi 6: 6-8).
It is not only that a just life is a very good offering for man to make to God. If there is no
justice in man, any other offering he may make is useless and will not be accepted by
God:
I hate, I despise your feasts, and I take no delight in your solemn assemblies. Even
though you offer me your burnt offerings and cereal offerings, I will not accept them, and
the peace offerings of your fatted beasts I will not look upon. Take away from me the
noise of your songs; to the melody of your harps I will not listen. But let justice roll down
like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream (Am 5:21-24).
Our Lord himself made this point:
Not every one who says to me, 'Lord, Lord!' shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he
who does the will of my Father who is in heaven (Mt 7:21).
Saint Paul also emphasizes the point that God should be served and worshipped in all our
activities and not only in those which are marked out as specifically “religious.”
And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus,
giving thanks to God the Father through him (Col 3:17).
92
Early Christians were very much aware that in order to be acceptable to God they had to
cultivate a virtuous character in all their activities. Saint Justin (died c. 165) gives early
and clear witness to this awareness:
And we have been taught, and are convinced, and do believe, that He accepts those only
who imitate the excellences which reside in Him, temperance, and justice, and
philanthropy, and as many virtues as are peculiar to a God who is called by no proper
name.97
I believe it is fair to conclude from the texts we have examined and from those contained
in the section on “Additional material” that a conception of religious life which confines
it to a few isolated religious practices and keeps it separated from other areas of personal
and social life is totally foreign to the Christian ethos. On the contrary, what is
characteristic of Christianity is a demand to bring all of man’s activities into a unified
whole which is directed towards man’s personal and social fulfillment and God’s glory.
While Christians have very often failed to live consistently this “unity of life,” the basic
impulse towards it has always being intrinsic to their religious beliefs and has become
progressively more explicit. John Wesley (1703-1791) gave apt expression to this
totalizing conception in drawing up the ideal portrait of a Methodist:
By consequence, whatsoever he doeth, it is all to the glory of God. In all his
employments of every kind, he not only aims at this, (which is implied in having a single
eye), but actually attains it. His business and refreshments, as well as his prayers; all
serve this great end. Whether he sit in his house or walk by the way, whether he lie down
or rise up, he is promoting, in all he speaks or does, the one business of his life; whether
he put on his apparel, or labour, or eat and drink, or divert himself from too wasting
labour, it all tends to advance the glory of God, by peace and good-will among men. His
one invariable rule is this, “Whatsoever ye do, in word or deed, do it all in the name of
the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God and the Father by him.”98
Two clear contemporary statements of the need to subject all areas of activity to moral
assessment and guidance are provided by Vatican Council II (1962-1965) and the Report
of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas (1985). As the
Council stresses, the reason why moral criteria have ultimate primacy is that by their very
nature they are the criteria that guide man to attain his fulfillment and happiness. If
morality is understood in this way, it just does not make sense to assert that any other
objective should take precedence over such all-encompassing goals:
The council proclaims that all must accept the absolute primacy of the objective moral
order. It alone is superior to and is capable of harmonizing all forms of human activity…
no matter how noble in themselves. Only the moral order touches man in the totality of
its being as God’s rational creature, called to a supernatural destiny. If the moral order is
fully and faithfully observed, it leads man to full perfection and happiness.99
97
St. Justin, First Apology, X.
John Wesley, Character of a Methodist.
99
Inter Mirifica, 6.
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93
There is always a need, we believe, for an explicit debate about the moral basis for, and
implications of, policy decisions taken on “economic” grounds. Different value systems
are implied in much economic analysis and policy, and it is vital for Christians to
scrutinise them to see how they match up to their understanding of human relationships
and to Christian moral concepts.100
It is therefore unthinkable for a Christian to argue “business is business.” For a Christian
all aspects of his life, very much including business, are under God’s law and all must be
examined under the light of Christian moral standards and be made to conform to them.
Additional material on moral criteria in economic decisions
You shall therefore love the Lord your God, and keep his charge, his statutes, his
ordinances, and his commandments always (Dt 11:1).
Therefore, hear me, you men of understanding, far be it from God that he should do
wickedness, and from the Almighty that he should do wrong. For according to the work
of a man he will requite him, and according to his ways he will make it befall him (Jb
34:10-11).
For his eyes are upon the ways of a man, and he sees all his steps (Jb 34:21).
For thou art not a God who delights in wickedness; evil may not sojourn with thee (Ps
5:4).
O Lord, who shall sojourn in thy tent? Who shall dwell on thy holy hill? He who walks
blamelessly, and does what is right, and speaks truth from his heart (Ps 15:1-2).
Who shall ascend the hill of the Lord? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has
clean hands and a pure heart (Ps 24:3-4).
It is well with the man who deals generously and lends, who conducts his affairs with
justice (Ps 112:5).
Unless the Lord builds the house, those who build it labor in vain. Unless the Lord
watches over the city, the watchman stays awake in vain (Ps 127:1).
Blessed is every one who fears the Lord, who walks in his ways! You shall eat the fruit of
the labor of your hands; you shall be happy, and it shall be well with you (Ps 128:1-2).
The Lord preserves all who love him; but all the wicked he will destroy (Ps 145:20).
The Lord watches over the sojourners, he upholds the widow and the fatherless; but the
way of the wicked he brings to ruin (Ps 146:9).
The Lord lifts up the downtrodden, he casts the wicked to the ground (Ps 147:6).
100
Report of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas, Faith in the City, 1985.
94
To do righteousness and justice is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice (Prv 21:3).
Ah, sinful nation, a people laden with iniquity, offspring of evildoers, sons who deal
corruptly! They have forsaken the Lord, they have despised the Holy One of Israel, they
are utterly estranged (Is 1:4).
“Why have we fasted, and thou seest it not? Why have we humbled ourselves, and thou
takest no knowledge of it?” Behold, in the day of your fast you seek your own pleasure,
and oppress all your workers. Behold, you fast only to quarrel and to fight and to hit with
wicked fist. Fasting like yours this day will not make your voice to be heard on high. Is
such the fast that I choose, a day for a man to humble himself? Is it to bow down his head
like a rush, and to spread sackcloth and ashes under him? Will you call this a fast, and a
day acceptable to the Lord? "Is not this the fast that I choose: to loose the bonds of
wickedness, to undo the thongs of the yoke, to let the oppressed go free, and to break
every yoke? Is it not to share your bread with the hungry, and bring the homeless poor
into your house; when you see the naked, to cover him, and not to hide yourself from your
own flesh? (Is 58:3-7).
In the unrighteousness of your trade you profaned your sanctuaries (Ezk 28:18).
If a man is righteous and does what is lawful and right—if he does not eat upon the
mountains or lift up his eyes to the idols of the house of Israel, does not defile his
neighbor's wife or approach a woman in her time of impurity, does not oppress any one,
but restores to the debtor his pledge, commits no robbery, gives his bread to the hungry
and covers the naked with a garment, does not lend at interest or take any increase,
withholds his hand from iniquity, executes true justice between man and man, walks in
my statutes, and is careful to observe my ordinances—he is righteous, he shall surely
live, says the Lord God (Ezk 18:5-9).
But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as
well (Mt 6:33).
You, therefore, must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect (Mt 5:48).
For once you were darkness, but now you are light in the Lord; walk as children of light
(for the fruit of light is found in all that is good and right and true), and try to learn what
is pleasing to the Lord. Take no part in the unfruitful works of darkness, but instead
expose them (Eph 5: 8-11).
But as he who called you is holy, be holy yourselves in all your conduct; since it is
written, "You shall be holy, for I am holy" (1 Pt 1:15-16).
He who says "I know him" but disobeys his commandments is a liar, and the truth is not
in him; but whoever keeps his word, in him truly love for God is perfected. By this we
may be sure that we are in him: he who says he abides in him ought to walk in the same
way in which he walked (1 Jn 2:4-6).
For this is the love of God, that we keep his commandments. And his commandments are
not burdensome (1 Jn 5:3).
95
Saint Jerome (347-420) – Not only in time of persecution or when we have the chance of
martyrdom, but in all circumstances, in everything we do and think, in everything we say,
let us deny what we used to be and let us confess what we now are, reborn as we have
been in Christ.101
Saint Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) – All that passes away and is not pleasing to God, is
worth nothing, and less than nothing.102
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) –[Lay people] will … remember that in every temporal
affair they are to be guided by a Christian conscience, since not even in temporal
business may any human activity be withdrawn from God’s dominion.103
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – This faith needs to prove its fruitfulness by penetrating
the believer's entire life, including its worldly dimensions, and by activating him toward
justice and love, especially regarding the needy.104
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Christians should rather rejoice that, following the
example of Christ who worked as an artisan, they are free to give proper exercise to all
their earthly activities and to their humane, domestic, professional, social and technical
enterprises by gathering them into one vital synthesis with religious values, under whose
supreme direction all things are harmonized unto God's glory.105
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The split between the faith, which many profess and
their daily lives, deserves to be counted among the more serious errors of our age.106
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Therefore economic activity is to be carried out
following techniques and methods in accordance with the moral order, so that God’s
plan for mankind may be fulfilled.107
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – In [socio-economic] activities let Christians, either as
individuals or as members of groups, give a shining example. Having acquired the
absolutely necessary skill and experience, they should observe the right order in their
earthly activities in faithfulness to Christ and His Gospel. Thus their whole life, both
individual and social, will be permeated with the spirit of the beatitudes, notably with a
spirit of poverty.108
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – [It is an] essential and fundamental question: Does this
[technological development] … make human life on earth "more human" in every aspect
of that life? Does it make it more "worthy of man”… is man, as man, becoming truly
better, that is to say more mature spiritually, more aware of the dignity of his humanity,
101
St. Jerome, Epistle 121, 3.
St. Teresa of Avila, Life, 20.
103
Lumen Gentium, 36.
104
Gaudium et Spes, n. 21.
105
Gaudium et Spes, n. 43.
106
Gaudium et Spes, n. 43.
107
Gaudium et Spes, n. 64.
108
Gaudium et Spes, n. 72.
102
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more responsible, more open to others, especially the neediest and the weakest, and
readier to give and to aid all?109
General Synod of the Church of England (1984) – The world of economics is not a closed
world, and economic values are not self-justifying, but need to be set in the larger context
of human values.
Oxford Declaration (1990) – What is technologically possible is not necessarily morally
permissible. We must not allow technological development to follow its own inner logic,
but must direct it to serve moral ends. We acknowledge our limits in foreseeing the
impact of technological change and encourage an attitude of humility with respect to
technological innovation. Therefore continuing evaluation of the impact of technological
change is essential. Four criteria derived from Christian faith help us to evaluate the
development and use of technology. First, technology should not foster disintegration of
family or community, or function as an instrument of social domination. Second, persons
created in the image of God must not become mere accessories of machines. Third, as
God's stewards, we must not allow technology to abuse creation. If human work is to be
done in cooperation with creation then the instruments of work must cooperate with it
too. Finally, we should not allow technological advancements to become objects of false
worship or seduce us away from dependence on God (Gn II: 1 -9).110
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Christian business leaders are models of moral
behavior. They should themselves live out the values that are essential to healthy
organizations. They should represent the character, drive, capability, opportunity, and
integrity of the business.
…
This is equally true in ethical matters. When a leader tends to pad expense accounts or
renege on agreements or shade the truth, those values will pervade the organization.
Followers have little incentive to rise above the standards and qualities embodied in their
leaders. Leaders have a responsibility to set a high moral tone for the business. 111
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – There cannot be two parallel lives in their existence: on the
one hand, the so-called “spiritual” life, with its values and demands; and, on the other,
the so-called “secular” life, that is, life in a family, at work, in social relationships
[…]The branch, engrafted to the vine which is Christ, bears its fruit in every sphere of
existence and activity. In fact, every area of the lay faithful’s lives, as different as they
are, enters into the plan of God who desires that these very areas be the “places in time”
where the love of Christ is revealed and realized for both the glory of the Father and
service of others.112
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – In fact there is a better understanding today that the mere
accumulation of goods and services, even for the benefit of the majority, is not enough for
the realization of human happiness. … On the contrary, the experience of recent years
shows that unless all the considerable body of resources and potential at man's disposal
109
John Paul II, Redemptor Hominis, n. 15.
Oxford Declaration (1990), n. 10.
111
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp. 137-8.
112
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 59.
110
97
is guided by a moral understanding and by an orientation towards the true good of the
human race, it easily turns against man to oppress him.113
“A Decade After Economic Justice for All” (United States Catholic Conference 1995):
“We renew our pastoral call for believers to shape their choices in the marketplace and
the public arena according to the values of the Scriptures and the moral principles of the
Catholic Church.114
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Economic activity, conducted according to its
own proper methods, is to be exercised within the limits of the moral order, in keeping
with social justice so as to correspond to God's plan for man.115
113
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, no 28.
United States Catholic Conference, A Decade After Economic Justice for All, 1995.
115
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2426.
114
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99
CHAPTER 3 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS – I
CHAPTER 3 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS – I ........................................... 99
Basic attitude towards customers .................................................................................. 99
Business as service......................................................................................................... 100
“Needs” and “wants” ...................................................................................................... 103
The Christian conception of value .................................................................................. 104
Excluded products and services ...................................................................................... 106
Additional material on business as service ..................................................................... 107
Additional material on products and service supplied, on the objective conception of
value and on the need for self-control............................................................................. 113
Paternalism .................................................................................................................... 116
Monopolies ..................................................................................................................... 118
Additional material on monopolies ................................................................................. 120
Basic attitude towards customers
What should be the basic attitude of a Christian businessman towards his customers? At
bottom, it should be one very different from that prevalent in most societies. A Christian
has to love his neighbours just as much when he is engaged in business activities as in
any other moment of his life.
Many Christians wrongly believe that loving everybody in a business context demands
that one offers the best possible products at the lowest possible price, or even, if one were
to behave in a truly “Christian” way, that one give away one’s products for free. People
who have this confused conception of the demands of Christianity foresee, not
unreasonably, very many practical complications if they were to follow such policy.
Thus, they quickly conclude that applying Christian standards in their relations with their
customers is an impossibility.
The root of the confusion lies in the belief that charity is synonymous with “giving”, or at
the very least, with not seeking one’s interests. However, this has no warrant in the Bible
nor does it have any significant support in the Christian tradition. The Christian tradition
does prescribe love for everyone, but it also insists that some of a person’s
responsibilities have precedence over others, as we discussed in the first section of
Chapter 1. In relation to business activities the Christian tradition recognizes that
business people have a duty to support their families and dependents and to ensure that
their employees and investors get appropriate returns from their participation in the
business. The Christian tradition also recognizes that such duties often place stringent
limits on what it would be possible to do for the customers.
Put in contemporary business terms, the practical upshot of the preceding considerations
is that in a business context the general obligation of the Christian to love everybody
99
100
translates into a concrete duty to provide real value for his customers, while getting a
“fair price” from them. The love that must exist between a businessman and his
customers will not generally be expressed in providing free goods or services or in
providing them at the lowest possible price. Rather, it will consist in relations of
reciprocity in which goods or services that are of real value for the customer are made
available in a fair exchange for a fair price.
We will explore this point at greater length when we discuss issues of pricing. Now it
should be enough to mention briefly the two main reasons for this standard in a Christian
view of business. The first is that it would be wrong to assume that our typical
“neighbour” is a helpless person, who is unable to take care of himself. In a reasonably
healthy society helpless people are the exception rather than the rule. The standard form
that a “loving relationship” between two self-sufficient individuals takes is not
“almsgiving” but rather “good-willed co-operation” in which the parties co-operate freely
in common projects for their joint (not one-sided) advantage. Any transaction in which
one party provides real value and the other pays a fair price for the value he or she has
received is an instance of such “good-willed co-operation”. Therefore it is of itself
perfectly consistent with an attitude of Christian love between the parties involved. The
second is that, as we have already indicated, a policy of providing customers with the
greatest possible value for the least possible price would have very prejudicial
consequences for the business person’s dependents, employees and investors. These are
people whom he also has to love and towards whom he has responsibilities that, by
Christian standards, often have precedence over the ones he has to his customers.
The most important trait of a “Christian sale” is not that it be a “sale at a give-away
price” or a “sale with a very low margin of profit.” (Prices and profit margins will be
considered specifically in the next chapter). What is essential for that sale to be a true
expression of Christian charity is that the seller do his best to ensure that the product he is
selling will be of real usefulness (or “service”) to the buyer. Obviously, if the seller is
aware that a certain product is of no possible use to the buyer, but in spite of this he does
his best to convince the buyer to buy it, he cannot possibly pretend that he is actuated by
true charity towards the buyer and that he is doing his best to be of service to him.
Generally speaking, it would be incompatible with charity for the seller to take advantage
of the weakness of the buyer to make a greater profit by selling to him a product or
service that would not contribute to solving any of his problems or to enhancing his wellbeing. Examples of possible weaknesses of the customer that could make it possible for
the seller to profit at the expense of the customer are ignorance, inexperience,
psychological addictions (e.g., those that may afflict smokers or gamblers), situations of
emotional weakness (e.g., the widow who is arranging for the burial of her recently
deceased husband), situations of special need (e.g., the patient who needs an urgent
surgical operation) and situations of monopoly.
Business as service
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101
The book of Leviticus is very clear on what should be the basic attitude of a Jew towards
his neighbour:
“You shall love your neighbour as yourself: I am the Lord” (Lv 19:18).
Our Lord extends and deepens that precept, and further justifies it, by explaining that,
because of his union with all men, anything that is done to another human being is done
to him:
Then the King will say to those at his right hand, “Come, O blessed of my Father, inherit
the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you
gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed
me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in prison and
you came to me.”
… “Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to
me” (Mt 25:34-40).
A statement of Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397), which builds on the above words of Christ, is
especially relevant to business life:
Wilt thou, then, spoil him whom Christ has put on? Wilt thou strip him whom Christ has
clothed? For this is what thou art doing when thou dost attempt to increase thine own
advantage at another's loss ... Why, the very law of the Lord teaches us that this rule
must be observed, so that we may never deprive another of anything for the sake of our
own advantage.1
One could translate this into contemporary jargon by saying that a Christian person
should look for his own profit through win-win situations. A situation in which I win
precisely by inducing you to do something that I know will result in your becoming worse
off is radically incompatible with an attitude of love for you.
Over one thousand years later the Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) applied these
general principles to one concrete situation and taught that it is contrary to the Eighth
Commandment for lawyers to encourage suits for the sake of gain.
[Lawyers] should not defend an unjust cause, prolong lawsuits by trickery, nor encourage
2
them for the sake of gain.
The same idea is to be found contemporarily, across the Catholic-Reformer divide, in
Calvin (1509-1564):
All the arts by which we obtain possession of the goods and money of our neighbours, for
sincere affection substituting an eagerness to deceive or injure them in any way, are to be
regarded as thefts.3
1
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk III, ch. 1. Emphasis added.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
3
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk 2, ch. 8. Emphasis added.
2
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102
Later, John Bunyan (1628-1688), the author of The Pilgrims Progress, also expressed
the basic charge that a Christian, in business as in any other situation, should be sincerely
concerned with the good of his neighbour:
A man in dealing should as really design his Neighbour’s good, profit, and advantage, as
4
his own: For this is to exercise Charity in his dealing.
John Wesley (1703-1791) is also moving within the same order of ideas when he
castigates those who seek to make more money by means that harm their customers
rather than help them:
And are not they partakers of the same guilt, though in a lower degree, whether Surgeons,
Apothecaries, or Physicians, who play with the lives or health of men, to enlarge their own
gain? who purpose1y lengthen the pain or disease, which they are able to remove speedily?
who protract the cure of their patient’s body, in order to plunder his substance? Can any man
be clear before God, who does not shorten every disorder “as much as he can,” and remove all
sickness and pain “as soon as he can?” He cannot: For nothing can be more clear, than that he
does not “love his neighbour as himself”; than that he does not “do unto others, as he would
they should do unto himself.”5
Closer to us in time, we observe the same basic thrust in Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
When men and women provide for themselves and their families in such a way as to be of
service to the community as well, they can justly consider that by their labor they are unfolding
the Creator's work, serving their fellow men, and are contributing by their personal industry to
the realization in history of the divine plan. 6
This last statement is especially instructive for our present purposes. On the one hand, it
is obviously based on the premise that it is legitimate to "provide for oneself and one's
family” and that there is nothing in that objective that can by any stretch of the
imagination be considered unchristian or less charitable. But, on the other hand, it also
emphasizes that such provision should be accomplished by means that are “of service to
the community as well.” Just as we find throughout the tradition, there is a stress here on
taking care of one’s associates and dependants and of one’s customers, rather than a
unilateral emphasis on one of these groups to the exclusion of the other. The same point
can be found in the Oxford Declaration (1990), a statement by a large group of prominent
evangelical Christians:
God gives talents to individuals for the benefit of the whole community. Human work “should
be a contribution to the common good” (Eph 4:28). The modern drift from concern for
community to preoccupation with self, supported by powerful structural and cultural forces,
shapes the way we work. Individual self-interest can legitimately be pursued, but only in a
context marked by the pursuit of the good of others.7
4
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
6
Gaudium et Spes, n. 34. Emphasis added.
7
Oxford Declaration, 22. Emphasis added.
5
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103
It seems to me that some basic ideas emerge clearly from the references provided. An
important point that does not emerge from them is a demand for the Christian
businessman to forget about his interests and plunge single-mindedly into providing as
much as possible for his customers. It is taken for granted throughout that there is nothing
wrong in seeking to obtain a just gain—we will see below what this means—in one’s
business dealings. But while this point is clear, another thread that runs through the
material I have assembled here is that a Christian can never be happy in thinking only
about himself and those close to him. It is an integral part of the Christian vocation to do
all the good one can to as many people as one can. For the businessman, this is expressed
in a double demand: at a minimum, not to harm others as a means of obtaining one’s own
gain; and, beyond this, to think of one’s business life as a means of doing positive good
to others, to help them, through one’s products or services, obtain the means of living a
more fulfilling life.
“Needs” and “wants”
There is a certain tendency, perhaps especially marked among some Christians, to
articulate this need for business to be of actual service to their customers in terms of a
distinction between “needs” and “wants.” The tendency is to argue that since needs are
natural and necessary, it is good to satisfy them. “Wants,” however, in opposition to
needs, would be desires which are not strictly necessary. Accordingly, satisfying them
would be a waste. In these terms, a business geared to the satisfaction of needs would be
rendering a true service to its customers, while one that satisfied wants would not.
I think it is clear that this way of reasoning is not in accordance with the Christian
tradition, neither does it faithfully imitate Christ, who on one occasion provided the wine
which was lacking in a wedding feast and who used to eat and drink with publicans and
sinners. The point is well articulated by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990):
God created us to enjoy life. God wants us to have more than the bare essentials. Not all
wants are bad, just because they are non-essentials. A good piano, a piece of fine art, or a
new suit are not absolutely essential, yet they do enhance life. As Christians we must
make choices regarding the products and services we create and promote. Our emphasis
should be on products that produce lasting benefit and that really enhance life rather than
on those that simply respond to status wants and consumer orientation.8
The same authors elaborate a little later on some criteria that may be used to determine
which products or services really “enhance life”:
If we are producers and marketers, we make choices regarding which needs and wants to
appeal to … How do we make such choices?
… First, the product sold should do something positive, such as enhancing the physical
and psychological well-being of those who buy it. On such a basis we would rule out the
creation and sale of toys that promote violence. We should consider whether or not a
product has substantial potential for harm. Virtually all products have some potential for
8
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, p. 209.
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harm, of course, but those risks must be balanced against the potential for good. Cars are
dangerous, for example, but the benefits outweigh the danger. Cigarettes might be judged
differently.9
The point is clear. Trying to differentiate between those products and services geared
towards the satisfaction of needs (which would be “good”) and those geared towards the
satisfaction of wants (which would be objectionable) leads to conclusions that find no
support in the Christian tradition. Instead, we obtain a useful guide for decision-making
by trying to figure out whether a certain product or service is likely to enhance the wellbeing of its users.
The Christian conception of value
Of course, at this point it becomes necessary to clarify what is meant by “enhancing the
well-being” of people. Specifically, there is nowadays a widely held belief that one
provides service for one’s customers when one helps them to satisfy their wants or
desires, whatever such wants might be. To bring the issue down to specifics we may
think, for instance, of the demand for pornographic magazines. Is there anything
unchristian in providing such magazines to mature customers who have made their own
decision to read them?
It is likely that the reference to pornographic material will have led most readers to
suspect that there must be something unchristian in the example given, and they would be
right. But it is important to emphasize that selling pornography is not wrong simply
because pornography is involved and pornography is unchristian. Pornography is
unchristian because it harms human beings (and the Christian tradition has quite a lot to
say about the way in which it does). For the same reason, supplying any product or
service that is inherently harmful to human beings is wrong in a Christian perspective,
even if the prospective customers very much demand that product or service.
This topic is important because it is directly related to what we might call “a Christian
conception of value.” Many people nowadays have a subjective conception of value: in
their view, if somebody freely wants something, then that is “good for him” (even if it
would be bad for somebody else, who does not want it). Such view has never gained a
major foothold within the Christian tradition, and the reason for it is that, from the very
beginning, the Bible has provided very definite views about things and actions that
objectively (i.e., irrespective of anybody’s opinion) are harmful to human beings and
about things and actions that are good for them, and such teachings are extremely
difficult to square with a subjective conception of value. Accordingly, for a Christian, the
fact that a customer demands something never concludes the question. It is always
necessary to ask oneself whether in actual fact–of course, taking into account all the light
that the Christian faith can throw on the issue–what that person demands is good or bad
for him.
9
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 210
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105
A theme that is very clear in the Bible is that human fulfillment cannot be obtained by the
unrestrained satisfaction of our desires. On the contrary, temperance and self-control are
presented as necessary ingredients of the character of the man pleasing to God.
If you allow your soul to take pleasure in base desire, it will make you the laughing stock
of your enemies (Sir 18:31).
Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: fornication, impurity, passion, evil desire,
and covetousness, which is idolatry (Col 3:5).
Both Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas Aquinas, probably the two most respected and
widely followed theologians in the whole Christian tradition, agree in articulating the
same idea. Saint Augustine (354-430) says:
If we were irrational animals, we should desire nothing… but bodily comfort and
abundance of pleasures… But, as man has a rational soul, he subordinates all this which
he has in common with the beasts to the peace of his rational soul, that his intellect may
have free play and may regulate his actions, and that he may thus enjoy the well-ordered
harmony of knowledge and action which constitutes, as we have said, the peace of the
rational soul.10
And on his part, Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) says:
Not every object of pleasure is good in the moral order which depends on the order of
reason…. just as it happens that not every good which is desired, is of itself and verily
good; so not every pleasure is of itself and verily good.11
Still in the same line of distinguishing between “good desires” (desires for things that
lead to our fulfillment) and “evil desires” (desires for things which make men evil), Saint
Francis de Sales (1567-1622) states:
We all know that we must guard against the desire for evil things, since evil desires make
evil men.12
Some years later John Wesley (1703-1791) insists on the incompatibility between
professing Christianity and making a living through procuring anything that is hurtful to
our neighbour. And the examples he gives make it clear that he does not recognize as an
excuse the fact that the customer actually demands what is supplied:
This is dear-bought gain - And so is whatever is procured hurting our neighbour in his soul;
by ministering, suppose, either directly or indirectly, to his unchastity, or intemperance;
which certainly none can do, who has any fear of God, or any desire of pleasing Him.13
10
St. Augustine, The City of God, XIX, 14
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 34, a. 2
12
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III, 37
13
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
11
105
106
Already in the 20th Century, Pope Pius XI (1922-1939) castigates those who make profit
by ministering to, and arousing, the baser desires of men:
We must not omit to mention those crafty men who, wholly unconcerned about any
honest usefulness of their work, do not scruple to stimulate the baser human desires and,
when they are aroused, use them for their own profit.14
Finally, mention can be made of Communio et Progressio (1971), a document of the
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, which once again
adopts what are clearly objective criteria in order to distinguish between praiseworthy
goods and advertising messages, and those that deserve condemnation:
If harmful or utterly useless goods are touted to the public … if less admirable human
tendencies are exploited, those responsible for such advertising harm society and forfeit
their good name and credibility.15
All the above quotations witness to the strongly objective conception of value to be found
throughout the Christian tradition.
Excluded products and services
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) is also a faithful member of the Christian tradition
in making clear that the businessperson cannot absolve himself from responsibility by
claiming that he only sells the product, and that it is the customer who makes a bad use of
it. If the merchant knows or strongly suspects that his product is to be put to an evil use,
he has a responsibility to do what he reasonably can to avoid being a party to such a deed.
Of course, we will have to discuss later in more detail the issue of what a merchant “can
reasonably do” in preventing a bad use of his products. In the meantime, Saint
Alphonsus’ view is clear enough:
A merchant sins if he sells poison or other forbidden things when having suspicion that
they are intended for an evil use.16
And he immediately adds:
The bookseller sins if he sells prohibited or licentious books. 17
John Wesley (1703-1791) is of the same view:
Neither may we gain by hurting our neighbour in his body. Therefore we may not sell
anything which tends to impair health …
So is whatever is procured by hurting our neighbour in his soul; by ministering, suppose,
either directly or indirectly to his unchastity or intemperance.18
14
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, 132
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 60
16
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub. X, 292.
17
Idem.
15
106
107
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) also concurs:
Let your employment be such as becomes a Christian; that is, in no sense mingled with
sin: for he that takes pains to serve the ends of covetousness, or ministers to another’s
lust, or keeps a shop of impurities or intemperance, is idle in the worst sense.19
The conclusion from all of this is that the Christian demand that we love our neighbour in
our business activities requires that we endeavour to provide him with products and
services which are likely to enhance the quality of his life and avoid offering him
products or services which are likely to be harmful, even if he demands them. We have
seen further that in deciding whether a certain product or service is likely to be of service
to our customers the Christian tradition teaches that we should make use of Christian
standards of judgment. Of course, in our modern culture, the issue immediately arises
whether in doing so we will be acting in an unduly paternalistic way. We will consider
this issue in the next section.
Additional material on business as service
When you build a new house, you shall make a parapet for your roof, that you may not
bring the guilt of blood upon your house, if any one fall from it (Dt 22:8).
For he satisfies him who is thirsty, and the hungry he fills with good things…. Let them
thank the LORD for his steadfast love, for his wonderful works to the sons of men (Ps
107:9 &15).
Even as the Son of man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a
ransom for many (Mt 20:28).
Let each of us please his neighbor for his good, to edify him (Rom 15:2).
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but
the same Lord; and there are varieties of working, but it is the same God who inspires
them all in every one. To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common
good (1 Cor 12:4-7).
For the whole law is fulfilled in one word, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself."
But if you bite and devour one another take heed that you are not consumed by one
another (Gal 5:14-15).
And let us not grow weary in well-doing, for in due season we shall reap, if we do not
lose heart. So then, as we have opportunity, let us do good to all men, and especially to
those who are of the household of faith (Gal 6:9-10).
Let each of you look not only to his own interests, but also to the interests of others (Phil
2:4).
18
19
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. I, Sec. I.
107
108
Above all hold unfailing your love for one another, since love covers a multitude of sins
(1 Pt 4:8).
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – Thou shalt also refuse [the offerings of] rogues, and
such pleaders that plead on the side of injustice, and idol-makers, and thieves, and unjust
publicans, and those that deceive by false balances and deceitful measures.20
Saint Basil (329-379) – He who labors ought to perform his task not for the purpose of
ministering to his own needs thereby, but that he may accomplish the Lord’s command:
“I was hungry and you gave me to eat,” and so on… Everyone, therefore, in doing his
work, should place before himself the aim of service to the needy and not his own
satisfaction. Thus will he escape the charge of self-love and receive the blessing for
fraternal charity from the Lord, who said: “As long as you did it to one of these, my least
brethren, you did it to me.21
Saint Basil (329-379) – We must work and do so diligently… This way of life is useful not
only to mortify our body, but also to show our love for our neighbour and so that,
through our hands, God will give our weaker brothers what they need.22
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – So we see how grave a matter it is to deprive another, with
whom we ought rather to suffer, of anything, or to act unfairly or injuriously towards one
to whom we ought to give a share in our services. This is a true law of nature, which
binds us to show all kindly feeling, so that we should all of us in turn help one another, as
parts of one body.23
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – [God] instituted arts … that we might minister to one
another's good, and not that we should plot one against another.24
Saint John Chrysostom(344-407) – This is the rule of the most perfect Christianity, its
most exact definition, its highest point, namely, the seeking of the common good. Paul
himself states it when he says: “Even as I also am of Christ” For nothing can so make a
man an imitator of Christ as caring for his neighbors.25
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Do not tell me that you cannot watch after others. If
you are Christians what is impossible is for you not to watch after them… If you claim
that a Christian is not able to be of service to another, you insult God and call God a
liar.26
Saint Augustine (354-430) – …it is little not to harm your neighbour if you do not do to
him as much good as you can.27
20
Apostolic Constitutions, IV, 6.
St. Basil, Long Rules, q. 42.
22
St. Basil, Long Rules, q. 37.
23
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. III, ch. 1.
24
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on Philippians, 10.3.
25
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Letter to the Corinthians, 25.3
26
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on Acts, 20.4.
27
St. Augustine, On the Sermon on the Mount, bk. I, ch. XX..
21
108
109
Saint Gregory the Great (540-604) – He that has a talent, let him see that he does not
hide it …He that has art and skill, let him do his best to share the use and the utility
hereof with his neighbour.28
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – This act [which regards your neighbour] must follow a law
and a rule of conscience, namely that in carrying it out you must not cause harm and
prejudice to your neighbour. You must try with greater care not to harm him rather than
to make a profit.29
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – There can be no better instructions in … all transactions in
temporal goods than that every man who is to deal with his neighbour present to himself
these commandments: ‘What ye would that others should do unto you, do ye also unto
them,’ and ‘Love thy neighbour as thyself.’ If these were followed out, everything would
instruct and arrange itself; then no law books nor courts nor judicial actions would be
required; all things would quietly and simply be set to rights, for every one’s heart and
conscience would guide him.30
John Calvin (1509-1564) – No member [of the Christian body] holds his gifts to himself,
or for his private use, but shares them among his fellow members, nor does he derive
benefit save from those things which proceed from the common profit of the body as a
whole. Thus the pious man owes to his brethren all that it is in his power to give.31
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Those who have a harder struggle against
their criminal desires [include]:
- merchants who desire scarcity and rising prices, who cannot bear not to be the only
ones buying and selling so that they themselves can sell more dearly and buy more
cheaply.
- those who hope that their peers will be impoverished, in order to realize a profit either
by selling to them or buying from them . ..
- physicians who wish disease to spread.32
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Sell as you would buy, and buy as you would sell,
and your buying and selling will alike be honest.33
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – It is not lawful to take up or keep up any oppressing
monopoly or trade, which tends to enrich you by the loss of the commonwealth or of
many.34
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – God hath given thee more skill, more knowledge and
understanding in thy commodity than he hath given to him that would buy of thee. But
what! Canst thou think, that God has given thee this, that thou mightest thereby make a
prey of thy neighbour? that thou mightest thereby goe beyond and beguile thy neighbour?
No, verily; but he hath given thee it, for his help; that thou mightest in this, be eyes to the
28
St. Gregory the Great, Homilies on the Gospels, 9.7.
Martin Luther, On Trade and Usury.
30
Martin Luther, Long Sermon On Usury.
31
John Calvin, Institutes, bk iii, ch. vii, Par. 5.
32
Catechism of the Council of Trent, III, 37.
33
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.36
34
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
29
109
110
blind, and save thy neighbour from that dammage, that his ignorance, or necessity, or
fondness would betray him into the hands of.35
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The lawyer commits a sin if, even though he is not
well qualified he offers his services and practices the profession.36
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The pharmacist who sells useless compounds
sins.37
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The lawyer who delays or postpones his cases
thereby harming his clients or who accepts more cases than he can handle diligently,
commits a sin and is liable to restitution for the harm caused.38
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The doctor who without enough expertise
attempts to treat a grave illness commits a sin.39
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The doctor who delays a cure out of love for
profit commits a sin.40
John Wesley (1703-1791) – There are many who will neither rob nor steal; and some
who will not defraud their neighbour; nay, who will not gain either by his ignorance or
necessity.41
John Wesley (1703-1791) – We may not engage or continue in any sinful trade, any that
is contrary to the law of God, or of our country.42
John Wesley (1703-1791) – We are, thirdly, to gain all we can, without hurting our
neighbour. But this we may not, cannot do, if we love our neighbour as ourselves…
Neither may we gain by hurting our neighbour in his body. - Therefore - we may not sell
any thing, which tends to impair health.43
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – All the same, the New Testament, without going into details,
gives us a pretty clear hint of what a fully Christian society would be like. Perhaps it
gives us more than we can take. It tells us that there are to be no passengers or parasites:
if man does not work, he ought not to eat. Every one is to work with his own hands, and
what is more, every one's work is to produce something good: there will be no
manufacture of silly luxuries and then of sillier advertisements to persuade us to buy
them.44
35
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub III, 226.
37
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub IX, 291.
38
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub III, 226.
39
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub IX, 291.
40
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub IX, 291.
41
John Wesley, On the Sermon on the Mount, VIII.
42
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
43
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
44
C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity, bk. III, ch. 3.
36
110
111
John XXIII (1958-1963) – It demands, too, that all parties co-operate actively and loyally
in the common enterprise, not so much for what they can get out of it for themselves, but
as discharging a duty and rendering a service to their fellow men.45
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Let [the laity] work earnestly in order that created
goods through human labour, technical skill and civil culture may serve the utility of all
men according to the plan of the creator and the light of his word.46
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – All Christians in the various conditions, tasks and
circumstances of their lives and through all these things will be brought to an ever
greater holiness if they… give their co-operation to the divine will, showing forth to all
men in temporal service itself the charity with which God has loved the world.47
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – In order to reach this perfection the faithful should use
the strength dealt out to them by Christ’s gift, so that, following in his footsteps and
conformed to his image, doing the will of God in everything, they may wholeheartedly
devote themselves to the glory of God and to the service of their neighbor.48
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – When man develops the earth by the work of his hands or
with the aid of technology… he obeys the commandment of Christ that he place himself at
the service of his brethren.49
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – When men and women provide for themselves and their
families in such a way as to be of service to the community as well, they can justly
consider that by their labor they are unfolding the Creator's work, serving their fellow
men, and are contributing by their personal industry to the realization in history of the
divine plan.50
John Paul II (1978-) – Therefore, to respond to their vocation, the lay faithful must see
their daily activities as an occasion to join themselves to God, fulfil his will, serve other
people and lead them to communion with God in Christ.51
John Paul II (1978-) – In fact, the purpose of a business firm is not simply to make a
profit, but is to be found in its very existence as a community of persons who in various
ways are endeavoring to satisfy their basic needs, and who form a particular group at the
service of the whole of society.52
John Paul II (1978-) – One works in order to provide for the needs of one’s family, one’s
community, one’s nation, and ultimately all humanity.53
45
John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, 92.
Lumen Gentium, 36.
47
Lumen Gentium, 40.
48
Lumen Gentium, 40.
49
Gaudium et Spes, 57.
50
Gaudium et Spes, 34.
51
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, 17.
52
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, 35.
53
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, 43.
46
111
112
John Paul II (1978-) – In singling out new needs and new means to meet them, one must
be guided by a comprehensive picture of the person which respects all the dimensions of
his being and which subordinates his material and instinctive dimensions to his interior
and spiritual ones.54
Oxford Declaration (1990) – As those who are gifted by the Spirit and whose actions are
guided by the demands of love, Christians should do their work in the service of God and
humanity.55
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Our role in life is to follow Christ, who in turn calls
us to serve each other. We serve in part by helping people both recognize their true needs
and then satisfy those needs in healthy and creative ways.56
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – The real reasons Christians are in business [are]: to
do the will of God and to serve their neighbors.57
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Christians are called to exercise their stewardship
responsibility to God by managing their businesses in ways that serve the needs of their
communities.58
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – It is not enough to suggest that we fill needs and
reject wants. God’s blessings go far beyond merely meeting our physical needs. The issue
cannot be simplified to a concern with frivolous trinkets or amusements. Looked at in
isolation these are harmless. However, we must ask. “Given the resources at my
disposal, what are the most valuable goods and services I can produce and market as a
steward and servant?59
Lutheran Church in Canada (1991) – God's intention for the human family is that people
serve the Creator through responsible care for each other and devoted stewardship for
all creation.60
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – The development of economic activity and
growth in production are meant to provide for the needs of human beings. Economic life
is not meant solely to multiply goods produced and increase profit or power; it is ordered
first of all to the service of persons, of the whole man, and of the entire human
community. 61
United States Catholic Conference (1999) – Social justice and the common good are
daily built up or torn down by the decisions and choices that we all make in every facet of
54
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, 36.
Oxford Declaration, 13
56
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 990, p. 176.
57
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 990, p. 13.
58
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 990, p. 208.
59
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, p. 211.
60
Lutheran Church in Canada, Covenant for a Common Future: A Working Definition of Development.
61
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2426.
55
112
113
our lives. As family members, workers, owners, managers, investors, consumers and
citizens, we are called to use our talents and resources in the service of others.62
Additional material on products and service supplied, on the
objective conception of value and on the need for self-control
He who loves pleasure will be a poor man; he who loves wine and oil will not be rich
(Prv 21:17).
Be not among winebibbers, or among gluttonous eaters of meat (Prv 23:20).
A man without self-control is like a city broken into and left without walls (Prv 25:28).
I said to myself, "Come now, I will make a test of pleasure; enjoy yourself." But behold,
this also was vanity. I said of laughter, "It is mad," and of pleasure, "What use is it?"
(Eccl 2:1-2).
And whatever my eyes desired I did not keep from them; I kept my heart from no
pleasure, for my heart found pleasure in all my toil, and this was my reward for all my
toil. Then I considered all that my hands had done and the toil I had spent in doing it,
and behold, all was vanity and a striving after wind, and there was nothing to be gained
under the sun (Eccl 2:10-11).
Do not follow your base desires, but restrain your appetites. If you allow your soul to
take pleasure in base desire, it will make you the laughing stock of your enemies (Sir
18:30-31).
Woe to those who rise early in the morning, that they may run after strong drink, who
tarry late into the evening till wine inflames them! (Is 5:11).
Let us conduct ourselves becomingly as in the day, not in reveling and drunkenness, not
in debauchery and licentiousness, not in quarreling and jealousy. But put on the Lord
Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires (Rom 13:13-14).
Every athlete exercises self-control in all things. They do it to receive a perishable
wreath, but we an imperishable. Well, I do not run aimlessly, I do not box as one beating
the air; but I pommel my body and subdue it, lest after preaching to others I myself
should be disqualified (1 Cor 9:25-27).
For you were called to freedom, brethren; only do not use your freedom as an
opportunity for the flesh, but through love be servants of one another (Gal 5:13-14).
And those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and
desires (Gal 5:24).
62
United States Catholic Conference, In All Things Charity: A Pastoral Challenge for the New Millennium.
113
114
If then you have been raised with Christ, seek the things that are above, where Christ is,
seated at the right hand of God. Set your minds on things that are above, not on things
that are on earth. … Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: fornication, impurity,
passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry (Col 3:1-5).
For the grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all men, training us to renounce
irreligion and worldly passions, and to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this world
(Ti 2:11-12).
Live as free men, yet without using your freedom as a pretext for evil; but live as servants
of God (1 Pt 2:16).
… that through these [promises] you may escape from the corruption that is in the world
because of passion, and become partakers of the divine nature (2 Pt 1:4).
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – [Christ teaches] frugality, simplicity, the
rejection of pomp and show...63
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – For neither is food our business, nor is pleasure
our aim; but both are on account of our life here, which the Word is training up to
immortality.64
Saint Augustine (354-430) – The office of temperance is in restraining and quieting the
passions which make us pant for those things which turn us away from the laws of God
and from the enjoyment of His goodness, that is, in a word, from the happy life … The
whole duty of temperance, then, is to put off the old man, and to be renewed in God, that
is, to scorn all bodily delights, and the popular applause, and to turn the whole love to
things divine and unseen.65
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For there be different kinds of idolatry, and one
holds mammon lord, and another his belly his god, and a third some other most baneful
lust…But “you do not bow the knee or worship.” Nay, but with great obedience you do
all that they command you, whether it be your belly, or money, or the tyranny of lust.66
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Natural inclinations should be regulated according
to reason.67
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Now it is His will that we be made eminent in
holiness; that we preserve our souls pure and undefiled; that we practice those duties of
mind and spirit which are opposed to sensuality; that we subdue our unruly appetites,
and enter, under the guidance of reason and of the spirit, upon a virtuous course of life;
and finally that we hold under restraint those senses in particular which supply matter to
the passions.68
63
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, bk. I, ch. XII.
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, bk. II, ch. I.
65
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 19.
66
St. John Chrysostom, Homily VI on the Epistle to the Romans.
67
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q.118, a. 1.
68
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Ninth and Tenth Commandments.
64
114
115
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – He who desires to walk freely with [God] must mortify
all his wicked and irregular affections, and must not cling carnally with selfish love to
any created thing.69
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – It cannot be denied that buying and selling are necessary.
They cannot be dispensed with, and can be practiced in a Christian manner, especially
when the commodities serve a necessary and honourable purpose.70
Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, Book V, Ch. 5 – Restrain your desires
and do not strive to acquire all that you would like to have or spend more than you can
afford.71
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – A longing after sensual pleasures is a dissolution of the
spirit of a man, and makes it loose, soft, and wandering; unapt for noble, wise, or
spiritual employments; because the principles upon which pleasure is chosen and
pursued are sottish, weak, and unlearned, such as prefer the body before the soul, the
appetite before reason, sense before the pleasures of the spirit, the pleasures of a short
abode before those of eternity.72
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – Most men are slaves to their appetite, and can scarcely
deny any thing to their flesh, and are therefore willingly carried by it to their sports, or
profits, or vain companions, when they should raise their minds to God and heaven.73
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (1975) – Everyone should have a high
esteem for the virtue of chastity, its beauty and its power of attraction. This virtue
increases the human person’s dignity and enables him to love truly, disinterestedly,
unselfishly and with respect for others.74
Catholic Episcopal Conference and Council of the Evangelical Church of the Federal
Republic of Germany (1985) – A radical change of mentality must include … a
propensity to self-control, moderation, discipline of life, love for nature, care for one’s
neighbours ...75
John Paul II (1978-) – The manner in which new needs arise and are defined is always
marked by a more or less appropriate concept of the human person and of the person's
true good … In singling out new needs and new means to meet them, one must be guided
by a comprehensive picture of the person which respects all the dimensions of his being
and which subordinates his material and instinctive dimensions to his interior and
spiritual ones. If, on the contrary, a direct appeal is made to human instincts--while
ignoring in various ways the reality of the person as intelligent and free--then consumer
69
Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ, III, ch. 53.
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, ed. W.I. Brandt and H. T. Martin Lehmann, vol. 45 (Philadelphia:
Muhlenberg Press, 1962).
71
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 5.
72
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. II, Sect. I.
73
Richard Baxter, The Saints’ Everlasting Rest, ch. 12.
74
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Declaration on Sexual Ethics, 1 (1975).
75
Catholic Episcopal Conference and Council of the Evangelical Church of the Federal Republic of
Germany, Assuming the responsibility of creation, 75.
70
115
116
attitudes and lifestyles can be created which are objectively improper and often
damaging to the person's physical and spiritual health …
It is therefore necessary to create lifestyles in which the quest for truth, beauty, goodness
and communion with others for the sake of common growth are the factors which
determine consumer choices, savings and investments.76
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – The toughest management job any one of us face in
business, and in all of life, is the job of controlling our own selves. We are called to bring
our spirits, intellects, wills, and emotions under the control of Christ. 77
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Business as mission can take many forms [such as]
investing in things that affirm and enhance life and refusing to invest in things that harm
or diminish life.78
Assemblies of God (2001) – The importance of discipline and self-control confronts us in
two ways. First, the Bible requires it. Second, the out-of-control and over-indulgent, selfcentered nature of our society clamors for the correction that comes only through a
return to personal discipline and self-control.79
Paternalism
We have just seen how the Christian tradition demands that business people take
responsibility for the products and services they sell and that they avoid selling products
or services which are useless or harmful. However, there are practical limits to how far
this standard can be applied without falling into even greater evils than those one is trying
to avoid. While it is unchristian to disregard the fact that the product or service which one
is selling is likely or even certain to be harmful to the customer, Christian standards in no
way demand that one adopt a paternalist attitude, that is to say, an attitude of “knowing
what is good for one’s customers” and forcing them to do it, even against their will.
Probably the best point of departure to disentangle these issues is to start by affirming
clearly, as I have tried to do in the preceding section, that one should have as one’s major
objective the desire to render a real service to one’s customers. Therefore one should be
ready to do what one reasonably can, even at the price of losing potential profits, to avoid
making available to people harmful products or services. The difficulty, however, arises
when one tries to determine accurately what it is that “one can reasonably do” to prevent
one’s neighbours from harming themselves with one’s products. There are limits to what
one can do in this regard, and a Christian should be aware of them.
The most important consideration is one of principle. It is a very basic Christian belief
that “God created man and left him under the control of his free choice.”80 Beyond
76
John Paul II, Centessimus Annus, 36.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp, 151-2.
78
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 194.
79
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
80
Sir 15:14.
77
116
117
specific texts, it is a major theme that pervades Scripture that God values so highly man’s
freedom that he even allows him the possibility to choose to sin, that is to say, to choose
to offend God and harm himself in the worst possible ways—which include eternal
damnation. Orthodox Christian theology has never doubted that it is within God’s power
to prevent man from sinning; ultimately the reason why he holds this power in abeyance
is that he values so much the gift of freedom that he has given to man. This being God’s
attitude to man’s freedom, nobody can claim a Christian warrant for assuming the
responsibility of preventing others from committing sins, if they freely want to do so.
Each person is responsible for living his own life, and nobody should claim an authority
to prevent another to carry out his fully deliberate choices in respect of his own life.
One should, however, understand this point with precision. While nobody should be
prevented from carrying out the choices he makes “in respect of his own life,” another
person may well be justified in intervening in order to protect the interests of third
parties. It is also important to keep in mind that I am as entitled as my customers to live
my own life and to have my choices respected. Therefore I am fully within my rights in
refusing to co-operate with them (e.g., by supplying to them certain harmful products or
services) in their activities. Not, let it be noted, on the ground that I am entitled to decide
how they should live their lives and impose this choice on them, but on the ground that I
am entitled to live my own life (e.g., by refusing to co-operate with them in their selfdestructive actions).
There are also important practical limits to how far I can prevent other people from
obtaining harmful products or services, even from myself. I am subject, in the first place,
to limitations of knowledge; generally speaking it is quite safe to say that each person
usually is the best judge of what is best for himself, as other people often lack important
information about his circumstances and purposes. There are also limitations of intention;
I may believe that I am making a certain decision on somebody else’s best interests, but,
am I? It is only too easy to rationalise what at bottom may be very selfish interests as
being in the best interests of somebody else. The combined force of these considerations
makes it a prudent practical rule of conduct, provided that supplying a certain good or
service is not certainly harmful to the prospective customer, to give him the available
information and leave the decision to him. Observe how this is precisely the course of
action advocated by Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) in the following text:
Physicians must not meddle with desperate diseases, and known to be incurable, without
declaring their sense before hand; that if the patient pleases, he may entertain him at
adventure, or to do him some little ease. Advocates must deal plainly with their clients,
and tell them the true state and danger of their case; and must not pretend confidence in
an evil cause: but when he hath so cleared his own innocence, if the client will have
collateral and legal advantages obtained by his industry, he may engage his endeavour,
provided he do no injury to the right cause, or any man’s person.81
There are also limitations to a businessman’s ability to discriminate; it is a very frequent
case that a certain product is not inherently harmful or beneficial, but rather harmful to
81
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. III.
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118
some people, or when used in a certain way, and beneficial under a different set of
circumstances. In such cases the ideal solution would be not to supply it to certain
customers while making it available to others, but this may not be possible in practice, or
even may be illegal82; if this is the case the business person may have to weigh the
foreseeable good and bad consequences of marketing that product and the weight of his
or her different responsibilities to the different groups involved. This is the main
consideration of Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) in the following passage:
Craftsmen who, with a good reason, make or sell things which are not inherently bad, which
someone may use well, even though many may abuse them, as for example, dice, make-up,
swords... will not be guilty of mortal, and even indeed of venial, sin. Evil is not to be
presumed, and from this principle it follows that it is possible to sell lawfully dice, make-up,
swords, poisons (namely those as can serve also as medicine) to those who one has no
83
reason to expect that will abuse them.
Of course, if the merchant has a serious reason to suspect that a harmful use is intended,
then the above consideration will not apply, as Saint Alphonsus Liguori himself states
explicitly:
A merchant sins if he sells poison or other forbidden things when having suspicion that
they are intended for an evil use.84
Finally, it may only be possible to refuse to supply a product or service to some specific
customer for whom it may be harmful, at great cost to the business and those who depend
on it and it may well be that the responsibilities towards these latter people may have to
take priority over the wish to avoid co-operating with the customer’s harming himself or
others. This is, for instance the consideration that governs the answer of Saint Alphonsus
Liguori to the question Whether it is licit for innkeepers to sell wine to those whom they
foresee will get drunk?
... it seems that I must say... that innkeepers (bartenders) are sufficiently excused if they
fear suffering serious harm, for example, if otherwise they might be notably harmed from
the lessening of sales. The reason for this is because when, in that case, no serious
temporal harm may befall the drunkard, charity does not oblige preventing the sin of
another with grave inconvenience.85
Monopolies
Attempts by traders to create situations of monopoly in order to be able to get higher
prices for their goods are probably as old as trade itself. The condemnation of such
activities in the Christian sources is also very old:
82
Thus, for instance, in some countries a hotelkeeper is not free to deny the use of one of his rooms to a
customer who is able to pay and who is not behaving in a scandalous way.
83
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. II, Tract. III, Cap. II, Dub. V, Art. III, 71.
84
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub. X, 292.
85
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. II, Tract. III, Cap. II, Dub. V, Art. III, 69.
118
119
The people curse him who holds back grain, but a blessing is on the head of him who
sells it (Prv. 11.26).
The reason for this condemnation, which appears again and again in Christian writings, is
that the monopolist is trying to profit not from serving his customers, but from taking
advantage of their situation of need … and often after he has contributed to creating that
situation of need! It is instructive to read the quotations provided in the “Additional
material” section with an eye to the many references they contain to the fact that seeking
to enrich oneself not through rendering a service to one’s customers but in ways that
harm them, is a special ground for condemnation. As Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) puts it,
“Thy gain is the public loss.”
As a usurer thou hidest up thy corn, as a seller thou puttest it up for auction. Why dost
thou wish evil to all, because the famine will grow worse, as though no corn should be
left, as though a more unfruitful year should follow? Thy gain is the public loss. 86
Eleven centuries later Antoninus of Florence (1389-1459) also emphasizes how the
monopolist harms both his neighbour and the whole community:
Somebody who buys and hoards in this way, in order to be able afterwards to compel
people to buy from him on his terms, and sells as dear as he pleases, commits a very great
sin against his neighbour and against the community.87
The writers of the Spanish Salamanca School studied deeply the issue of monopoly from
a moral and theological point of view, and in spite of its being a very common practice in
the Spain of their time, unanimously condemned monopoly profits. And as we can see in
the following quotation of Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575), the reason for this judgment is
the failure of the monopolist as such—that is to say, the person whose activity is to
monopolise the supplies of a certain merchandise in order to sell it more dearly—to
contribute anything to the community; on the contrary, the monopolist intentionally
harms the community and seeks to profit from that harm, and this is what renders its
activity immoral:
The retailer who buys wholesale and sells retail is justified in making a profit, because he
serves the people in selling in this way and has to work hard; but you did not do any good
with your hoarding, on the contrary, you caused great harm and therefore should be
punished.88
We find the same emphasis on the harm caused by the monopolist in the Puritan Richard
Baxter (1615-1691). Of course, in all these quotations we find always an implicit basic
premise taken for granted, which none of the authors we have quoted bothers to make
explicit because of considering it too elementary: a Christian should never make his
living through activities which harm rather than help his neighbours.
86
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. III, ch. 6.
S. Antoninus of Florence, Summa Theologiae, Part. 2, Tit. 1, Cap. 23, § 16. See also idem, 2:1:16. St.
Bernardine of Siena, De Contractibus, Sermon 35, art. 1, c. 1 also condemns monopolies forthrightly.
88
Tomas de Mercado, Suma de Tratos y Contratos (1571), II,20.
87
119
120
It is not lawful to take up or keep up any oppressing monopoly or trade, which tends to
enrich you by the loss of the commonwealth or of many.89
Finally, a passage from Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) will be useful in bringing
up some additional points which were widely accepted both in his time and later:
Monopolies, that is, when one or several bring it about that only they sell something, or when
merchants conspire not to sell ... when one or few establish those things by their own authority,
for example, by buying goods of a certain kind, like wheat, wine, oil, etc., in order to sell it
later by their own choice at a higher price, always sin, also against justice with a obligation of
making restitution.90
It was common in Saint Alphonsus Liguori’s time for the public authorities to grant
monopolies to private citizens whom they wanted to favour; Saint Alphonsus Liguori is
not commenting on such arrangements. However, as to those monopolies which result
from the efforts and agreements of private citizens, he not only condemns them as sins,
that is to say, as breaches of the Divine Law, but goes further to state that they are sins
against justice, and therefore that they oblige the person who commits them to do
restitution of the money he got from others through his endeavours.
Additional material on monopolies
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Among those whom the holy Fathers
pronounced guilty of robbery are persons who, in times of scarcity, hoard up their corn,
thus culpably rendering supplies scarcer and dearer. This holds good with regard to all
necessaries of life and sustenance. These are they against whom Solomon utters this
execration: He that hideth up corn, shall be cursed among the people. Such persons the
pastor should warn of their guilt, and should reprove with more than ordinary freedom;
he should explain to them at length the punishment, which awaits such sins.91
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Those who have a harder struggle against
their criminal desires [include] ... merchants who desire scarcity and rising prices, who
cannot bear not to be the only ones buying and selling so that they themselves can sell
more dearly and buy more cheaply.92
Luther (1483-1546) – Who is so stupid as not to see that combinations are outright
monopolies, which even heathen civil laws—I will say nothing of divine right and
Christian law—condemn as a plainly harmful thing in all the world?93
Vitoria (1483-1546) – … as if buyers or sellers agreed among themselves so that those
who have wheat said: none of us will sell if it is not for so much. And the buyers agreed:
none of us will buy except for so much. It is not lawful to do this because it is a fraud and
89
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub VIII, 814.
91
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
92
Catechism of the Council of Trent, III, 37.
93
Martin Luther, On Trade and Usury.
90
120
121
anybody who did that has a duty of restitution. In the same way, it is a fraud if somebody
were to buy all available supplies; for instance, wheat is worth four silver coins and he
buys it at four and a half silver coins so as to buy all of it; it is a fraud and afterwards it
is not lawful for him to sell at a higher price.94
Vitoria (1483-1546) – It is not lawful, as I said, to store a commodity in order to make
profit if from that results a harm for the republic, as it is done by those “who have
already hoarded the grain even before it has arrived into the market.” … And in this way
clear the market of goods and harm other buyers.95
Domingo de Soto (1495-1560) – This conclusion shows the iniquity of monopolies, which
arise when a merchant buys from his prince the sole right to sell an article; or when two
or three merchants, forestalling the rest, combine to buy up stocks, so that the public is
driven to deal with them; or when they agree not to sell below a certain price. And a
monopoly of buyers who combine to reduce prices is equally unjust….96
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575) – Woe to some people who alone or in league with others
make a living with great danger to their conscience and dishonour for themselves. The
first in this are those who use to hoard all supplies of some fabric, or most of them, so
that by hoarding it they may sell it at their pleasure, and they always demand excessive
and exorbitant prices. Some corner all pearls, or all the gold that the fleet brought. And
as others have need for it, they force them to pay what they demand, and they demand
very freely knowing that it is not possible to find supplies elsewhere, or very little. An
arrangement which all find hateful and abhorrent, and that rightly should be not only
forbidden, but also highly penalised.97
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575) – But if anybody out of ignorance got involved in this
business, and wants to know how to do restitution, he has to return all he charged above
the just value. And just value is that which in opinion of impartial men the fabric would
have had if he had not hoarded it and it had been spread among many hands.98
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575) – It is a type of fraud and violence to gather up all the coins
available in the city, in order to force merchants to borrow at high interest.99
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – This wicked thing may be done by hoarding up, when the
hunger and Necessity of the poor calls for it. Now that God may shew his dislike against
this, he doth, as it were, license the people to curse such an hoarder up. He that
withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him, but blessing shall be upon the head of him
that selleth it.100
Saint Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis (1696-1787) – They are certain to be bound
to restitution, if they agree to sell at a price above the highest, and likewise craftsmen
94
Francisco de Vitoria, Commentaries to the II-II of Saint Thomas, q. 77, a. 1.
Id.
96
Domingo de Soto, De Iustitia et Iure, VI, 2, III.
97
Tomas de Mercado, Suma de Tratos y Contratos, II, 20.
98
Id.
99
Ibid, IV, 7.
100
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
95
121
122
and others similar to them sin against justice, who agree among themselves not to hire
out their service except at a price exceeding the highest price.101
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Businesses should seek what is fair and just for all
segments of the community. They should not seek benefits for business that work to the
detriment of other community interests.102
101
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub VIII, 817.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 216.
102
122
CHAPTER 4 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS – II
CHAPTER 4 – THE FIRM AND ITS CUSTOMERS – II ....................................... 123
Communication with customers .............................................................................. 123
Love for the truth, love for our neighbour ............................................................ 123
One should not lie ................................................................................................. 125
Additional material on the value of truthfulness .............................................. 128
One should not seek to mislead others .................................................................. 135
There is no duty to disclose all the information one has ....................................... 138
Additional material on controlling disclosure .................................................. 139
Substantial defects must be disclosed ................................................................... 140
No manipulation .................................................................................................... 142
Consumerism and materialism .............................................................................. 144
Additional material on consumerism and materialism ..................................... 146
The Christian tradition on pricing .......................................................................... 150
Charity in pricing .................................................................................................. 151
A buyer’s special need and higher prices .............................................................. 153
Justice and equivalence in value ........................................................................... 155
Measuring value .................................................................................................... 157
Cost theories of value ............................................................................................ 158
Market theories of value ........................................................................................ 160
Additional material on prices ........................................................................... 163
Appendix: Interest .................................................................................................... 166
Additional material on interest ......................................................................... 169
Communication with customers
Most people, when they hear of communication with customers, think first of advertising.
However, there are many other ways in which firms communicate with their actual or
potential customers: personal selling, public activities, displays, promotional events,
corporate stationery, personal appearance of the firm’s staff, facilities, and many more.
Christian teachers have always taught the importance of truthfulness in communicating
with others. But granted that a Christian should be truthful, one can still ask: truthful as in
“not telling lies”; truthful as in “telling the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the
truth”; or truthful in some other way? In the following sections we will try to distill from
the Christian tradition more determinate guidance in these issues.
Love for the truth, love for our neighbour
At bottom the main thing Christianity has to teach us in the field of communication is not
a set of rules but two great principles: love for truth and love for our neighbour. These
two basic ideas are stressed time and again in the main Christian documents and in the
123
writings of Christian teachers, and in fact, the more detailed rules we are about to
examine can only be understood rightly in the light of these two basic principles.
A very basic teaching of the Bible is that God, who is truthful and faithful himself, takes
delight in those who are truthful and faithful:
O Lord, who shall sojourn in thy tent? Who shall dwell on thy holy hill? He who walks
blamelessly, and does what is right, and speaks truth from his heart (Ps 15:1-2).
Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, but those who act faithfully are his delight
(Prv 12:22).
Saint Paul explicitly states that straightforwardness has been his norm in dealing with his
converts, and furthermore, that he has acted in this way precisely in order to imitate God:
As surely as God is faithful, our word to you has not been Yes and No (2 Cor 1:18).
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) strikes the same note:
In everything, therefore, good faith is seemly … Candour must be shown, the truth must
be made known.1
The special interest of this passage lies in which in the immediate context Saint Ambrose
is stating a rather technical rule about the need for the seller to disclose substantial
defects in his merchandise; the impression of technicality, and even legalism, is
heightened by the fact that Saint Ambrose formulates his ideas through the means of a
rule of the Roman law of sales. However, even though the form of his expression is
legalistic, Saint Ambrose makes it clear that the substance of his teaching has very
different origins and ambitions, by tying it expressly—through the words quoted—to
foundations of good faith and candour.
The great Christian principle of love for neighbour (extending to all neighbours, even to
enemies) demands an attitude of readiness to form, in so far as it is practicable in each
case, a meaningful relationship with every single person with whom we come in contact.
This in turn has implications for the way in which a Christian communicates, for only
truthful and candid communications are consistent with that basic attitude of openness to
forming a meaningful relationship with the person with whom we are communicating.
These ideas are expressed powerfully in a document of the Pontifical Council for the
Instruments of Social Communication (1971). This document grounds the requirement
that human beings be truly open to communion among themselves in the model of eternal
communion, in which nothing is kept back, provided by the relations of Father, Son and
Holy Spirit, in the unity of God:
1
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy. III, 10.
124
In the Christian faith, the unity and brotherhood of man are the chief aim of all
communication and these find their source and model in the central mystery of the eternal
communion between the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, who live a single divine life.2
A few paragraphs later, the same document makes it clear that ultimately what is at stake
in every instance of communication is a challenge to give oneself in love to other:
Communication is more than the expression of ideas and the indication of emotion. At its
most profound level, it is the giving of self in love.3
Of course, these are contemporary formulations, but it is not difficult to trace their
substance back to the Bible:
Therefore, putting away falsehood, let every one speak the truth with his neighbor, for we
are members one of another (Eph. 4:25).
References could be multiplied indefinitely and many are to be found in the “Additional
material” section. The following one, from John Calvin (1509-1564), is interesting both
because it grounds our love for the truth in the fact that God is truth, and because it
frames our responsibility in positive terms (“cultivate unfeigned truth”) rather than in
terms of minimum requirements:
Since God, who is truth, abhors falsehood, we must cultivate unfeigned truth towards
each other.4
One should not lie
Because of the love for the truth and love for his neighbour that should rule the conduct
of a Christian, lying should be avoided. This basic message is repeated once and again
throughout the Bible. An early injunction, dealing directly with commercial matters, can
be found in Deuteronomy:
You shall not have in your bag two kinds of weights, a large and a small. You shall not
have in your house two kinds of measures, a large and a small. A full and just weight you
shall have, a full and just measure you shall have; that your days may be prolonged in the
land which the Lord your God gives you. For all who do such things, all who act
dishonestly, are an abomination to the Lord your God (Dt 25:13-16).
The seriousness of this standard can be grasped better by observing that truthfulness is
represented as belonging to the very nature of God. God himself is truthful:
God is not man, that he should lie, or a son of man, that he should repent (Nm 23:19).
2
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 8.
Ibid., 11.
4
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk 2, ch. 9
3
125
Therefore by loving truth and respecting it man loves what God himself loves and acts as
God himself acts. It is especially interesting in this connection that Christ himself can
state not only that he is truthful, but “I am … the truth” (Jn 14:6). On the other hand,
those who lie are also imitating a model:
When [the devil] lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father
of lies (Jn 8:44).
We can say that by choosing to be truthful or to be a liar man is choosing to imitate and
follow either God (and Christ) or God’s arch-enemy. God himself is very clear that he
rejects completely the liar:
But as for … all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and sulphur, which
is the second death (Rv 21:8).
All of this is important because a very common attitude towards lies is to agree that they
are wrong, but to consider them, for so long as nobody seems to be seriously harmed
through them, as something not too important: just peccadilloes or, in the common
expression, “white lies.” However, that is not the attitude of the Bible, which rather
considers the choice between truthfulness and untruthfulness as a matter of choosing
one’s basic allegiance: with truth and for God, or with lies and for the devil.
As this point is so basic, it may be useful to add here two more quotations in which God’s
rejection of lies is clearly expressed:
Do not devise evil in your hearts against one another, and love no false oath, for all these
things I hate, says the Lord (Zc 8:17).
Thou destroyest those who speak lies; the Lord abhors bloodthirsty and deceitful men (Ps
5:6).
The whole Christian tradition has followed this teaching. No matter how much secular
opinion may be inclined not to take lying too seriously, Christian teachers have always
been uncompromising in emphasizing the evil of untruth. But there is one point in which
there has been a significant division of views in the Christian tradition. Some Christian
teachers have taught that in some occasions in which lying would appear to be the only
way to escape an unjust persecutor, lying to him could be justified. After all, they
reasoned, if killing the persecutor in self-defense could be justified, lying to him, which
seems a lesser harm, should be even more justified. There are some deep issues involved
here, not the least of which is whether the malice of lying derives exclusively from its
being an injustice to the person deceived (in which case the more permissive view would
seem to have much to commend it) or whether there are other important issues involved
in lying which must also be taken into consideration.
The permissive position can boast of some illustrious Church Fathers among its
defenders. Among others, Origen (185-254)5, Saint Hilary of Poitiers (c. 310-c. 367),
5
Origen, Stromata.
126
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407)6 and Cassian (360-435)7 have held it. A quotation from
Saint Hilary of Poitiers can give the flavour of this position:
There is a lie that is most necessary, and sometimes falsehood is useful, when we lie to a
murderer about someone’s hiding place or falsify testimony for a person in danger or
deceive a sick person with respect to his chances for recovery. According to the teaching
of the Apostle, our speech should be seasoned (cf. Col. 4:6). For this reason the Holy
Spirit tempered what is meant by falsehood by imposing conditions on lying when he
said: “Who has not lied with his tongue nor done evil to his neighbor,” so that a criminal
act of lying would be committed when another person was adversely affected.8
However, at least among the fathers and the medieval theologians, this has been a
minority position. Perhaps the most important reason for this was that the two most
respected theologians in the history of Christianity, Saint Augustine (354-430) and Saint
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), both came down decisively against it, even though the two
were fully aware of the extreme cases that those favouring a more permissive position
had in mind; indeed both of them, especially Saint Augustine, discuss these cases at great
length. In spite of this, Saint Augustine’s position is crystal clear:
Whoever thinks that there is any kind of lie that is not a sin deceives himself shamefully9
Saint Thomas Aquinas is also quite definite in stating his position:
It is not lawful to tell a lie in order to deliver another from any danger whatever.10
It is not my purpose here to try to settle this most difficult issue. The only reason why I
have brought it up is to stress the extreme seriousness with which lying is seen in the
Christian tradition. The matter is so serious that many representatives of that tradition
conclude that even if it were the only way to save the life of an innocent person, one
would never be justified in lying. I do not intend to defend that position in this book (or,
for that matter, attack it), but it should be obvious that whoever holds it views lying most
seriously.
Outside the controversy to which I have just made reference, it is common ground among
all Christian writers that lying should be avoided. Another indication of how seriously
this issue has been taken by our predecessors in the faith is that many of the martyrs of
the first centuries, strictly speaking, gave their lives not in order to avoid giving up their
6
St. John Chrysostom, On the Priesthood, 1.3.
Cassian, Seventeenth Conference
8
St. Hilary of Poitiers, Homilies on the Psalms. 14.10.
9
St. Augustine, OnLlying, xxi. St. Jerome had held the same position in Apology for Himself Against the
Books of Rufinus, 1.18. Of course, stating that every lie is wrong is not the same as saying that every lie is
equally wrong. As St. Augustine, and others had done, St. Gregory the Great, who also defends the more
strict position, states expressly that “All lying is most greatly to be avoided, although sometimes there is a
kind of lying that is less culpable, as when a person lies in order to be of assistance.” Moralia, in Job.
10
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II, q. 110, a.3. See also Summa Theologica II-II q. 110, a. 3
in which he tersely declares that “every lie is a sin.”
7
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Christian religion or offending God’s honour, but in order not to lie. Saint Justin (c. 140c. 202), himself a martyr, makes the point clearly. As he says:
It is in our power, when we are examined, to deny that we are Christians; but we would
not live by telling a lie.11
Many officials of the Empire who had to enforce the anti-Christian decrees were not
especially keen to do so and were eager to live and let live, in so far as they could do so
without blatantly disobeying superior orders. Often the martyrs were offered the
possibility of being set free if only they would deny “for official purposes only” that they
were Christians. However, the martyrs who were offered this way out refused to take it as
it would have required them to lie and they considered that a Christian should never do
so, not even to protect his life.
In many occasions, what is at stake is not a question of life or death. Very often,
especially in business, the immediate incentive to lie derives from the belief that it will be
much more difficult, perhaps even impossible, to attain one’s objectives if one does not
have recourse to lying. The following passage of the Catechism of the Council of Trent
(1566) reminds its readers that at bottom what is at stake here is how far one trusts in
God’s care for his faithful children:
There are those who seek to justify their duplicity either by the unimportance of what
they say, or by the example of the worldly wise who, they claim, lie at the proper
time…He [the parish priest] should exhort his listeners in all their difficulties and dangers
to trust in God, not in the artifice of lying; for those who have recourse to subterfuge,
plainly show that they trust more to their own prudence than to the providence of God.12
The basic thrust of this section should be clear by now. With the possible exception of
situations in which telling an untruth would be the only means of defending very
important goods against an unjust aggressor (as to which situation there are different
views among different prominent believers) a Christian is enjoined to follow a very
simple rule in communicating with others: “just never lie.” To the best of my knowledge
there has not been a single significant teacher in that tradition who has felt the need to
add as a footnote to that injunction the qualification “except in conducting business.”
Additional material on the value of truthfulness
You shall not utter a false report. You shall not join hands with a wicked man, to be a
malicious witness (Ex 23:1).
You shall do no wrong in judgment, in measures of length or weight or quantity. You
shall have just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin: I am the Lord your
God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt (Lv 19:35-36).
11
12
St. Justin, First Apology, ch. VIII.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
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The Glory of Israel will not lie or repent; for he is not a man, that he should repent (1
Sam 15:29).
Here I am; testify against me before the Lord and before his anointed. Whose ox have I
taken? Or whose ass have I taken? Or whom have I defrauded? Whom have I oppressed?
Or from whose hand have I taken a bribe to blind my eyes with it? Testify against me and
I will restore it to you (1 Sam 12:3).
My lips will not speak falsehood, and my tongue will not utter deceit (Jb 27:4).
Keep your tongue from evil, and your lips from speaking deceit (Ps 34:13).
The wicked go astray from the womb, they err from their birth, speaking lies (Ps 58:3).
No man who practices deceit shall dwell in my house; no man who utters lies shall
continue in my presence (Ps. 101: 7).
A worthless person, a wicked man, goes about with crooked speech (Prv 6:12).
There are six things which the Lord hates, seven which are an abomination to him: … a
lying tongue (Prv 6:16-17).
A false balance is an abomination to the Lord, but a just weight is his delight (Prv 11:1).
A just balance and scales are the Lord's (Prv 16:11).
Diverse weights and diverse measures are both alike an abomination to the Lord (Prv
20:10).
Bread gained by deceit is sweet to a man, but afterward his mouth will be full of gravel
(Prv 20:17).
Two things I ask of thee; deny them not to me before I die: Remove far from me falsehood
and lying (Prv 30:7-8).
Your cheeks are comely with ornaments, your neck with strings of jewels. We will make
you ornaments of gold, studded with silver (Sg 1:10-11).
My beloved is like a gazelle, or a young stag (Sg 2:9).
Behold, you are beautiful, my love, behold, you are beautiful! Your eyes are doves behind
your veil. Your hair is like a flock of goats, moving down the slopes of Gilead (Sg 4:1).
In nowise speak against the truth (Sir 4:30).
Be not willing to make any manner of lie (Sir 7:14).
A lie is a foul blot in a man, and yet it will be continually in the mouth of men without
discipline. A thief is better than a man that is always lying: but both of them shall inherit
destruction (Sir 20:25-26).
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[Be ashamed] of deceit in giving and taking (Sir 41: 23).
Your silver has become dross, your wine mixed with water (Is 1:22).
And they made his grave with the wicked and with a rich man in his death, although he
had done no violence, and there was no deceit in his mouth (Is 53:9).
For our transgressions are multiplied before thee, and our sins testify against us; for our
transgressions are with us, and we know our iniquities: transgressing, and denying the
Lord, and turning away from following our God, speaking oppression and revolt,
conceiving and uttering from the heart lying words. Justice is turned back, and
righteousness stands afar off; for truth has fallen in the public squares, and uprightness
cannot enter (Is 59:12-14).
I am full of the wrath of the Lord] for from the least to the greatest of them, every one is
greedy for unjust gain; and from prophet to priest, every one deals falsely (Jer 6:13).
They bend their tongue like a bow; falsehood and not truth has grown strong in the land;
for they proceed from evil to evil, and they do not know me, says the Lord. Every one
deceives his neighbor, and no one speaks the truth; they have taught their tongue to
speak lies; they commit iniquity and are too weary to repent. Heaping oppression upon
oppression, and deceit upon deceit, they refuse to know me, says the Lord. … Their
tongue is a deadly arrow; it speaks deceitfully; with his mouth each speaks peaceably to
his neighbor, but in his heart he plans an ambush for him. Shall I not punish them for
these things? says the Lord; and shall I not avenge myself on a nation such as this? (Jer
9:3-9).
Heaping oppression upon oppression, and deceit upon deceit, they refuse to know me,
says the Lord. Therefore thus says the Lord of hosts: "Behold, I will refine them and test
them, for what else can I do, because of my people? Their tongue is a deadly arrow; it
speaks deceitfully; with his mouth each speaks peaceably to his neighbor, but in his heart
he plans an ambush for him. Shall I not punish them for these things? says the Lord; and
shall I not avenge myself on a nation such as this?” (Jer 9:6-9).
You shall have just balances, a just ephah, and a just bath. The ephah and the bath shall
be of the same measure, the bath containing one tenth of a homer, and the ephah one
tenth of a homer; the homer shall be the standard measure. The shekel shall be twenty
gerahs; five shekels shall be five shekels, and ten shekels shall be ten shekels, and your
mina shall be fifty shekels (Ezk 45:10-12).
Hear the word of the Lord, O people of Israel; for the Lord has a controversy with the
inhabitants of the land. There is no faithfulness or kindness, and no knowledge of God in
the land; there is swearing, lying, killing, stealing, and committing adultery; they break
all bounds and murder follows murder (Hos 4:1-2).
When I would heal Israel, the corruption of E'phraim is revealed, and the wicked deeds
of Sama'ria; for they deal falsely, the thief breaks in, and the bandits raid without (Hos
7:1).
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A trader, in whose hands are false balances, he loves to oppress. E'phraim has said, "Ah,
but I am rich, I have gained wealth for myself": but all his riches can never offset the
guilt he has incurred (Hos 12:7-8).
Hear this, you who trample upon the needy, and bring the poor of the land to an end,
saying, "When will the new moon be over, that we may sell grain? And the sabbath, that
we may offer wheat for sale, that we may make the ephah small and the shekel great, and
deal deceitfully with false balances (Am 8:4-5).
Shall I acquit the man with wicked scales and with a bag of deceitful weights? …
Therefore I have begun to smite you, making you desolate because of your sins (Mi 6:11
&13).
These are the things that you shall do: Speak the truth to one another, render in your
gates judgments that are true and make for peace, do not devise evil in your hearts
against one another, and love no false oath, for all these things I hate, says the Lord (Zc
8:16-17).
You know the commandments: “Do not kill, Do not commit adultery, Do not steal, Do not
bear false witness, Do not defraud, Honor your father and mother" (Mk 10:19).
We have renounced disgraceful, underhanded ways; we refuse to practice cunning or to
tamper with God's word, but by the open statement of the truth we would commend
ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God (2 Cor 4:2).
But as servants of God we commend ourselves in every way: through great endurance, in
afflictions, hardships, calamities, beatings, imprisonments, tumults, labors, watching,
hunger; by purity, knowledge, forbearance, kindness, the Holy Spirit, genuine love,
truthful speech, and the power of God (2 Cor 6:4-7).
Therefore, putting away falsehood, let every one speak the truth with his neighbor (Eph.
4:25).
Stand therefore, having girded your loins with truth (Eph 6:14).
Do not lie to one another, seeing that you have put off the old nature with its practices
and have put on the new nature, which is being renewed in knowledge after the image of
its creator (Col 3: 9-10).
For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an
example, that you should follow in his steps. He committed no sin; no guile was found on
his lips (1Pt. 2:21-22).
The hundred and forty-four thousand who had been redeemed from the earth. … it is
these who follow the Lamb wherever he goes; these have been redeemed from mankind as
first fruits for God and the Lamb … and in their mouth no lie was found, for they are
spotless (Rv 14: 3-5).
Then I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse! He who sat upon it is called
Faithful and True, and in righteousness he judges and makes war. … He is clad in a robe
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dipped in blood, and the name by which he is called is The Word of God (Rv 19:11 &
13).
But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators,
sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and
sulphur, which is the second death (Rv 21:8).
But nothing unclean shall enter it, nor any one who practices abomination or falsehood,
but only those who are written in the Lamb's book of life (Rv 21:27).
Outside are the dogs and sorcerers and fornicators and murderers and idolaters, and
every one who loves and practices falsehood. (Rv 22:15)
Letter of Barnabas (c. 97) – Thou shalt not be of double mind or of double tongue, for a
double tongue is a snare of death.13
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Let not him who sells or buys aught name two
prices for what he buys or sells; but stating the net price, and studying to speak the truth,
if he get not his price, he gets the truth, and is rich.14
Apostolic Constitutions (380) – Now the bishop ought to know whose oblations he ought
to receive, and whose he ought not. For he is to avoid corrupt dealers, and not receive
their gifts. "For a corrupt dealer shall not be justified from sin." For of them it was that
Isaiah reproached Israel, and said, "Thy corrupt dealers mingle wine with water."15
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – False weights and unjust measures are accursed.16
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – But the law of justice is plain, namely, that a good man
ought not to go aside from the truth, nor to inflict an unjust loss on any one, nor to act at
all deceitfully or to take part in any fraud.17
Saint Basil (329-379) – We must not lie, but in all things tell the truth.18
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Some men are of the devil’s kind, and are called
sons of the devil because they are liars, since the devil is “a liar and the father of lies.”
…But, on the contrary, others are the children of God, who is Truth, and they are those
who speak the truth.19
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – To practice fraud so as to sell something for more
than its just price is an outright sin in so far as one is deceiving one’s neighbour to his
detriment.20
13
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, bk III, ch. XI.
15
Apostolic Constitutions, IV, 6.
16
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 9.
17
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 10.
18
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 24.
19
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on The Ten Commandments, Eighth Commandment.
20
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 77, a. 1.
14
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Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – Merchants who deceive their buyers are thieves,
and no just man will have any part of such dishonest transactions.21
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Those who, in buying or selling, have
recourse to fraud and lying, involve themselves in the same guilt. The Lord will avenge
their trickery. Those who sell bad and adulterated goods as real and genuine, or who
defraud the purchasers by weight, measure, number, or rule, are guilty of a species of
theft still more criminal and unjust.22
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) –And as for those who plead motives of interest,
claiming that without recourse to lies, they can neither buy nor sell to advantage, [the
pastor] should upbraid them with greater severity, because their very excuse is a most
serious accusation against themselves, since they show thereby that they yield no faith or
confidence to these words of God: Seek first the kingdom of God and his justice, and all
these things shall be added unto you.23
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – In a word, lies of every sort are prohibited,
especially those that cause grave injury to anyone…
To deceive by a jocose or officious lie, even though it helps or harms no one, is,
notwithstanding, altogether unworthy.24
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Although it is not always well to publish abroad
everything that may be true, yet it is never allowable to oppose the truth. Make it your
rule never knowingly to say what is not strictly true, either accusing or excusing, always
remembering that God is the God of Truth.25
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – Lie not at all, neither in a little thing nor in a great, neither
in the substance nor in the circumstance, neither in word nor deed.26
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – The evil of [using false weights and measures]! why the evil
of that appears to every eye: the Heathens, that live like Beasts and Bruits in many
things, do abominate and abhor such wickedness as this.27
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – Some plead Custom for their Cheat, as if that could acquit
them before the Tribunal of God: And others say, it came to them for so much, and
therefore another must take it for so much, though there is wanting both as to weight and
measure … Suppose that I be cheated my self with a brass half-Crown, must I therefore
cheat another therewith … Therefore however thou are dealt withall in thy buying, yet
thou must deal justly in selling, or thou sinnest against thy soul… And know, that a
pretence to custom is nothing worth. 'Tis not custom, but good conscience that will help
at Gods Tribunal.28
21
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
23
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
24
Id.
25
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III, 30.
26
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. III.
27
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
28
Id.
22
133
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The merchant sins if he mixes old and useless
goods with new goods and sells both at the same price.29
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The silversmith or goldsmith sins if he sells a
common stone as precious, or buys a precious stone as if it were worth little.30
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – The most common thefts are those
committed in the course of buying and selling. Let us examine this more closely so that
you may recognize the wrong that you do and, at the same time, see how you can set
about correcting it. When you bring along your produce to sell it, people ask you if your
eggs and your butter are fresh. You hasten to answer in the affirmative, even though you
know that the opposite is the truth. Why do you say that, unless it is to rob two or three
pennies from some poor person who has had, perhaps, to borrow them to keep her house
going? Another time it will be in the selling of a crop. You will take the precaution of
putting the smallest and the poorest specimens in the midst of the bunch.31
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication (1971) – Advertising too
must respect the truth, taking into account accepted advertising conventions.32
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Businesses should approach customers as people of
dignity whom they genuinely want to serve. From God’s perspective the purpose of
business transactions is to serve people. To do this requires that direct selling
approaches, sales promotions, and mass ads should be honest… 33
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Honesty in communication is one of the
characteristics of Christian leaders. The Bible says, “Simply let your ‘yes’ be ‘yes’ and
your ‘no’ ‘no’; anything beyond this comes from the evil one” (Matthew 5: 37). There is
information that leaders cannot share because of its confidentiality or because it might
injure other persons. But apart from that, communication should be clear, simple,
unambiguous, and to the point. It should not be necessary to read between the lines to
know what a Christian leader is saying.34
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – The eighth commandment forbids
misrepresenting the truth in our relations with others. This moral prescription flows from
the vocation of the holy people to bear witness to their God who is the truth and wills the
truth.35
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication (1997) – But it is a
fundamental principle that advertising may not deliberately seek to deceive, whether it
does that by what it says, by what it implies or by what it fails to say.36
29
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292.
Id.
31
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “How Death Will Reveal Thieves” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1960.
32
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 59
33
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 212.
34 34
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 139.
35
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2464.
36
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Ethics in Advertising.
30
134
Assemblies of God (2001) – Telling the truth is without question a primary biblical
principle. Many of the ills of modern society are the result of careless handling or
deliberate mishandling of truth. Being able to trust the truthfulness of family members,
friends, and work associates is essential to wholesome interpersonal relationships. 37
One should not seek to mislead others
There are other ways to induce a false belief in somebody than an outright lie. If we
accept a common definition of lying as asserting something that one does not believe to
be true, then the company which seeks to convince prospective customers that it has great
capital resources by featuring a very imposing building, which does not belong to it, on
the cover of its brochure would not be lying, as it is not asserting anything. Is the use of
this tactic appropriate from a Christian perspective?
The Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication (1997) offers a
straightforward negative answer to that question:
But it is a fundamental principle that advertising may not deliberately seek to deceive,
whether it does that by what it says, by what it implies or by what it fails to say.38
The interesting point about this statement is that it is not based on the wrongfulness of
lying; instead it stresses that one should not “deliberately seek to deceive.” In so doing it
is in perfect continuity with the fundamental principles of love for the truth and love for
our neighbour which, as we saw above, stand at the basis of the whole biblical approach
to this subject. If one places the emphasis on “not lying” one will easily get embroiled in
one thousand legalistic and casuistic questions about what is exactly a lie and how far can
one go without engaging in something which will be unquestionably a lie. But if the
emphasis is placed on “not seeking to deceive” we can easily transcend all that casuistry:
we are plainly reminded that the main issue is our basic attitude towards our neighbour
(are we trying to help him or to take advantage of him?) and towards truth (are we or are
we not committed to the value of truth?)
As the statement just quoted indicates, it is possible to deceive others not only by stating
what is plainly false (a lie in the strict sense), but also by the implications of what one
says and even by selective omissions. The test to identify wrong behaviour is simply to
ask oneself: is the objective of this to deceive others? If so, it is incompatible with
Christian standards.
This approach can already be found in the Bible, which condemns not only outright lies
but also all types of deviousness. See, as an example, the following two quotations:
37
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
Id. See also, by the same agency, Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication,
Communio et Progressio (1971), n. 30: “Any propaganda should be rejected which deliberately
misrepresents the real situation, or distorts men’s minds with half-truths, selective reporting, or serious
omissions, and which diminishes man’s legitimate freedom of decision.”
38
135
Put away from you crooked speech, and put devious talk far from you (Prv 4:24).
He who walks in uprightness fears the Lord, but he who is devious in his ways despises
him (Prv 14:2).
In the same vein, Saint Ambrose (339-397) insists that it is not just lies that a Christian
should avoid, but every cunning way of trying to mislead others:
I will not therefore include such trifles as these under the power of ecclesiastical censure,
for that altogether condemns every desire for dishonourable gain, and briefly, with few
words, forbids every sharp and cunning action.39
The same idea has been repeated over the centuries by many other Christian voices. It
may be enough here to provide two more samples, both following closely after the divide
between Catholics and Protestants, one from each side of that divide. The first is from the
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) and the second from the Anglican bishop
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667):
Finally, the first part of this Commandment prohibits dissimulation. It is sinful not only to
speak, but to act deceitfully. Actions, as well as words, are signs of what is in our mind;
and hence our Lord, rebuking the Pharisees, frequently calls them hypocrites.40
Let the measure of your affirmation or denial be the understanding of your contractor; for
he that deceives the buyer or the seller by speaking what is true in a sense not intended or
understood by the other, is a liar and a thief. For in bargains you are to avoid not only
what is false, but that also which deceives.41
The observant reader may have noticed that the statement of the Pontifical Council for
the Instruments of Social Communication quoted at the beginning of this section states
that one should avoid to “seek to deceive.” The inclusion of the word “seek” is very
important. If the standard of behaviour for a Christian were to avoid at all costs that
others may be deceived, a practically unbearable burden would have been imposed on
him. One thing is not to endeavour to deceive others, and a very different and much more
onerous one is to have to make sure that nobody is deceived by one’s utterances and
actions. In fact, whenever one has to communicate a matter of any complexity to a large
and diversified audience, it is a practical certainty that a number of people will be misled.
A clear example of this is the material the reader is now reading. Most certainly, it is not
my intention to mislead anyone; in fact I have tried very hard to communicate as clearly
as I possibly can. However, experience teaches me that a number of readers will draw
from some of my statements conclusions which I did not in any way intend to defend.
What can I do? One possibility is not to publish this material and in that way there will be
no risk that anybody will misunderstand it. But, of course, this entails that any good that I
hoped to achieve by publishing it will not be done; I hope the reader will not attribute it
39
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 10.
Catechism of the Council of Trent , Eighth Commandment
41
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, Chapter III, Section III.
40
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to vanity if I think that this would be too high a price to pay to avoid some potential
misunderstandings. Another possibility is to make the write-up twice as long as it is in an
effort to explain everything much more carefully and to foreclose possibilities of
misunderstanding; however, this would also have a heavy cost, both literally, as a longer
work would have to be a more expensive one, and in many other ways, such as the extra
time I would have to invest in writing and my readers in reading something longer. At the
end of the day, no matter the lengths to which I go in trying to explain myself better, it
will always happen that some people are misled.
The above reflections should make it clear why even people with great love for the truth,
once they realize the implications of demanding that one make every possible effort to
avoid misleading others, conclude that the appropriate standard is to demand that one
make a reasonable effort to avoid misleading them. And what is reasonable? Of course, it
depends, on the one hand, on the harm that may be suffered by those misled, and on the
other hand, on the costs and harms to oneself and others that will be involved in trying to
prevent such misunderstandings. The matter is even more complex than it is suggested
here, but for our present purposes the preceding brief considerations will have to suffice.
An important area of application for these principles is in relation to the possible
misunderstanding of advertising messages. As the Pontifical Council for the Instruments
of Social Communication (1971) puts it:
Advertising too must respect the truth, taking into account accepted advertising
conventions.42
Advertising is expensive; even more importantly, the attention span of the public is short
and the average reader, listener or viewer is not ready to keep paying attention to a long
or involved advertising message. Because of these and other reasons, advertisers have
very good reasons to keep their messages as short as they can, and a way of doing this is
by making use an “advertising language” with which both advertisers and their public are
usually well acquainted. If somebody not acquainted with the conventions of that
language is exposed to an advert, that person might reach a wrong conclusion; however,
if the advertiser did not seek to mislead anybody, has operated within the usual
advertising conventions, and has respected the truth in his task (i.e., has made a
reasonable effort, in the sense defined above, not to mislead anybody), then that
advertiser has already done what a rightly understood love for neighbour and for the truth
demands.
Still, the bottom line should be clear and unambiguous. Beyond, the borderline problems
that may sometimes cloud the issue, honesty in communication is the Christian standard.
The matter is well summed up by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990):
Honesty in communication is one of the characteristics of Christian leaders… There is
information that leaders cannot share because of its confidentiality or because it might
injure other persons. But apart from that, communication should be clear, simple,
42
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 59
137
unambiguous, and to the point. It should not be necessary to read between the lines to
know what a Christian leader is saying.43
There is no duty to disclose all the information one has
While one has a duty not to lie, not to seek to deceive others, and to make a reasonable
effort to prevent others from being misled, there is nothing in the Christian tradition to
suggest that one has a duty to disclose all the information one has. On the contrary, we
find in it many definite recommendations to keep in mind all of one’s responsibilities in
deciding what to say and what not to say, and there are also clear teachings about
circumstances in which it will be wiser, and more consistent with the love of neighbour,
to keep to oneself some of one’s views or some of the information one has.
A good example of this is provided by the instructions God gives to the prophet Samuel,
whom he is sending to anoint David, but who fears the wrath of Saul, the reigning king, if
he learns of his mission:
I will send you to Jesse the Bethlehemite, for I have provided for myself a king among
his sons." And Samuel said, "How can I go? If Saul hears it, he will kill me." And the
Lord said, "Take a heifer with you, and say, 'I have come to sacrifice to the Lord” (1 Sam
16: 1-2).
God is not telling Samuel to lie, but he is definitely instructing him to disclose only one
of the reasons for his visit, while keeping a discreet silence about the other.
Our Lord himself determined at each moment what it was opportune to say in accordance
with considerations of audience, time and subject matter.
I have yet many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now (Jn 16:12).
But when you fast, anoint your head and wash your face, that your fasting may not be
seen by men but by your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will
reward you (Mt 6:17-18).
There are also cases in the life of Our Lord in which his hearers have obviously
misunderstood him but he does not stop to correct their misunderstanding. A good
example can be found during the Last Supper
Then after the morsel, Satan entered into [Judas]. Jesus said to him, "What you are going
to do, do quickly." Now no one at the table knew why he said this to him. Some thought
that, because Judas had the money box, Jesus was telling him, "Buy what we need for the
feast"; or, that he should give something to the poor (Jn 13:27-29).
43
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 139
138
At the very least, Our Lord could not have acted in this way if he thought that everybody
has a positive duty to correct every possible misunderstanding that may arise from his
own communications.
In a similar way, Saint Paul instructs the Ephesians to consider the things they speak
about, and only say opportune things:
Let no evil talk come out of your mouths, but only such as is good for edifying, as fits
the occasion, that it may impart grace to those who hear (Eph 4:29).
We have had opportunity to refer several times to statements of the Pontifical Council for
the Instruments of Social Communication, which are probably the best and most
complete modern statements by a Christian body on issues relating to social
communications. The following passage (1971) sums up well the point we have been
making:
There exists therefore in human society a right to information on the subjects that are of
concern to men either as individuals or as members of society, according to each man’s
circumstances. The proper exercise of this right demands that the content of the
communication be true and—within the limits set by justice and charity—complete.44
The point of special interest here is that often there are going to be limits, set by justice
and charity, to how far one should disclose the information one has. This is also well
expressed, and properly linked to its root in the characteristic Christian attitude of love
and service, by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990):
The truth, though, must be handled in love if it is to reflect Christ’s character…
… There are times we need not say everything we know even though it is true. Listening
and then speaking the “truth in love” should characterize our communications.45
Additional material on controlling disclosure
Now Esther had not made known her kindred or her people, as Mor'decai had charged
her (Est 2:20).
And Jesus said to him, "See that you say nothing to any one; but go, show yourself to the
priest, and offer the gift that Moses commanded, for a proof to the people" (Mt 8:4).
To you [the disciples] it has been given to know the secrets of the kingdom of God; but
for others they are in parables, so that seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not
understand (Lk 8:10).
Then one of them, named Cleopas, answered him, “Are you the only visitor to Jerusalem
who does not know the things that have happened there in these days?” And he said to
44
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, n. 5.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, pp. 188-189.
45
139
them, “What things?” (Lk 24:18-19).
I did not say these things to you from the beginning, because I was with you (Jn 16:4).
Saint Augustine (354-430) – It is not, however, the same thing to hide the truth as it is to
utter a lie. For although every one who lies wishes to hide what is true, yet not every one
who wishes to hide what is true, tells a lie. For in general we hide truths not by telling a
lie, but by holding our peace. For the Lord lied not when He said, "I have many things to
say unto you, but ye cannot bear them now."46
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – It is not lawful to tell a lie in order to deliver
another from any danger whatever. Nevertheless it is lawful to hide the truth prudently,
by keeping it back.47
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – We are not, however, at all times, obliged to
disclose the truth.48
Saint Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life III.30 –Although it is not always
well to publish abroad everything that may be true, yet it is never allowable to oppose the
truth.49
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – There is information that leaders cannot share
50
because of its confidentiality or because it might injure other persons.
Substantial defects must be disclosed
We have just seen that it is a common Christian teaching that there is no general duty to
communicate all that one knows. Can one conclude from this that the seller who knows
that his merchandise has some grave defects is not obliged to disclose these defects to a
potential buyer?
Let us be clear about the issue we are discussing here. Many people, not only Christians,
agree that it is unethical for the seller to deceive the buyer about the qualities of the
object sold. Such deception by the buyer is what is commonly called fraud and it is
condemned by all legal systems and, of course, also by Christian teachers. But this is not
the issue we face now. Let us imagine, in order to clarify matters, that the owner of a very
sick cow is selling it; let us imagine further that at the time of the sale the cow has a good
day and looks healthy enough. It is clear that if the buyer questions the seller about the
state of health of the cow and the seller states that the cow is perfectly healthy, when he
knows quite well that this is not the case, the seller will be guilty of fraud and acting quite
wrongly. The issue that concerns us here is whether, if the potential buyer fails to inquire
46
St. Augustine, Against Lying, 42.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 110, a.3.
48
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
49
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III, 30.
50
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 139
47
140
after the cow’s health, the seller still has a responsibility to inform him about it, of his
own initiative, before concluding the sale.
The common answer of Christian teachers is that he has. That, for instance, is the position
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) takes in the following passage:
And Raguel is a still brighter example. For he, in his regard for virtue, when asked to give
his daughter in marriage, was not silent regarding his daughter's faults, for fear of
seeming to get the better of the suitor by silence… How simply he settled all the
questions of the philosophers! They talk about the defects of a house, whether they ought
to be concealed or made known by the vendor. Raguel was quite certain that his
daughter's faults ought not to be kept secret.51
The fact that what is being discussed here is the defects of a daughter about to be given in
marriage makes the example a little bit unusual, but the basic principle on which Saint
Ambrose explicitly basis his judgement is that an honest man must not seek to take
advantage of his counterpart in any deal, and his reference to the defects of a house
makes it clear that he thinks that the principle has application to ordinary business
dealings. In fact he made reference to the same rule in other occasions in which he was
discussing ordinary business transactions.52
Of course, there are complications when one starts considering practical matters. The
following passage from Vitoria (1483-1546), the great master of the Salamanca School,
brings up a common problem. Is the seller still obliged to disclose if the defect could be
ascertained by the buyer by taking the trouble to carry out an ordinary inspection of the
merchandise? Vitoria’s answer, which had already been common for several centuries, is
that in such case the seller is no longer obliged to disclose the fault.
The seller is not obliged to disclose a manifest defect to the good he sells, provided he
sells it at the just price, and not for the price he would sell it if the good were sound and
without that defect.
… The seller who does not disclose a defect of his merchandise does not sin because he
is not an agent of the buyer, provided he sells at the just price.
… If it is a hidden defect, the seller must disclose it, even if he sells at the just price, that
is to say, reducing the price, because that defect renders the purchase involuntary.53
51
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 11.
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 10: "In all contracts the defects of the salable commodity
must be stated; and unless the seller make them known, although the buyer has already acquired a right to
them, the contract is voided on account of the fraudulent action.”
53
Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, q. 77, a. 3. This work is a long commentary by Vitoria on
teachings of Aquinas. Aquinas’ own position on this issue comes across clearly in the following two
passages: “if the seller be aware of a fault in the thing he is selling, he is guilty of a fraudulent sale, so that
the sale is rendered unlawful…and the same applies to a defect in quantity as to a defect in quality. “ (St.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II 77.2); “Wherefore if such like defects be hidden, and the seller
does not make them known, the sale will be illicit and fraudulent, and the seller will be bound to
compensation for the loss incurred” (idem. II-II 77.3).
52
141
Notice, however, the insistence on the point that this only applies to a “manifest defect”,
that is to say, to a defect that can be discovered by the buyer by the use of ordinary
diligence. Notice also that in any case the seller is still under the duty to charge a “just
price”54 which, logically, will be lower than the one obtaining if the merchandise were in
good condition.
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) addresses this issue at several points in his
writings. The following quotation is representative:
The merchant sins if he doesn’t reveal a serious hidden defect of the merchandise, or if he
lessens the weight or amount.55
Finally, a contemporary pronouncement on the same issue can be found in a document of
the Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication (1997):
But it is a fundamental principle that advertising may not deliberately seek to deceive,
whether it does that by what it says, by what it implies or by what it fails to say.56
No manipulation
Ask an advertising man what is the objective of the adverts he creates and he is likely to
answer something like: “making people buy the product.” This is not necessarily wrong,
but a lot will depend on what he has in mind when he speaks of “making people.” Does
he mean “giving them reasons to,” “encouraging them,” “helping them decide,” “forcing
them” or “manipulating them”? The first three are unexceptionable, but many Christian
teachers would have serious objections to raise about the last two.
Pope John Paul II (pope 1978-2005) in one of his encyclical letters condemned in
outright terms the practice of
[making] a direct appeal to human instincts—while ignoring in various ways the reality
of the person as intelligent and free—then consumer attitudes and lifestyles can be
created which are objectively improper and often damaging to the person's physical and
spiritual health.”57
54
For the requirements of a just price in Vitoria and other scholastic writers see the section “The Christian
Tradition on Pricing” in this chapter.
55
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292. Parallel passages are the
following: “The seller must warn the buyer about notable defects in the thing ” (Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub.
VIII, 818); “If the defect is about the quality of the thing, when it is obvious, the seller does not have a duty
to disclose it … if the defect in the thing is hidden and it is detrimental to the buyer … the seller has a duty
of justice to disclose it” (Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub. VIII, 823).
56
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Ethics in Advertising (1997). To the
same effect, an older document produced by the same body: “Any propaganda should be rejected which
deliberately misrepresents the real situation, or distorts men’s minds with half-truths, selective reporting, or
serious omissions, and which diminishes man’s legitimate freedom of decision.” (Pontifical Council for the
Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio [1971] 30).
57
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, 36.
142
The Pope’s implicit argument is that addressing directly a person’s instincts to trigger off
his desires, in the hope that he will make a decision to buy without engaging in further
thought about the matter; or trying to create a strong instinctual response that will
overwhelm any contrary reasons the potential customers could have, really diminishes
man and, in so far as this way of acting becomes habitual, is damaging to his spiritual
health. One of the most basic Christian teachings about man is that “God created man and
left him under the control of his free choice.”58 This ability to be a conscious master of
his actions rather than a puppet controlled by impulses and instincts, sets man far above
all other animals and endows him with a unique dignity. The importance of this power of
free decision and the need to respect it were strongly emphasised by Vatican Council II
(1962-1965):
Authentic freedom is an exceptional sign of the divine image within man. For God has
willed that man remain "under the control of his own decisions,"(Sir 15:14) so that he can
seek his Creator spontaneously, and come freely to utter and blissful perfection through
loyalty to Him. Hence man's dignity demands that he act according to a knowing and free
choice that is personally motivated and prompted from within, not under blind internal
impulse nor by mere external pressure.59
It is also important to keep in mind that this appreciation of the value of freedom of
choice and of the importance of preserving it is not a discovery of the 20th Century. We
do not have the space here to trace the history of this issue through the centuries, but a
reference from Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) in the very early days of
systematic reflection by Christians on the doctrine that had been transmitted to them and
its implications may be illustrative:
For God compels not (for compulsion is repugnant to God), but supplies to those who
seek, and bestows on those who ask, and opens to those who knock.60
If this is the respect that man’s power of decision deserves in a Christian perspective, it is
clear that setting out to “manipulate” customers, that is to say, to get them to buy at all
costs through a process of creating and exacerbating desires in them and trying to reduce
their inclination to control rationally their actions, is radically unchristian: a Christian
who loves his neighbour always respects, and actively tries to foster, his ability to choose
58
Sir 15:14.
Gaudium et Spes n. 17. See also another document of Vatican Council II, Dignitatis Humanae, no 1: “A
sense of the dignity of the human person has been impressing itself more and more deeply on the
consciousness of contemporary man, and the demand is increasingly made that men should act on their own
judgment, enjoying and making use of a responsible freedom, not driven by coercion but motivated by a
sense of duty … This Vatican Council takes careful note of these desires in the minds of men. It proposes
to declare them to be greatly in accord with truth and justice.” Shortly after the end of Vatican Council II,
the Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication emphasised strongly the ethical duty to
respect man’s freedom in the fields of propaganda and advertising: “Any propaganda should be rejected
which deliberately misrepresents the real situation, or distorts men’s minds with half-truths, selective
reporting, or serious omissions, and which diminishes man’s legitimate freedom of decision.” (Pontifical
Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, n. 30); “[Advertising]
offers real social benefits… All this is to the good, so long as there is respect for the buyer’s liberty of
choice” (idem, n. 59).
60
Clement of Alexandria, Who Is the Rich Man Who Will Be Saved? X.
59
143
freely and responsibly after due consideration of all relevant factors. If this Christian
makes his living by creating advertisements he will have to keep this very much in mind.
The point is well made by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990):
Christians must be open and honest about the motivational techniques they are using.
Subtle forms of motivation are manipulative because the people being influenced are not
aware of what is happening. These techniques are wrong because they are dishonest.
…
To use motivating devices without explanation treats people as objects. It assumes that
they do not need to know how the systems and procedures of a company shape their
behaviour. People deserve to understand the forces that affect them.61
Having said this, it may be appropriate to recall that in the Bible we are told how Naomi
advised Ruth to put on perfume and change her clothes before she went to meet Boaz, her
future husband, and we find no hint of censure of Naomi’s advice. In the same way there
is nothing wrong or contrary to love of truth or love of neighbour in designing a firm’s
communications in such a way that a good impression will be created, about the firm or
about its products, in so far as this impression is not deceptive.
Consumerism and materialism
In discussing the teachings of the Christian tradition on the duties of the Christian
businessman towards his customers, it is necessary to consider explicitly the tendency of
our civilization to promote consumerist and materialistic values. As much of this
promotion takes place precisely through the activities of marketers, it seems crucial to
face squarely the issue of what should be, according to the Christian sources, the attitude
of a marketer in relation to the promotion of such values.
In many occasions it may seem in the best interests of business people to encourage
consumption, exacerbate desires, and create needs; in fact, many believe that such things
are precisely what marketers do for a living.
Some care is needed at this point, as we may easily be victims of purely semantic
confusions. For example, what is meant by the expression “creating needs’? In actual
usage this expression may cover a wide variety of activities, from some that not even the
strictest Christian could possibly find objectionable, to others that are openly
manipulative. Instead of getting bogged down in semantic clarifications, it will be more
useful to go to the substance of the matter and state clearly that, as we have already seen,
the Christian sources and the Christian tradition are very consistent in warning us that
material goods (“riches”), while good in themselves, can very easily become obstacles to
living a good life. That a condemnation of material goods in themselves, or of the
possession of material goods as such, is not part of the Christian message has already
61
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 175.
144
been shown in Chapter 1. But we have also seen how the Christian tradition is insistent
that attitudes of self-control, sobriety and detachment from them are called for.
A prominent Christian who insists on this teaching is John Calvin (1509-1564), the
founder of Calvinism. His witness is perhaps especially interesting as he is famous
precisely as somebody who valued very highly the temporal callings—very emphatically
including business callings—of Christians. In fact, as it is well known, Max Weber
attributed to his teachings the intellectual spark that fostered the growth of capitalism.62
In spite of this he is in full agreement with the Christian tradition in warning against the
dangers of unrestrained love for riches:
For we know how unrestrained our appetite is; in abundance it always overindulges itself
and it is always impatient of scarcity. In fact, we must keep Paul's rule (Phil 4:12) and
know both how to be in want and how to abound. This means to be on our guard when
large quantities are at hand so that we are not tempted to extravagance; and again we
must see to it that we endure privation calmly.63
The Anglican bishop Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) echoes the same idea:
Accustom thyself to cut off all superfluity in the provisions of thy life, for our desires will
enlarge beyond the present possession so long as all the things of this world are
unsatisfying: if, therefore, you suffer them to extend beyond the measures of necessity or
moderated conveniency, they will still swell: but you reduce them to a little compass
when you make nature to be your limit.64
Both Calvin and Taylor make it clear that it is not that material goods are bad in any way;
they explicitly state, as many have done before and after them, that we have to use them.
The problem lies rather in our difficulty in using them properly. By themselves, material
goods are only the means to satisfying some of our needs, and it is precisely as means
that they should be used: just in so far as they actually contribute to our well-being and
do not interfere with it. It is however our constant experience that our desire for them
will, of itself and in the absence of a conscious effort to keep it in check, tend to enlarge
until it may acquire all the characteristics of an idol: a little god of our own making in
which we repose more and more of our hopes for happiness and fulfillment. At this point
material goods stop being a means to our fulfillment and become a very serious obstacle
to it. Because of this tendency to misuse material goods, Calvin and Taylor conclude—
again in agreement with the whole Christian tradition—that to succeed in keeping
material goods from growing on us there is need to make the effort to live moderately,
with as few material goods as we can manage, rather than with as many as possible.
Coming now much closer to our own times, Communio et Progressio (1971), a document
of the Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, draws the logical
conclusion from these ideas and states explicitly that those marketers who, through their
62
This thesis of Max Weber, however, has been very controverted. The point, at any rate, was that Calvin
was very sympathetic towards those who engaged in business activities.
63
John Calvin, Commentaries (on Gen 43:34).
64
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. II, sect. I.
145
activities, make it more difficult for their customers to reach this difficult mastery and be
able to restrain their natural appetite to multiply possessions, are actually harming them:
More than this, unremitting pressure to buy articles of luxury can arouse false wants that
hurt both individuals and families by making them ignore what they really need.65
Pope John Paul II takes the issue to its ultimate roots by pointing out that at the end of the
day, it is a question of our fundamental scale of values; he does not neglect to point out
that ultimately this has to result in day-to-day choices conforming an overall life-style:
In a word, we can say that the cultural change which we are calling for demands from
everyone the courage to adopt a new life-style, consisting in making practical choices—at
the personal, family, social and international level—on the basis of a correct scale of
values: the primacy of being over having, of the person over things.66
I hope that the basic points are already clear. Fostering a consumerist or materialistic
outlook in his customers can never be an objective a Christian can set for himself. There
may be occasions in which, perhaps, a Christian businessperson may have to regretfully
accept as an undesired collateral effect of an otherwise legitimate activity of his, that the
consumerist or materialistic tendencies of other people may be reinforced. This may or
may not be justified, according to the circumstances of the case. But adopting as one’s
objective—whether as an end in itself or as a means to ulterior ends—the fostering of
such an outlook in one’s customers cannot possibly be consistent with the basic Christian
tenets.
As Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) have aptly put it:
The toughest management job any of us faces in business, and in all of life, is the job of
controlling our own selves. We are called to bring our spirits, intellects, wills, and
emotions under the control of Christ.67
Devoting one’s energies to make the accomplishment of this task even more difficult for
one’s customers would hardly qualify as “doing business in a Christian way”.
Additional material on consumerism and materialism
God answered Solomon, "Because this was in your heart, and you have not asked
possessions, wealth, honor, or the life of those who hate you, and have not even asked long
life, but have asked wisdom and knowledge for yourself that you may rule my people over
whom I have made you king, wisdom and knowledge are granted to you. I will also give
you riches, possessions, and honor, such as none of the kings had who were before you,
and none after you shall have the like" (2 Chr 1:11-12).
65
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 60.
John Paul II, Evangelium Vitae, n. 98.
67
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 151.
66
146
And others are the ones sown among thorns; they are those who hear the word, but the
cares of the world, and the delight in riches, and the desire for other things, enter in and
choke the word, and it proves unfruitful (Mk 4:18-19).
And he said to them, "Take heed, and beware of all covetousness; for a man's life does not
consist in the abundance of his possessions" (Lk 12: 15).
For life is more than food, and the body more than clothing (Lk 12:23).
Set your affections on things above, not on things on the earth (Col 3:2).
There is great gain in godliness with contentment; for we brought nothing into the world,
and we cannot take anything out of the world; but if we have food and clothing, with these
we shall be content (1 Tm 6:6-9).
For the grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all men, training us to renounce
irreligion and worldly passions, and to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this world.
(Ti 2:11-12).
Love not the world, neither the things that are in the world (1 Jn 2:15).
Let not yours be the outward adorning with braiding of hair, decoration of gold, and
wearing of fine clothing, but let it be the hidden person of the heart with the imperishable
jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit, which in God's sight is very precious (1 Pt 3:3-4).
The Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Foremost of all is the desire after another's wife or
husband, and after extravagance, and many useless dainties and drinks, and many other
foolish luxuries; for all luxury is foolish and empty in the servants of God.68
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Wherefore the wearing of gold and the use of
softer clothing is not to be entirely prohibited. But irrational impulses must be curbed, lest,
carrying us away through excessive relaxation, they impel us to voluptuousness. For
luxury, that has dashed on to surfeit, is prone to kick up its heels and toss its mane, and
shake off the charioteer, the Instructor; who, pulling back the reins from far, leads and
drives to salvation the human horse—that is, the irrational part of the soul—which is
wildly bent on pleasures, and vicious appetites, and precious stones, and gold, and variety
of dress, and other luxuries.69
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Seek what suffices, seek what is enough, and don’t desire
more. Whatever goes beyond that, produces anxiety not relief: it will weigh you down,
instead of lifting you up.70
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For there is nothing so evil as extravagant desire. And
when I say extravagant, I mean that of luxury…and in general that of all things which go
beyond what is necessary. For such is he who lives a soft and dissolute life, who seems to
be the happiest of men, but is the most wretched, as superimposing upon his soul harsh and
68
The Shepherd of Hermas, Twelfth Commandment, 2,1
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor. III, 11.
70
St. Augustine, Sermon 85, 6.
69
147
tyrannical sovereigns. For this cause hath God made the present life a labour to us, that
He may rid us of that slavery, and bring us into genuine freedom.71
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Would ye see also another multitude of dead? Let us
see the lusts that arise from luxurious living, those that are cherished by the makers of
sauces, by the cooks, the furnishers of feasts, the confectioners. For I am ashamed indeed
to speak of all; however, I will tell of the birds from Phasis, the soups that are mixed from
various things: the moist, the dry dishes, the laws made about these things. For like as if
ordering some city and marshalling hosts, even so these too make laws, and ordain such a
thing first, and such a thing second, and some bring in first birds roasted on the embers,
filled within with fish; and others make of other material the beginnings of these unlawful
feasts; and there is much rivalry about these things, about quality, and about order, and
about quantity; and they take a pride in the things, for which they ought to bury themselves
for shame; some saying that they have spent the half of the day, some all of it, some that
they have added the night too. Behold, O wretched man, the measure of thy belly, and be
ashamed of thy unmeasured earnestness!
…
For this guides us on to Heaven, that drags to hell; this the devil lays out, that Christ; for
this luxury gives laws, and intemperance, for that self-denial and sobriety, here Christ is
present, there the devil. For where there is drunkenness, the devil is there; where there are
filthy words, where there is surfeiting, there the devils hold their choirs. Such a table had
that rich man, therefore not even of a drop of water was he master.72
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – The first sin [committed out of the desire for
temporal things] is that man, because of an inordinate desire, seeks those things which go
beyond his state and condition of life. He is not satisfied with what befits him. Thus, if he be
a soldier and desires clothes, he will not have them suitable for a soldier, but rather for a
knight; or if he be a cleric, clothes fit for a bishop. This vicious habit withdraws man from
spiritual things, in that it makes his desires cleave to transitory things. The Lord taught us
to avoid this vice by instructing us to ask for the temporal necessities of this present life as
they are in accord with the position of each one of us. All this is understood under the
name '‘bread.'’ And so He does not teach us to pray for that which is luxurious, nor for
variety, nor for what is over-refined, but for bread which is common to all and without
which man’s life could not be sustained.73
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – To comprehend the full signification of this
Petition, it is, moreover, to be observed that by this word bread ought not to be understood
an abundant and exquisite profusion of food and clothing, but what is necessary and
simple, as the Apostle has written.74
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Save all you can, by cutting off every expense which serves
only to indulge foolish desire; to gratify either the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eye,
or the pride of life; waste nothing, living or dying, on sin or folly, whether for yourself or
your children.75
71
St. John Chrysostom, Homily IX on the Epistle to the Romans.
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, 70.4.
73
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on The Lord’s Prayer, 4th Petition
74
Catechism of the Council of Trent, On The Lord’s Prayer.
75
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
72
148
Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) – The disease of the modern age, and the main source of the
evils we all deplore, is that lack of reflection, that continuous and quite feverish pursuit of
external things, that immoderate desire for wealth and pleasure, which gradually causes
the heart to lose sight of its nobler ideals, drowning them in a sea of impermanent, earthly
things, and preventing them from contemplating higher, eternal things.76
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Therefore all the faithful are invited and obliged to
holiness and the perfection of their own state of life. Accordingly let all of them see that
they direct their affections rightly, lest they be hindered in their pursuit of perfect love by
the use of worldly things and by an adherence to riches which is contrary to the spirit of
evangelical poverty, following the apostle's advice: Let those who use this world not fix
their abode in it, for the form of this world is passing away.77
Communio et Progressio (1971) – If harmful or utterly useless goods are touted to the
public, if false assertions are made about the goods for sale, if less admirable human
tendencies are exploited, those responsible for such advertising harm society and forfeit
their good name and credibility.78
Paul VI (1963-1978) – Not that material prosperity of itself precludes the activity of the
human spirit. On the contrary, the human spirit, increasingly free of its bondage to
creatures, can be more easily drawn to the worship and contemplation of the Creator.
However, modern civilization itself often complicates the approach to God, not for any
essential reason, but because it is excessively engrossed in earthly affairs.79
John Paul II (1978-) – This superdevelopment, which consists in an excessive availability
of every kind of material goods for the benefit of certain social groups, easily makes people
slaves of "possession" and of immediate gratification, with no other horizon than the
multiplication or continual replacement of the things already owned with others still better.
This is the so-called civilization of "consumption" or "consumerism", which involves so
much "throwing-away" and "waste". An object already owned but now superseded by
something better is discarded, with no thought of its possible lasting value in itself, nor of
some other human being who is poorer. All of us experience firsthand the sad effects of this
blind submission to pure consumerism: in the first place a crass materialism, and at the
same time a radical dissatisfaction, because one quickly learns unless one is shielded from
the flood of publicity and the ceaseless and tempting offers of products that the more one
possesses the more one wants, while deeper aspirations remain unsatisfied and perhaps
even stifled.80
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – We need only to look a short time at magazine racks or
TV before we encounter appeals to sex, beauty, success, power, and personal indulgence.
Advertising implies that purchasing the product will guarantee acceptance, success,
personal pleasure, or other valued ends that accompany the purchase. The pressures to
76
Pius XI, Mens Nostra, 6.
Lumen Gentium, 42.
78
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 60.
79
Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, n. 41.
80
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, 28.
77
149
buy are subtle and pervasive. Following them is a bit like drinking saltwater to satisfy
thirst. The more we drink, the thirstier we get.81
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – In economic matters, respect for human dignity
requires the practice of the virtue of temperance, so as to moderate attachment to this
world's goods.82
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – All Christ's faithful are to direct their
affections rightly, lest they be hindered in their pursuit of perfect charity by the use of
worldly things and by an adherence to riches which is contrary to the spirit of evangelical
poverty.83
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – There is also need in many other areas of changes in lifestyles which
imply giving up things. It is necessary to move from an eager enjoyment and a squandering
mentality, to sustainable lifestyles and economic approaches. In many well-off people in
Western society a mentality prevails which seeks consumption and gratification. This
attitude comes more and more into conflict with the limits of ecological sustainability and
worsens the vital options of future generations and of the people in developing countries.
The objective of sustainability will be certainly impeded if the average level of consumption
in industrialized countries keeps growing. Therefore there is need for an increase in the
awareness that today it is possible to attain a better quality of life not through “more” and
“faster”, but through “less”, “more slowly” and “more aware”. However, it is likely that
such lifestyles will spread only if it becomes evident that a life which respects other beings
and the environment has a new quality.84
Assemblies of God (2001) – The Assemblies of God from its founding has sought to
emphasize the biblical themes of trusting God for daily needs, sacrificial giving as an
expression of love to our Lord, and valuing spiritual over material things. Anything that
draws us toward the world and away from eternal truth and values is worldliness.
Materialism, or fixation on earthly possessions, is one of mankind’s strongest
temptations.85
The Christian tradition on pricing
In this section I will present my understanding of the teachings on pricing to be found in
the Christian tradition. Literally, hundreds of Christian authors have written on this topic
and it is only to be expected that they will express a wide variety of views. I contend,
however, that some clear common positions can easily be discerned, and that deviations
from those positions, while they exist, tend to be espoused by less respected writers and
have never found as wide an acceptance as the ones I am identifying as central.
81
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 211.
82
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2407.
83
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2545.
84
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, para. 231.
85
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
150
In this topic, which is necessarily complex, it will help clarity if I start out by setting out
the positions I identify as central. They are the following:
- We must practise charity towards our neighbour in pricing decisions; it is not
compatible with Christian standards simply to charge as much as one can.
- The fact that a buyer finds himself in a situation of extreme need does not by
itself justify charging him a higher price. As we will see, it is different if the
situation of special need is shared by many buyers; if that is the case there will be
higher demand for that product, and this will result in a higher equilibrium price
in the market. According to the conception I am going to defend here, it is
consistent with Christian standards to charge according to the market price; what
is excluded is to charge more than the market price because of the special
situation of need of one or a few buyers.
- There is very strong support in the Christian tradition for the position that the
standard of justice in exchanges is that there must be equivalence in value
between the items exchanged. In the case of a sale for money this standard is
complied with if the item is sold “for what it is worth”
- There are different views within the Christian tradition on how to determine
what a product is worth. The two ways of measuring the value of a product that
have found support, though in different measures, down through history until
today are: a) the market price determined by the interplay of supply and demand
in an open market; and b) the cost of production including a moderate profit for
the seller. Of these two views the first one has already been prevalent among
Christian writers for several centuries and today is the one that has by far the
most support.
We will now examine the support that can be found in Scripture, among the Fathers, and
among other theologians and Christian writers, for each of these positions.
Charity in pricing
For many of our contemporaries it seems a truism needing neither explanation nor
justification that one is fully within one’s rights in trying to get as much as possible for
what one has to sell. However, we have already seen that it is a basic Christian imperative
that we have to approach every neighbour (and everybody is a neighbour) with an attitude
of love and service, and there is no apparent reason why an exception to this attitude
should be made precisely in the realm of pricing decisions. As a matter of fact, the
earliest and most direct references to issues of pricing that we find in the Christian
literature are precisely sharp rebukes of any attempt to consider business relations of
buying and selling as a special sphere in which one would be allowed “to be selfish,” or
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“to look after one’s interests” (to the exclusion of those of anybody else). Already the
book of Leviticus cautions against that attitude:
And if you sell to your neighbor or buy from your neighbor, you shall not wrong one
another (Lv 25:14).
Saint Basil (329-379) makes the same point very clearly, stressing that a Christian can
never fail to recognize a brother in need, and to respond adequately to him, not even in a
commercial transaction:
Do not sell at a high price taking advantage of need. Do not traffic in human calamities.
You look at gold, and do not look at your brother: you recognize the coin and can tell the
true from the false one and you fail to recognize your brother in time of need.86
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) makes a complementary point. Reproaching somebody
who had hoarded corn and then sold it at an artificially high price, his main argument is
that the seller had failed to adopt a Christian attitude at all. Provided that he can afford it,
the suitable behaviour of a Christian towards the hungry poor is to feed him without
asking anything in return, as, paradigmatically, the Good Samaritan in our Lord’s parable
did. Often the seller will not be able to afford this, because of lack of means or
comp0eting responsibilities; The thing to do in such case would be to grant the hungry as
much of a discount over the usual price as the seller could afford, compatible with his
other responsibilities. If even this is not possible, at least one would expect a Christian
seller to give corn to the hungry at the regular price. But is it possible to consider a
Christian at all somebody who does none of these, but rather takes full advantage of the
special predicament of those trying to buy from him to charge them extortionate prices?
Of course, if on top of everything else, it is the seller himself who had engineered the
situation of need in order to be able to have the people at his mercy later on, one will be
inclined to agree with Saint John Chrysostom’s strictures:
But when thou shuttest up corn and raisest the price, and devisest other unusual tricks of
traffic; what hope of salvation shalt thou have henceforth? Thou hast been bidden to give
freely to the hungry, but thou dost not give at a suitable price even.87
It is very interesting that Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) bases his treatment of the
morality of pricing on the assumption that buying and selling have been established for
the common advantage of both parties, that is to say, that their relationship should
essentially be one of co-operation for the creation of value, rather than an attempt to
extract value from each other. Even more tellingly, he prefaces his treatment of the issue
with a restatement of the Golden Rule88: for him it is obvious that it follows almost
immediately that one should never sell something for more than it is worth. We will not
reproduce here the details of his treatment of the issue, but it is worth stressing that he—
as Saint Basil and Saint John Chrysostom, and God himself in Leviticus—takes it for
granted that the basic attitude of the man fixing a price should be exactly the same
86
St. Basil, Homily I on Ps XIV,6.
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans., 11.5
88
“So whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to them” (Mt 7:12).
87
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attitude that is normative over the whole life of a Christian: one of love and service for
his neighbour.
It is written (Mt. 7:12): "All things . . . whatsoever you would that men should do to you,
do you also to them." But no man wishes to buy a thing for more than its worth.
Therefore no man should sell a thing to another man for more than its worth.
… Buying and selling seem to be established for the common advantage of both parties,
one of whom requires that which belongs to the other, and vice versa, as the Philosopher
[Aristotle] states. Now whatever is established for the common advantage, should not be
more of a burden to one party than to another, and consequently all contracts between
them should observe equality of thing and thing.89
The central contention of all this section is brought out with great clarity in the following
passage of Martin Luther (1483-1546):
What [merchants] say amounts to: I have the right to sell my goods at the highest price I
can get. And they think this is their right. In fact it is to make room for avarice and to
open the great doors and windows of hell. Does that not amount to saying, I could care
less about my neighbour? Provided I make my profit and satisfy my avarice, what do I
mind if I harm ten times my neighbour at once? You can see how this sentence directly
contradicts, in a shameful way, not only Christian love, but even the natural law.90
I think the basic idea of Luther is quite sound: for a business person to claim a right to
“sell as dear as I can” is equivalent to claiming a right to forget, at the very least, about
Christian love, if not about the natural law also. Of course, it does not follow from this
that Christian love demands that a trader sell “as cheaply as he can” and, as we are about
to see, this is not what the Christian tradition demands of him.
A final quotation, from John Bunyan (1628-1688), a Puritan, still conveys the same
message, that a Christian businessperson cannot forget about Christian charity in making
pricing decisions:
Secondly, if it be lawful for me always to sell my Commodity as dear, or for as much as I
can, then it is lawful for me to deal with my neighbour without the use of charity: but it is
not lawful for me to lay aside, or to deal with my neighbour without the use of charity,
therefore it is not lawful for me always to sell my commodity to my neighbour for as
much as I can. A man in dealing should as really design his Neighbours good, profit, and
advantage, as his own: For this is to exercise Charity in his dealing.91
A buyer’s special need and higher prices
There has been unanimity among Christian writers from very early times in judging that
the situation of special need of a buyer does not justify the seller in taking advantage of it
to demand a higher price. The point is specifically made by Saint Basil (329-379) in a
passage we have already had occasion to consider:
89
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, 77.1
Martin Luther, On Commerce and Usury.
91
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
90
153
Do not sell at a high price taking advantage of need. ..Do not traffic in human
calamities… You look at gold, and do not look at your brother: you recognize the coin
and can tell the true from the false one and you fail to recognize your brother in time of
need.92
Martin Luther (1483-1546) also condemns in forthright terms the practice of taking
advantage of the situation of special need of the buyer:
For if this crook realizes that his merchandise is indispensable or that the buyer is poor
and needs it, he will praise its usefulness and its price. He has no regard for the value of
the merchandise, nor the service he is rendering, because of his efforts and the risks he
has borne, but he perceives above all the need and the want of his neighbour, not to come
to his help, but to make them serve his own profit … Tell me, does this not seem to you
acting in an unchristian and inhuman way?93
It is interesting to observe that the basis of Luther’s condemnation is precisely the basic
attitude of charity towards his neighbour that the seller should have, but obviously lacks.
Approximately at the same time as Luther, on the Catholic side, Francisco de Vitoria
(1483-1546), from his chair in the University of Salamanca, also agrees on condemning
such sellers:
[There are things] that are necessary for things to go well and for life, and for them one
cannot demand more that their value – Oh, I do not agree, because volenti not fit injuria, I reply that it is true, but that in this case there is not a fully voluntary decision but there
is coercion, because need compels him; as if one who is thirsty on the road, asks for wine
to drink, and the other only agrees to give it for twenty ducats, and it is only worth ten, he
sins gravely and is under a duty to do restitution, because even though the other bought it
because he wanted to, his decision was not plainly voluntary.94
Vitoria’s argument is especially valuable because he adverts to a possible objection,
framed in the language of lawyers: volenti non fit injuria (“the person who accepts
something voluntarily does not suffer an injury”). He, however, rejects the objection,
pointing out that the person who is in a situation of special need is not really acting
voluntarily: he is under coercion.
To round up this issue we can finally refer to the words of the Anglican Jeremy Taylor
(1613-1667) on the matter:
Let no prices be heightened by the necessity or unskilfulness of the contractor: for the first is
direct uncharitableness to the person, and injustice in the thing; because the man’s necessity
could not naturally enter into the consideration of the value of the commodity; and the other
is deceit and oppression: much less must any man make necessities; as by engrossing a
commodity, by monopoly, by detaining corn, or the like indirect arts; for such persons are
92
St. Basil, Homily I on Ps XIV,6
Luther, On Commerce and Usury.
94
Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, q. 71, a. 4.
93
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unjust to all single persons, with whom, in such cases, they contract, and oppressors of the
public.95
It should be noted that, besides condemning the seller who takes advantage of the special
need of the buyer, Taylor extends the condemnation to those who exploit the ignorance of
their customers. It is also worth noting that there is a common background assumption
shared by all the writers we have quoted: there is a right price, which corresponds to the
value of the thing sold. Exceeding this price involves the seller in a sin of injustice. Of
course, all the authors to whom we have made reference and their many contemporaries
who shared their views were aware that it is not possible to determine the right value of a
commodity with mathematical exactitude. Independently of the method they advocated to
determine that right value (as we will see, there has always been controversy upon this
point), they all thought of the just price as being a certain range of prices rather than an
exact figure.96 Still, even if in practice one had to think of the just price as being
somehow uncertain between an upper and a lower limit, the substance of the doctrine
remained the same: if a person knowingly sold an item at a price higher than the upper
limit of this range, then that price was unjust.
Justice and equivalence in value
As we have seen, the background assumption of all of these Christian thinkers is that
selling is not just a matter of “negotiating,” that is to say of endeavoring to extract as high
as price as possible from the buyer by deploying all possible tactics, including taking
advantage of his ignorance or special need, or of the fact that one happens to find oneself
in a position of monopoly. On the contrary, the position that all of them share, and often
enough make explicit, is that a Christian cannot stop being a Christian in his business life,
and that as a Christian his most basic attitude towards all human beings, including those
he does business with, is one of charity.
It was clear to all these teachers that the proper standard of charity could not be: “give to
all who want to buy what they want, even if they cannot afford to pay” as this would
quickly have reduced any Christian trader to penury and these teachers were quite clear
that every person owed a prior duty of charity to his own family and immediate
dependents. The standard that they enjoined in practice was one that took account
realistically of the order of priorities in the responsibilities of each person: “practise
justice in all your transactions and then go beyond justice in doing all you can in
satisfying the needs of those who cannot pay a fair price, but do this in a way consistent
with your prior obligation to your own dependents.” Nobody quite put it this way, but it
is apparent to the reader of the immense mass of Christian literature on the right use of
property and on the duties of traders and businessmen, that this was actually the
substance of what the great majority of them taught.
95
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. III.
Aquinas had already said: “We cannot always fix the just price precisely; we sometimes have to make
the best estimate we can, with the result that giving or taking a little here or there does not upset the balance
of justice” (Summa Theologiae, II-II, 71,1).
96
155
As I have suggested already, in commercial exchanges the main requirement of justice
was understood by Christian teachers to be to exchange goods of equivalent worth; this
meant that if it was a case of purchasing for money justice demanded that the price
should be equivalent to the value of the goods sold.
And if you sell to your neighbor or buy from your neighbor, you shall not wrong one
another. According to the number of years after the jubilee, you shall buy from your
neighbor, and according to the number of years for crops he shall sell to you. If the years
are many you shall increase the price, and if the years are few you shall diminish the
price, for it is the number of the crops that he is selling to you. You shall not wrong one
another, but you shall fear your God; for I am the Lord your God (Lv 25:14-17).
These rules from Leviticus are to be understood against the background of the institution
of the jubilee year. Every fifty years there was a jubilee year and in that year all land
reverted to the family which originally had possessed it. This meant that any sale of land
in substance was a lease, and that the buyer would only have effective possession of the
land for the period between the date of the sale and the next jubilee year. Because of this
the number of years that were still left until the next jubilee should be taken into account
in fixing the price: if there were many years left a higher price would be fair, if few, a
lower one.
It is apparent from this passage of Leviticus that the option of endeavouring to obtain as
much as possible from one's buyer, without paying any attention to moral rules, is ruled
out of court from the start. It enjoins the seller to get a price proportionate to the value he
transfers to the buyer.
Many people think that the prohibition of taking interest on loans is a quaint idea of
Muslims. In fact, charging interest, at least in transactions between fellow Jews, was
forbidden to the Hebrews from the time of Exodus until the time of Our Lord. One
example among many is provided by this quotation from Deuteronomy:
To a foreigner you may lend upon interest, but to your brother you shall not lend
upon interest (Dt 23:19).
Practically all Christians (and by no means only them) kept considering lending at
interest a serious sin at least until the 16th Century. From that time onwards unanimity in
condemning the charging of interest (which was called usury) broke down. All Christian
denominations started to teach that it was permissible at least in certain transactions and
some allowed it almost universally. From that time the number of transactions and
occasions in which it was allowed kept expanding, until by the beginning of the 19th
Century it was allowed almost universally.
It is not in any way my purpose to argue that charging interest should be considered
wrong nowadays and this is why I relegate the history of the issue, fascinating though it
is, to an appendix to this chapter. However, it is very useful to ask oneself the question of
what could possibly justify the condemnation of interest by Jews (and by the Bible itself)
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and by Christians for so many centuries. We can gain insight into this issue by seeing
how an early Father of the Church explains this prohibition:
If someone lends money, he should not exact interest … For him to receive back more
than what he has given is unjust. Whoever does this is getting rich on the expense of the
want of another.97
Lactantius (fourth century) condemns interest for the simple reason that the lender
receives back more than he gave. It has always been a fundamental principle of Christian
business ethics that justice demands a strict equivalence between the items exchanged in
a business transaction. Keep in mind that for many centuries most Christians lived in an
economy that was fundamentally static and in which opportunities of investment were
very few. In such economic conditions for a person to give, say, 100 kg of wheat to
another and demand to receive in exchange, say, 110 kg one year later (that is to say,
charge an interest of 10% for the loan) was rightly considered to be a clear breach of the
principle of equivalence between the items exchanged.
Those interested can study the issue in greater detail in the appendix. For our present
purpose, what is important is to stress that the fact that interest was considered wrong for
so long was based precisely on the strength with which the principle prescribing
equivalence of value in exchanges was held. And actually that principle has never been
surrendered in the Christian tradition. What has happened in the case of interest is that,
under changed economic circumstances (especially abundance of investment
opportunities and the existence of a market for money), money has come to have a timevalue, and when that is the case $100 today can be equivalent in value to $110 tomorrow.
Coming now back to the issue of sales, the following quotation of Saint Thomas Aquinas
(1224-1274) enunciates with all desirable clarity the principle of value equivalence in
exchanges:
Therefore if either the price exceed the quantity of the thing's worth, or, conversely, the
thing exceed the price, there is no longer the equality of justice: and consequently, to sell
a thing for more than its worth, or to buy it for less than its worth, is in itself unjust and
unlawful.98
Measuring value
I have made frequent references to the “value” of a product and to the injustice implicit in
selling something for “more than it is worth.” How should value be determined? On this
issue there are different views among Christian writers: some believe that the economic
value of a product should be determined on the basis of the costs that have to be incurred
in producing it and making it available (“cost theories of value”); others—nowadays, as
in the past, a large majority—believe that the economic value of a product is best
97
98
Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, 6,18.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II q. 77, a. 1.
157
indicated by the price it fetches in an open market (“market theories of value”); still
others, especially among early authors, seemed to oscillate among the two theories and
either were unable to make up finally their minds on the issue or, as it clearly happened in
some cases, simply were confused and did not realize that one has to choose between the
two alternatives.
Cost theories of value
There have always been some Christians who think that the proper way to ascertain the
value of a product is to calculate the costs incurred in making and distributing it and add
to this a “moderate profit.” I myself think that this view is wrong and that decisive
arguments can be adduced against it. More importantly, I think this view has always been
a minority view among knowledgeable Christians. Still, as it has defenders even today, it
will be useful to mention some of the people who have defended it.
It is not very clear what the view of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) on this issue
was, and a case can be made for the opinion that he himself was never very clear about it
and kept oscillating between competing positions. A view that nowadays has more
adherents, however, is that in his earlier works he tended to defend the cost theory of the
just price while in his later and more mature works he moved towards the market theory.
Be that as it may, in one of his earlier works we can find a clear defense of the cost
theory. In commenting a celebrated passage of Aristotle99, he argues that for an exchange
between a cobbler and a builder to be just, the ratio at which shoes are exchanged for
houses should be the same as the ratio between the costs of producing shoes and the costs
of producing buildings:
Justice will be served if as many shoes be given in exchange for a house or for food as
the builder or the farmer exceeds the cobbler in labour and costs.100
Another very prominent defender of the cost theory of the just price was Martin Luther
(1483-1546):
Now it is fair and right that a merchant take as much profit on his wares as will reimburse
him for their cost and compensate him for his trouble, his labor, and his risk… The
gospel says, ‘the laborer deserves his wages’ (Lk 10:7).
… Because of this, you must follow the rule of not seeking in your business anything
beyond your fitting upkeep.101
It is interesting that in his famous tract, “On Commerce and Usury,” from which this
quotation is taken, he is consistent in tracing the practical implications of this view: the
99
Indeed, some have argued that the key to reconciling the apparently differing views of Aquinas on how
to determine the just price, is to observe that he exposes a cost theory when commenting on the views of
Aristotle, who indeed defended the cost theory himself. However, when Aquinas explains his own views he
tends to defend the market theory (or more precisely the “common estimate theory”).
100
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle’s Ethics, I, viii. Duns Scotus also defends, without
hesitations, a cost theory, indeed a labour theory, of just price in his Opus Oxoniensis, IV:15:2.
101
Martin Luther, On Commerce and Usury.
158
trader should only seek a “moderate profit,” which means that in practice he should never
grow very rich in his calling: if he did, this would be prima facie evidence that he had
been extortionate in his prices.
In my own view, this is precisely the reason why the cost theory of just prices is wrong. If
somebody manages to come up with a way to create a lot of value at very low cost, why
should he be necessarily under a duty to sell his goods to all his buyers at a very low
price (commensurate with his costs)? Should he do so even if these buyers are very rich
themselves? Even if many of the dependents and relations of the seller are themselves in
great need? By hypothesis, if the seller has found a way of creating great value at very
low cost, if he sells his goods for a low price there will be a large element of gift implicit
in the transaction as he will be selling at, say, 10 something worth 1000. But what reason
can there be for it to be morally imperative that most of the value generated by an
invention end up with the customers (who perhaps do not need any gifts and would be
more than ready to pay a price that better reflects the value they are getting) while the
inventor himself only captures enough value to secure for himself “a fitting upkeep” (and
all the while remains unable to come to the help of people towards whom he has more
pressing obligations)?
To prevent misunderstandings, I would like to stress that I am not advocating that
anybody, not even the successful entrepreneur who has managed to come up with a way
of creating very high value at relatively low cost, is entitled to spend his money on little
whims and extravagances while he lives in a world in which many people are stunted in
their fulfillment because of lack of minimum economic resources. I am arguing that when
significant economic value is created, the creator—whether a single person or a group of
people—would seem to have a much better title to it than the buyers of his products or
services. For as long as the price the buyers are requested to pay is lower—though not
dramatically lower—than the value they are given, I cannot see that they have any cause
to complain or that they are defrauded in any way.
But all of this in no way means that now the entrepreneur who has become a millionaire
as a result of his enterprise is entitled to spend all of his money on himself in happy
disregard of the needs of other people. As will be made clear in my discussion of the
Christian conception of property, Christianity teaches that nobody is ever entitled to
spend money that way. Even when we have earned the resources we now control through
the sweat of our brow, we are never the unrestricted owners of such resources, in the
sense that we are entitled to use them as we please; the Christian tradition is extremely
clear and unanimous that we always remain stewards of such resources and have to
devote them to the satisfaction of the needs of mankind.
The decisive point, however, is that in any impartial assessment of the needs of people
and of the responsibilities of any successful entrepreneur, it is very unlikely that the
buyers of his product or service, who often enough will be people who are quite well-off
by any standards, or at least relative to the situation of other people, will be the most
needy ones. It is extremely implausible therefore to argue that the main responsibility of
the entrepreneur is to transfer most of the surplus value he has created to the buyers of his
159
products. It seems to me that the logical course of action of the responsible steward
attentive to his responsibilities will be to get paid in proportion to the value he provides to
his customers and then use the resources he will accumulate in satisfying the needs of
other people identified according to their needs and to the special responsibilities of that
entrepreneur.
Market theories of value
Considerations similar to those laid out in the last paragraphs, and some others which we
will examine shortly, have led a majority of Christian writers to the conclusion that in
many occasions the cost of a product is not a good indicator of its value. Most of these
writers have come to the conclusion that the price of that product in an open market in
which sellers and buyers interact without collusion is a much better index of such
value.102 Of course, elementary economic analysis informs us that in the case of wellestablished goods produced by a large number of competitors, the market price will tend
to approximate their production cost. The point, however, is that when these two prices
are different, it is the market price that provides a much better indication of the value of a
good in a given society.
It is interesting that when the Book of Genesis describes the episode in which Joseph
foresees the lean years and in that way is able to accumulate surpluses for them and avoid
the worst effects of what could have been a disastrous famine, there is not the slightest
hint of censure about the fact that Joseph makes huge profits by selling during the lean
years the surpluses he had accumulated during the fat years:
And Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt and in the land
of Canaan, for the grain which they bought; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's
house. And when the money was all spent in the land of Egypt and in the land of Canaan,
all the Egyptians came to Joseph, and said, "Give us food; why should we die before your
eyes? For our money is gone." And Joseph answered, "Give your cattle, and I will give
you food in exchange for your cattle, if your money is gone." So they brought their cattle
to Joseph; and Joseph gave them food in exchange for the horses, the flocks, the herds,
and the asses: and he supplied them with food in exchange for all their cattle that year
103
(Gn 47:14-17).
One should note that the story describes Joseph as genuinely creating value for
everybody through his prophetic gifts and his prudence, and then making profits as a
consequence of having created this value. This is very different from the common case of
the hoarder who is often roundly condemned in the Bible and by later Christian writers.
102
The reader should be careful not to read here a requirement for a situation of “perfect competition” as
defined by economists. What I have asked for, and what most Christian writers on the subject ask for, is an
“open market,” not a “perfect market.”
103
Similarly, Our Lord does not condemn in any way the servant in the parable of the talents who makes a
profit of ten pounds negotiating with a capital of only one pound—on the contrary, he is rewarded lavishly:
“The first came before him, saying, 'Lord, your pound has made ten pounds more.' And he said to him,
'Well done, good servant! Because you have been faithful in a very little, you shall have authority over ten
cities'” (Lk 19:16-17).
160
The hoarder is condemned because by his behaviour he causes the very scarcity from
which he later tries to profit. His actions do not seek to create value for his fellow
citizens, but rather to extract value from them.
Saint Benedict (480-547), in prescribing the way in which his monks should behave,
gives them the following rule:
If there be skilled workmen in the monastery, let them work at their art in all humility, if
the Abbot giveth his permission … But if any of the work of the artists is to be sold … as
regards the prices of these things, let not the vice of avarice creep in, but let it always be
given a little cheaper than it can be given by seculars, “That God May Be Glorified in All
Things” (1 Pt 4:11).104
He instructs them to give their product “a little cheaper,” to forestall the danger of avarice
creeping in, but he in no way instructs them to price their goods on a cost-plus basis, or at
a “moderate profit.” He tells them to sell at a little less than the common price, which
obviously would be the market price; so, even if the price is “a little cheaper” the
reference is the market price, not the cost.
In the Middle Ages scholastic theologians made an effort to define precisely the way to
ascertain the value of an item. Several older theologians, including prominently Saint
Albert the Great and, at least in some of his writings, his disciple Saint Thomas Aquinas,
had argued that value was determined by the “common estimation” of men. Saint
Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444), a very influential writer on economic ethics, was
unequivocal that the operative meaning of the so-called “common estimation” of the
value of a product was precisely the price of that product in an open market:
The just price is that which is in accordance with the estimation of the current market,
according to what the thing which is being sold commonly fetches in that place at that
time.105
It is also very interesting that Saint Bernardine of Siena is already perfectly clear that
market price does not mean the usual price over a large region, but the price here and
now. To appreciate the importance of this point it is enough to think of a situation in
which the usual price of wheat in a country is, say, 6 per kilogram, but that after one year
of drought in a certain region, the market price in that region goes up to 9. It is certain
that in such circumstances some people will be ready to accuse wheat merchants of price
gouging and extortionate practices if they insist in charging a price of 9 per kilogram.
Saint Bernardine’s contention is precisely that the just price of wheat in that locality at
that time is 9, not the “traditional” price of 6.
In the 16th and 17th Centuries there arose in Spain the Salamanca School of theologians,
one of whose most significant areas of activity was precisely in the realm of economic
ethics. The result of their labours were over two dozen books discussing in great detail
issues like the just price, the morality of charging interest, the morality of different
104
105
Rule of St. Benedict, 57
Bernardine of Siena, On Commerce and Usury (in Opera Omnia, Vol. IV, Florence, 1963, pp. 157-8).
161
financing arrangements, and many other such matters. Their efforts have had a
determining influence on the discussion of these issues among Catholics up till today, and
also a less direct, but very significant, influence among Protestant authors.
Francisco de Vitoria (1483-1546), a leading light of the School, set the tone for other
writers in his discussion of the just price. He was as clear as one could desire in his
choice of the market theory of value and in his explicit rejection of the cost theory:
Wheat, for instance, is usually sold for four reales and not just by one seller, but by
many. In order to buy or sell it accordance with justice one has only to consider the price
at which it is commonly sold, and not the expenses, the effort and so on. The same is to
be said of a merchant who sells fabric, if the value of a yard of fabric is usually one
ducat, one does not have to take into consideration anything else, but this price only.106
There is an implication of this position of Vitoria, which he himself brings up clearly and
in which other members of the Salamanca School later follow him. If the standard of a
just price is that of an open market, it not only follows that it is right to charge the market
price even when one’s own costs are much lower, but also that it is unjust to charge a
higher price if one’s costs happen to have been significantly higher. Among many authors
which argued in that way, it will be enough to bring here as a sample the work of
Domingo de Soto (1495-1560):
In fact, if a merchant ignorantly buys some article at more than the proper price, or if he
suffers ill fortune (for instance, if the goods he has bought unexpectedly become
abundant), he cannot justly extort the costs which he had incurred.107
There was a problem that occupied several members of the Salamanca School. Given that
they were committed to an equivalence conception of justice in exchanges, according to
which an exchange was just if, and only if, the things that were exchanged had the same
value, how could the common practice of bankers of receiving from a trader in a city, say
100 ducats, and promising to make a different amount, say 105 ducats, available to the
trader or his representative in a different city, be just? Was it not clear that two unequal
amounts of the same commodity—in this case money—were being exchanged? The
answer of most members of the Salamanca School showed that they had gone deeply in
their economic analysis before venturing to offer ethical advice. Let us see as an example
the reply of Soto (1495-1560) to this question:
It is lawful to exchange money in one place for money in another having regard to its
scarcity in the one and abundance in the other, and to receive a smaller sum in a place
where money is scarce in exchange for a larger where it is abundant.108
The reply is clear and elegant. What matters is that the same value be given and received.
As the value of a commodity in a certain place depends on its relative scarcity in that
106
Francisco de Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, Q. 77, a. 1.
Domingo de Soto, De Iustitia et Jure, VI, 2, III.
108
Domingo de Soto, De Iustitia et Jure, 7.V.2.
107
162
place, it is possible that different amounts of money have the same value in two different
places and therefore the bill of exchange contract is not necessarily unjust.
I argued before that it is unreasonable to demand that the seller sell his merchandise for
less than its market value in situations in which the buyers may not be especially needy
people. But what happens when the buyers are poor and they need badly what the seller
has to sell? Would a conscientious Christian not have a special obligation to sell to them
at a price they can afford, especially when his costs allow him to do so without incurring
losses?
That might be so, and each case would have to be examined on its own facts before
reaching a conclusion. However, before jumping to too facile conclusion, the reader
would be well advised to ponder the consideration advanced by Molina (1536-1600), still
another representative of the Salamanca School. He argued that if, for reasons of equity,
there is need to help some people, justice requires that
… all tax themselves in proportion to their capacity and condition, and contribute in the
measure demanded by equity.109
Molina’s observation is relevant to many debates on the issue of the social
responsibilities of companies. Many have argued, for instance, that pharmaceutical
companies should make available to poor people at especially low prices the very
expensive drugs used to treat some conditions. It is instructive to analyse this issue along
the lines suggested by Molina. Some pharmaceutical companies have drugs they are
selling at a price of say $3,000 per year of treatment. Nobody argues that the benefits
provided by such drugs are not worth much more than that, or even that they do not save
hospitalization costs (the only alternative available before the drugs came on stream)
much higher than that. Still, it is argued that the companies which manufacture the drugs
have a duty to sell them much more cheaply, at least to those people who cannot afford
them.
Let us grant for the purpose of discussion that all people suffering from the relevant
conditions are entitled to get the necessary drugs at a price they can afford. How does it
follow from this that the burden has to fall exclusively, or even preferently, on the drug
companies? Is it not much more plausible to argue that the burden should fall on the
whole society through mechanisms like social security or special medical help?
Additional material on prices
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – The arts will be destroyed if the workman who
has made some article does not receive for it another article similar in quantity and
quality. One man’s labour must be compared with another’s if the exchange is to be
just.110
109
110
Luis de Molina, La Teoria del Justo Precio, Disputa CCCLXIV, Punto 3.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Com. Arist. Eth., V, I, vii.
163
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – The one thing which measures all else is in
truth demand, which includes all commodities in so far as things are related to
human wants. For they are not priced according to the dignity of their nature (else
would a mouse, which is a sensitive being, fetch more than a pearl, which is
inanimate), but according to men’s need of them for their use.111
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – As to remuneration for their services and
labors, let [lawyers] be guided by the principles of justice and of equity.112
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – Among themselves the merchants have a common rule
which is their chief maxim and the basis of all their sharp practices, where they say:
“I may sell my goods as dear as I can”… On such a basis trade can be nothing but
robbing and stealing the property of others.113
Vitoria (1483-1546) – If somebody sells something he does not need, but that he got
for resale, and the buyer needs it greatly, it is not lawful to sell it at a higher price
taking advantage of the need of the other.114
Vitoria (1483-1546) – Whenever there is something in good supply, so that there are
many people buying and selling it, one must not take into account the nature of the
thing, nor the price at which it was bought, that is to say whether it was dear or the
efforts and dangers involved in getting it. For instance, Peter sells wheat; on buying
it the expenses he incurred and his efforts must not be taken into account, but only
the common estimation of its value… And in that way, if the seller were to sell his
wheat for a higher price, taking into account his expenses and efforts, he would be
selling unjustly because he must sell only according to the commong estimation in
that place, “at its price in that place.”115
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575) – The just price of a merchandise must not be
determined by how much it cost the seller, nor by the expenses he has incurred, but
by its value at the present time.116
Luis de Molina (1536-1600) – Accordingly, the price of goods must not be measured
by the profit or loss of merchants, but according to the common estimation in the
place where they are sold, keeping in mind all present circumstances, and this
whether the merchants, because of ill luck, or lack of skill have little profit, or even
suffer a loss, or, because of good luck or skill make a great profit. Goods are lost,
increase or decrease in price, for their owners, but not for the republic.117
111
St. Thomas Aquinas, Com. Arist. Eth., I, c.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
113
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, ed. W. I. Brandt and H. T. Lehmann, vol. 45 (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg
Press, 1962)
114
Francisco de Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, q. 77, a. 1.
115
Id.
116
Tomas de Mercado, Suma de Tratos y Contratos,, III, 5.
117
Luis de Molina, Los Seis Libros de la Justicia y el Derecho, trat. 2, disput. 348.
112
164
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – [The Christian in commerce] must not secure a good
price for his own wares "by extortion working upon men's ignorance, error, or
necessity.”118
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – [The Christian in commerce] must not desire to get
another's goods or labour for less than it is worth … it is a false rule of them that
think their commodity is worth as much as any one will give.119
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – He that will (as is mentioned afore) sell his commodity
as dear as he can, must sometimes make a prey of the ignorance of his chapman: but
that he cannot doe with a good conscience, for that is to overreach, and to goe
beyond my chapman, and is forbidden (1 Thes. 4:6.) …
He that will sell his commodity always as dear as he can, must needs, sometimes
make a prey of his neighbours necessity; but that he cannot doe with a good
conscience, (for that is to goe beyond and defraud his neighbour, contrary to 1
Thess. 4: 6).120
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – For every man that makes a prey of his advantage upon
his neighbours necessities, to force from him more than in reason and conscience,
according to the present prizes of things such comodity is worth; may very well be
called an Extortioner, and Judged for one that hath No inheritance in the Kingdom
of God.121
Benedict XIV (pope 1740-1758) – [The commutative bond of justice’s] function in
human contracts is to assure equality for each one. This law is to be observed in a
holy manner. If not observed exactly, reparation must be made.... There are many
different contracts of this kind. In these contracts, if equality is not maintained,
whatever is received over and above what is fair is a real injustice.122
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – His justice consists in this, that the price be
just, that is to say, equal to the value of the thing 123
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The merchant sins if he buys at a lower price
from someone who doesn’t know, or sells at a higher price to an ignorant person.124
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – They are certain to be bound to restitution, if
they agree to sell at a price above the highest, and likewise craftsmen and others
similar to them sin against justice, who agree among themselves not to hire out their
service except at a price exceeding the highest price.125
Paul VI (1963-1978) – The advantages [of free trade] are certainly evident when the
parties involved are not affected by any excessive inequalities of economic power: it
118
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
Id.
120
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
121
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
122
Benedict XIV, Vix Pervenit (On Usury and Other Dishonest Profit).
123
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub VIII, 793.
124
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292.
125
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub VIII, 817.
119
165
is an incentive to progress and a reward for effort. The teaching of Leo XIII in
Rerum Novarum is always valid: if the positions of the contracting parties are too
unequal, the consent of the parties does not suffice to guarantee the justice of their
contract.126
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Even if it does not contradict the
provisions of civil law, any form of unjustly taking and keeping the property of
others is against the seventh commandment: thus… forcing up prices by taking
advantage of the ignorance or hardship of another.127
Appendix: Interest
As I indicated in the main body of this chapter, there is essential unanimity nowadays
among almost all significant Christian bodies that it is legitimate to charge interest for
loans. The only questions that might arise refer to determining what will in each case be a
just rate of interest. In essence, however, this does not raise any different questions from
the pricing of any other product or service and the principles that apply to it are those we
have discussed in the section “The Christian tradition on pricing.” Because of this lack of
direct relevance to the decisions faced by contemporary managers I have confined tracing
out the evolution of Christian teachings on interest to this appendix.
Still, the issue has more than a merely historical interest. I will argue that the main reason
why Christian teachers proscribed for so long the charging of interest was that, in the
circumstances that prevailed for most of biblical and Christian times, charging interest
was a clear instance of lack of equivalence in the value exchanged. If this is so, by tracing
out in some detail the evolution of thought in this area we can understand better a
fundamental principle of Christian business ethics which still has full validity nowadays
and that applies to many other types of commercial transactions besides loans. The matter
deserves detailed study but, for reasons of space, I will only be able to give it a very
summary treatment.
Before moving to consider texts which have a direct bearing on the issue of interest, it
will be useful to bear in mind that many of the passages I have quoted in previous
sections assume or explicitly endorse the principle that a just exchange is one in which
items of equivalent value are exchanged. Against that background, the fact that in so
many early condemnations of interest, both in the Bible and in early Christian writers,
there are also references to that very principle gains an additional significance.
Take no interest from [your brother] or increase, but fear your God; that your brother may live
beside you. You shall not lend him your money at interest, nor give him your food for profit (Lev
25:35-37).
This early prescription from Leviticus establishes in unmistakable terms the prohibition
of charging interest in transactions among Israelites. The reference to “increase” points
126
127
Paul VI, Populorum progressio (The Development of Peoples), nos. 58 and 59.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2409.
166
towards the lack of equivalence between what the lender gives and what he demands in
return as being the ground for the prohibition.128
[Who shall dwell on thy holy hill? He who] does not put out his money at interest.129
There are other references to the prohibition of interest in the Old Testament which can
be found in the “Additional material” section.
Following Scripture, the Fathers of the Church were unanimous in their condemnation of
interest. I have found a large number of passages in which lending at interest is
condemned outright while I have been unable to find a single instance in which a Father
defends the practice of charging interest. Two examples among others are provided by
Lactantius (fourth century) and Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397):
If someone lends money, he should not exact interest, so that he may not lose the merit of
assisting a person in need and may not take something not his own. He should be content
with receiving back what is his and even should be willing to lose some of it in order to
do good. For him to receive back more than what he has given is unjust. Whoever does
this is getting rich on the expense of the want of another.130
It is a sign of a hard nature to extort more than one has given. If a man has need of thy
assistance because he has not enough of his own wherewith to repay a debt, is it not a
wicked thing to demand under the guise of kindly feeling a larger sum from him who has
not the means to pay off a less amount? Thou dost but free him from debt to another, to
bring him under thy own hand; and thou callest that human kindliness which is but a
further wickedness.131
I have chosen these two texts precisely because both point to the lack of equivalence
between what is given and what is received as the ground for the injustice of charging
interest. Lactantius argues that “to receive back more than what he was given is unjust”
and Saint Ambrose also speaks of charging interest for a loan being “ to extort more than
one has given.”
I would also like to highlight here two texts from Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). In
the first he unequivocally locates the malice of interest in it “lead[ing] to inequality which
is contrary to justice.”
To take usury [interest] for money lent is unjust in itself, because this is to sell what does
not exist, and this evidently leads to inequality which is contrary to justice. In order to
make this evident, we must observe that there are certain things the use of which consists
in their consumption: thus we consume wine when we use it for drink and we consume
wheat when we use it for food. Wherefore in such like things the use of the thing must
not be reckoned apart from the thing itself, and whoever is granted the use of the thing, is
granted the thing itself and for this reason, to lend things of this kind is to transfer the
128
On this see also see on this also Ez 15:7, Ez 22:12; Ez 18:8.
Ps 15:5.
130
Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, 6, 18.
131
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk III, ch. 1.
129
167
ownership. Accordingly if a man wanted to sell wine separately from the use of the wine,
he would be selling the same thing twice, or he would be selling what does not exist,
wherefore he would evidently commit a sin of injustice. On like manner he commits an
injustice who lends wine or wheat, and asks for double payment, viz. one, the return of
the thing in equal measure, the other, the price of the use, which is called usury.132
In the second text, Saint Thomas Aquinas introduces an exception to the general
condemnation of interest. This is very important because it shows that the prohibition of
interest was not a blind precept, but one based on reasons, and when the reasons which
justified the condemnation did not apply, it was considered proper to make an exception.
Here the exception, which kept being peacefully accepted in later centuries, was what
came to be known as “damnum emergens” (supervening harm). This expression covered
situations in which the lender suffered some special harm as a consequence of lending
something to another. Saint Thomas Aquinas, and many other scholastics following him,
considered that in such cases the lender could lawfully demand to be compensated for the
harm he had suffered. In such cases the lender is not getting interest as such for lending
his money, but he is being compensated for the harm he will suffer or has suffered as a
consequence of the transaction.
A lender may without sin enter an agreement with the borrower for compensation for the
loss he incurs of something he ought to have, for this is not to sell the use of money but to
avoid a loss.133
Eventually, “lucrum cessans” (loss of profit) also came to be accepted as a lawful reason
for claiming interest. As in the case of “damnum emergens” in these cases the interest
was not really a payment for the use of money as such but a compensation for the
inconvenience to which the lender as put as a consequence of the transaction. The
following text from the leader of the Salamanca School, Vitoria (1483-1546) clearly
upholds the lawfulness of charging interest in such cases:
If by reason of the loan somebody loses a profit that he would have had because he was
ready to do business, and he demands less than what he would have earned, then it is
lawful [to receive interest]. This is the way in which many merchants do business. They
give the king 100,000 gold coins and tell him: We would have earned 10 ducats per 100.
Give us eight gold coins per cent.134
Domingo de Soto (1495-1560), a successor of Vitoria in the chair de prima of
Salamanca135 mentions side by side both “damnum emergens” and “lucrum cessans” as
legitimate titles for claiming interest:
When … some harm supervenes or a profit is lost, interest can be justly demanded
without any danger of usury.136
132
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 78, a. 1.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Ttheologiae, II-II q. 78, a. 2.
134
Vitoria, Comentaries to the II-II of Saint Thomas, q. 78, a. 2.
135
Vitoria held it from 1526 to 1546 and Soto from 1552 to 1560.
136
Domingo de Soto, De Iustitia et Iure, bk.6, q. 1, art. 3.
133
168
Vitoria and Soto are witnesses to the evolution of ideas in the Catholic side. As the
economy kept evolving at a rapid pace, ideas about interest were also in ferment among
protestants. Martin Luther (1483-1546) upheld the traditional position, often in an
unqualified manner, while Calvin (1509-1564), who lived in Geneva, where the new
financial realities were most obvious, opened the doors to interest in commercial
transactions more widely that any other Christian teacher among his contemporaries.
For, according to the divine law, one should never, when lending or selling on credit,
demand a higher price than when selling for cash.137
… that the question is only as to the poor, and consequently, if we have to do with the
rich, that usury is freely permitted; because the Lawgiver, in alluding to one thing, seems
to condemn another, concerning which He is silent.138
Eventually, as markets expanded and deepened a point came when anybody who had
liquidity available could easily find a way to invest his money subject to a wide range of
risk/return combinations. At that moment, money itself had come to be not just a means
of storing value but also a means of investment. The decisive circumstance was that this
was not something that happened in some isolated cases, but the general rule.
After the 17th Century there was a progressively greater recognition that under modern
conditions the condition of “lucrum cessans” was having ever greater applicability. There
were still frequent expressions of unqualified condemnation of usury, and such
condemnations were most often based on the old argument that it was sinful because it
resulted in the lender receiving more than he had lent, and that was unjust. In practice,
however, it was recognized in more and more cases that 100 today was very often the
equivalent of 110 next year, and that in such cases demanding interest was in no way
unjust. The final result of this was that by the beginning of the 19th Century the admission
of interest by all mainstream Christian confessions had become practically universal.
Additional material on interest
If you lend money to any of my people with you who is poor, you shall not be to him as a
creditor, and you shall not exact interest from him (Ex 22:25).
To a foreigner you may lend upon interest, but to your brother you shall not lend upon
interest (Dt 23:19).
If a man is righteous and does what is lawful and right-- … does not oppress any one, but
restores to the debtor his pledge, commits no robbery, gives his bread to the hungry and
covers the naked with a garment, does not lend at interest or take any increase, withholds
his hand from iniquity, executes true justice between man and man, walks in my statutes,
137
Martin Luther, On Commerce and Usury.
John Calvin, Commentaries on the Last Four Books of Moses Arranged in the Form of a Harmony, Vol.
III, trans. Rev. Charles William Bingham (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1979), 131.
138
169
and is careful to observe my ordinances--he is righteous, he shall surely live, says the
Lord God (Ezk 15:5-9).
If a man is righteous and does what is lawful and right— [if he] does not lend at interest
or take any increase… he is righteous, he shall surely live, says the Lord God (Ezk 18:59).
You take interest and increase and make gain of your neighbors by extortion; and you
have forgotten me, says the Lord God (Ezk 22:12).
Apostolic Constitutions (380) – Thou shalt also refuse [the offerings of] rogues, and such
pleaders that plead on the side of injustice, and idol-makers, and thieves, and unjust
publicans, and those that deceive by false balances and deceitful measures, and a soldier
who is a false accuser and not content with his wages, but does violence to the needy, a
murderer, a cut-throat, and an unjust judge, a subverter of causes, him that lies in wait
for men, a worker of abominable wickedness, a drunkard, a blasphemer, a sodomite, an
usurer, and every one that is wicked and opposes the will of God.139
Saint Basil (329-379) – If you take [interest] from the poor, you commit the worst crime
of inhumanity: you derive profit from miseries, you gain money from tears, you oppress
the needy, you starve the hungry. You have no mercy whatever, you do not realize the
bond you have with those who suffer. And yet you call acts of humanity the profits you
receive.140
Saint Basil (329-379) – In truth it is extreme inhumanity for one to have to ask for a loan
because of lacking what is most necessary for life, and another not to be happy with the
principal, but to think of making profit and increase his wealth taking advantage of the
calamities of the poor.141
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – The more is usury an evil thing, the more praiseworthy is
he who abstains from it.142
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Lending with the expectation of interest is unjust, but
lending itself is not, as it is written “Lend to your neighbor in his hour of
need.”…[Lending] which is done in order to gain profit, is rightly condemned as
abominable…143
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Because he gave money on loan and did not lend at
interest, he complied with the duty of a just man; in fact that loan on which interest is
exacted is evil. It is not evil, however, that loan on which it is written: Give to your
neighbour on loan when he has need of it. In fact, also David says: The just man has pity
and lends. That other loan is justly condemned, the loan of money at usury; which is
forbidden by the Law.144
139
Apostolic Constitutions, IV, 6.
St. Basil, Homily on Psalm XV.
141
St. Basil, Homily II on Psalm XIV.
142
St. Ambrose, Comments on the Book of Tobit, 8.
143
St. Ambrose, Comments on the Book of Tobit, 2.
144
St. Ambrose, Comments on the Book of Tobit, 1.
140
170
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – He who does not have what to eat pays interests. Is there
perhaps a more wicked behaviour? He asks for a medicine, you give him a poison: he
begs for bread, you give him the sword: he asks for freedom, you inflict slavery on him:
he asks for liberation, you tie around him the knot of an evil rope.145
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – Usury brings ruin to he who practices it and to
he who suffers it … It obstructs the way of life and closes the doors of the kingdom of
heaven.146
Saint Augustine (354-430) – [Usury is] hateful, odious and abominable.147
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Lend not money at interest.148
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For nothing is baser, nothing is more cruel than the
interest that comes from lending. For such a lender trades on other persons’ calamities,
draws profit from the distress of others, and demands wages for kindness, as though he
were afraid to seem merciful.149
Leo the Great (pope 440-461) – This wickedness of usury ought to be shunned altogether
– men should shrink from gain which is so inhuman.150
Second Lateran Council (1139) – Furthermore, we condemn that practice accounted
despicable and blameworthy by divine and human laws, denounced by Scripture in the
old and new Testaments, namely, the ferocious greed of usurers; and we sever them from
every comfort of the church, forbidding any archbishop or bishop, or an abbot of any
order whatever or anyone in clerical orders, to dare to receive usurers, unless they do so
with extreme caution; but let them be held infamous throughout their whole lives and,
unless they repent, be deprived of a christian burial.151
Third Lateran Council (1179) – Nearly everywhere the crime of usury has become so
firmly rooted that many, omitting other business, practise usury as if it were permitted,
and in no way observe how it is forbidden in both the Old and New Testament. We
therefore declare that notorious usurers should not be admitted to communion of the
altar or receive christian burial if they die in this sin. Whoever receives them or gives
them christian burial should be compelled to give back what he has received, and let him
remain suspended from the performance of his office until he has made satisfaction
152
according to the judgment of his own bishop.
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – It is by its very nature unlawful to take payment for
the use of money lent, which payment is known as usury: and just as a man is bound to
145
St. Ambrose, Comments on the Book of Tobit, 4.
St. Gregory of Nyssa, Against Usury.
147
St. Augustin, Exposition on Psalm 36.
148
St. Augustine, Exposition on Psalm 129.
149
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, V, 5
150
St. Leo the Great, Sermon 17.
151
Canon 13.
152
Canon 25.
146
171
restore other ill-gotten goods, so is he bound to restore the money which he has taken in
usury.153
Saint Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444) – Accordingly, all the saints and all the angels of
paradise cry then against [the usurer], saying, “To hell, to hell, to hell.” Also the
heavens with their stars cry out, saying, “To the fire, to the fire, to the fire.” The planets
also clamor, “To the depths, to the depths, to the depths.”154
Saint Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444) – Those who freely deposit money in the Mount in
Florence and receive anything other than their capital are usurers and are obliged to
make restitution.155
Saint Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444) – Those who buy freely those bills intending to
make a gain on their capital are usurers and are obliged to make restitution of the gain
received.156
Antoninus of Florence (1389-1459) – [All who cooperate] in usury deserve eternal
death.157
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – To this class [of those who are guilty of
robbery] also belong usurers, the most cruel and relentless of extortioners, who by their
exhorbitant rates of interest, plunder and destroy the poor. Whatever is received above
the capital and principal, be it money, or anything else that may be purchased or
estimated by money, is usury…indeed, he who lends at usury sells the same thing twice,
or sells that which has no real existence.158
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – He who lends expecting to get back something more or
something better than he has loaned is nothing but an open and condemned usurer.159
Tomas de Mercado (d. 1575) – The true and pure loan cannot be practiced except in a
gentlemanly way, without making any gain from it.160
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – He that sells dearer, by reason he sells not for ready
money, must increase his price no higher than to make himself recompense for the loss
which, according to the rules of trade, he sustained by his forbearance, according to
common computation, reckoning in also the hazard, which he is prudently, warily, and
charitably to estimate.161
Benedict XIV (pope 1740-1758) – We do not deny that at times together with the loan
contract certain other titles-which are not at all intrinsic to the contract-may run parallel
153
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 78, a. 1.
St. Bernardine of Siena, De Contractibus, Sermon 45, art. 3, c. 3.
155
St. Bernardine of Siena, Sermon De Impraestitis, art. 2.
156
St. Bernardine of Siena, Sermon De Impraestitis, art. 3.
157
St. Antoninus of Florence, Summa Theologiae, bart. 2, tit. 1, ch. 9.
158
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
159
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, ed. W.I. Brandt and H. T. Lehmann, vol. 45, Philadelphia, Muhlenberg
Press, 1962.
160
Tomas de Mercado, Suma de Tratos y Contratos, V, 5.
161
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. III.
154
172
with it. From these other titles, entirely just and legitimate reasons arise to demand
something over and above the amount due on the contract.162
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – It is completely perverse and a grave sin against
human and divine law, when a lender gains a profit from a thing which is no longer
his.163
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – I do not wish to speak to you, my dear
brethren, about those who lend at seven, eight, nine and ten per cent. Let us leave such
people to one side. To make them feel the enormity and the heinousness of their injustice
and their cruelty, it would be necessary that one of those early usurers, who has been
burning in Hell for the past three or four thousand years, should come back and give
them a description of all the torments he is enduring and of the many injustices he
committed which are the cause of what he suffers. No, these people are not part of my
plan of instruction for you. They know very well that they are doing evil and that God will
never pardon them unless they make restitution to those whom they have wronged.164
162
Bull Vix Pervenit (On Usury and Other Dishonest Profit).
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Cap. III, Dub VII.
164
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “How Death Will Reveal Thieves” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1960.
163
173
CHAPTER 5 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES – I
Respect for the human dignity of employees
CHAPTER 5 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES – I ......................................... 174
Respect for the human dignity of employees .......................................................... 174
The foundation of human dignity .......................................................................... 175
Respect for human dignity .................................................................................... 176
A moral work environment ................................................................................... 180
Additional material on respect for the human dignity of employees ............... 181
Privacy ....................................................................................................................... 188
Additional material on privacy ......................................................................... 190
Motivation and discipline ......................................................................................... 191
Additional material on motivation and discipline ............................................ 197
Fair hearing ............................................................................................................... 205
Additional material on fair hearing .................................................................. 207
Emphasis on community .......................................................................................... 208
Additional material on the importance of community ..................................... 212
One has to know a resource well in order to make effective use of it. In order to manage
human beings one also needs to have a deep and extensive knowledge of them.
This is widely recognized and it is the reason why many books concerned with the
management of human resources contain material on individual and social psychology as
well as sociology. These disciplines help us to appreciate how human beings are likely to
react in different circumstances and offer guidance on how to motivate them. However,
in order to manage human beings, even more than knowledge about the ways in which
they react, it is essential to know their “value.”
I can make my meaning clear with a simple example. If I am entrusted with a bunch of
large diamonds, it will certainly be very interesting for me to know as much as possible
about the ways in which they reflect and refract light, the techniques available to cut and
polish them, and so on. But it is obvious that another very important thing to know in
order to handle diamonds rightly is that genuine diamonds happen to be thousands of
times more valuable and expensive than, say, imitation diamonds made of paste. If I am
ignorant about this I may be careless in looking after them, or I may foolishly exchange
them for something much less valuable… with catastrophic results.
Unfortunately, while most books on the management of human resources have a lot to
say about the psychology of human beings, most of them say next to nothing about their
value. In the world of practice, some managers treat their subordinates in ways that
suggest that they do not perceive any fundamental difference between human beings and
other resources. This, most definitely, is not the view reflected in the Christian tradition:
174
What is man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou dost care for him?
Yet thou hast made him little less than God, and dost crown him with glory and honor (Ps
8:4-5).
The very special value of human beings in comparison with all other material creatures
can already be gathered from the Book of Genesis. In describing the creation of the world
it is made clear that human beings are the last and most complex creation of God. Then
their special nature is emphasized when, introducing the special creation of man, God
exclaims
Let us make man in our image, after our likeness (Gn 1:26).
The foundation of human dignity
How does man resemble God in ways in which the rest of material creatures do not? As
we can learn in the Bible, while man is a material, bodily creature, he is not purely
material, but has a spiritual, immortal element in him.1 This in turn results in man having
capacities of knowledge and self-determination and possibilities of fulfillment that are
radically superior to those of other animals.
Man’s capacity for knowledge far exceeds that of any animal. Attempts to blur the
qualitative differences between the knowledge of men and that of other animals offer
only the most meager results. No beast, for instance, has ever posed and answered
questions about the age and size of the universe for the very simple reason, among others,
that none can even conceive of such a thing as the universe.
The human capacity for self-determination, as a foundation of human dignity, is stressed
by Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 394):
The soul shows its royal and exalted character... in that it is free and self-governed,
swayed autonomously by its own will. Of whom else can this be said, save a king? ...
Thus human nature, created to rule other creatures, was by its likeness to the King of the
universe made as it were a living image, partaking with the Archetype both in dignity and
in name.2
While animals are fully determined by their physiological needs and by the rewards and
punishments offered by their environment, human beings have the power to transcend
instinctual responses. Somebody has said that men are exactly like animals: both men and
animals eat when they are extremely hungry, if food is available. The obvious reply to
this is that, unlike animals, men sometimes do not: a human being, even if he is feeling
extremely hungry, may choose not to eat for a variety of reasons: he may be carrying out
a religious fast, may be following a slimming diet, or may be getting ready for a blood
test. The example may be elementary, but it shows the power of self-determination that
man has and that is totally absent from animals. Of course, at a more radical level, the
1
2
Matt 10:28; Rom 2:7; 1 Cor 15:53; 1 Pet 1:9; Rev 20:4.
St. Gregory of Nyssa, On the Making of Man, 4.
175
same power of self-determination allows man to plan a course for his whole life and
commit himself to a scientific pursuit, a political cause, a religious vocation or another
human being. This ability to hold one’s entire life in one’s hands and commit it to some
overarching purpose is obviously absent in animals.
Finally, it is apparent that the ways in which a human being can attain fulfillment
radically exceed the possibilities of animals. Suffice it to mention pursuits as artistic
creation and appreciation, friendship, love, science, religion, and politics.
To cap all of this, Christian revelation opens up vistas that absolutely surpass the purely
natural possibilities that we have mentioned up to this point.
That through these you may … become partakers of the divine nature (2 Pt 1:4).
The announcement that human beings are called to participate in the divine nature makes
absolutely clear their exalted worth and dignity, however limited and constricting their
present circumstances might seem.
The Christian tradition has never tired of expounding these themes and insisting on the
great dignity of every human being. Rather than going through a tiresome repetition of
quotations which essentially restate the same basic concepts, it will be enough to provide
a contemporary reference by John Paul II (pope 1978 - ) that summarises the main ideas
we have discussed up to this point:
Among all other earthly beings, only a man or a woman is a "person," a conscious and
free being and, precisely for this reason, the "centre and summit" of all that exists on the
earth…
The dignity of the person is manifested in all its radiance when the person's origin and
destiny are considered: created by God in his image and likeness as well as redeemed by
the most precious blood of Christ, the person is called to be a "child in the Son" and a
living temple of the Spirit, destined for the eternal life of blessed communion with God.
For this reason every violation of the personal dignity of the human being cries out in
vengeance to God and is an offence against the Creator of the individual.
In virtue of a personal dignity, the human being is always a value as an individual, and as
such demands being considered and treated as a person and never, on the contrary,
considered and treated as an object to be used or as a means or as a thing.3
Respect for human dignity
The last sentence of this quotation of John Paul II draws the obvious conclusions from
the Christian teachings on the dignity of human beings and insists that they have to be
treated with the respect due to persons, rather than used as things or as a means to the
attainment of somebody else’s purposes. This idea that God demands that human beings
be treated with the respect and consideration that their very exalted worth and dignity
demand has been another constant theme in the Christian tradition.
3
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 37.
176
A striking application of these ideas can be found in the provisions on slaves contained in
the law God gave his people:
If your brother, a Hebrew man, or a Hebrew woman, is sold to you, he shall serve you six
years, and in the seventh year you shall let him go free from you. And when you let him
go free from you, you shall not let him go empty-handed; you shall furnish him liberally
out of your flock, out of your threshing floor, and out of your wine press; as the Lord
your God has blessed you, you shall give to him. You shall remember that you were a
slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God redeemed you; therefore I command
you this today (Dt 15:12-15).
The institution of slavery existed among the Jews but, in contrast to what obtained among
their neighbours, the slavery of a Jew was a temporary condition that lasted only seven
years; it was therefore a condition of indentured servitude rather than strict slavery.
Besides this, the master was required to treat the slave well, remembering that all Jews
were slaves one day. Finally, at the end of his period of service the slave was to share in
the wealth he had contributed to create for his master. Given the extremely harsh
conditions of slaves in all surrounding cultures at that time, these provisions help us
appreciate the great care with which God expects men to treat each other.4
In fact there are very many passages in the Bible that make it clear that he who fails to
treat other men in accordance with their inherent dignity is thereby offending God. In the
striking words of the Book of Proverbs, he insults Him:
He who oppresses a poor man insults his Maker (Prv 14:31).
'Why have we fasted, and thou seest it not? Why have we humbled ourselves, and thou
takest no knowledge of it?' Behold, in the day of your fast you seek your own pleasure,
and oppress all your workers (Is 58:3).
The early Christians received this doctrine. In the simple words of the Didache (80-90):
Every person must be respected as a living image of God.5
It is especially interesting in this quotation that the respect that is demanded for every
person is connected to their intrinsic dignity, and that dignity is directly linked to the
teaching of Genesis that men have been created in God’s image and likeness.
We will have ample opportunity in the following sections to see texts which illustrate in
specific contexts the constant influence of these ideas on Christians throughout the
4
In the same vein, the law’s provisions on foreigners—another frequently despised and oppressed group in
those days—also have great interest: Ex 22:21: "You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you
were strangers in the land of Egypt.” Ex 23:9: “You shall not oppress a stranger; you know the heart of a
stranger, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt” Lv 19:33-34: “When a stranger sojourns with you in
your land, you shall not do him wrong. The stranger who sojourns with you shall be to you as the native
among you, and you shall love him as yourself; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt: I am the Lord
your God.”
5
Didache, IV, 11.
177
centuries. At this point I only want to stress that the basic foundation of all the specific
norms and principles guiding the treatment of workers lies in the Christian teaching about
the very special dignity of human beings. Therefore, to show the essential continuity in
this element of Christian teaching, it will be enough to bring here a reference situated at a
middle point between the Fathers and contemporary times. This quotation is from John
Calvin (1509-1564):
Let masters also not be stern and disobliging to their servants, nor harass them with
excessive asperity, nor treat them with insult, but rather let them acknowledge them as
brethren and fellow-servants of our heavenly Master, whom, therefore, they are bound to
treat with mutual love and kindness.6
Perhaps the most common reason today for violating these basic teachings about the
dignity of human beings in business contexts is not so much cruelty or naked selfishness,
as the fact that employers get carried away by the desire to attain certain objectives and in
doing so “overlook,” so to speak, the great dignity of their employees. In the heat of the
chase after one’s objectives, it is only too easy to lose sight of the very special quality of
the people one is working with, and come to see only their instrumental value for the
attainment of one’s goals. In the face of this, Christian teachers have been forced to
reflect anew on their own doctrine and the result has been a renewed awareness that, in
the words of Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
Human institutions, both private and public, must be at the service of the dignity and
purpose of man.7
This is very important. In the face of an ever wider tendency to concentrate on the
attainment of the objectives of the institution one works for (typically profits or
shareholder value in the case of business enterprises), Christian teachers emphasise once
and again that “the Sabbath is for man and not man for the Sabbath” (Mk 2:27), that is to
say, that institutions have to be at the service of man, rather than the other way around.
Of course, if institutions are truly at the service of men, it will follow that the effect of
their activities on the men who work in them will not be ignored, and it will be
unacceptable to treat these human beings in ways incompatible with their dignity in the
effort to attain certain objectives. The basic idea that man’s dignity requires that he
always be treated as an end rather than as a mere means to the attainment of other
objectives is well expressed in the following words of John Paul II (pope 1978 - ):
In every social situation of this type, there is a confusion or even a reversal of the order
laid down from the beginning by the words of the Book of Genesis: Man is treated as an
instrument of production, whereas he—alone, independent of the work he does—ought to
be treated as the effective subject of work and its true maker and creator… the error of
early capitalism can be repeated wherever man is in a way treated on the same level as
the whole complex of the material means of production, as an instrument and not in
accordance with the true dignity of his work--that is to say, where he is not treated as
6
7
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. 2, ch. 8.
Gaudium et Spes, 29.
178
subject and maker, and for this very reason as the true purpose of the whole process of
8
production.
A possible misunderstanding must be avoided at this point. The intrinsic worth or dignity
of human persons demands that they never be treated as mere means. One should not
conclude from this that every action of the management of a firm has to be accepted by
every single employee as beneficial to his own interests and that therefore no employee
can ever be disciplined, terminated or given a job that he finds unpleasant. That is not
required by any of the texts we have considered, and is not their spirit either. Even more,
it would be simply impossible to act consistently in that way.
Firms often have many employees and the common good of the group may well demand
sacrifices of some of the interests of individual persons. Beyond this, a business firm
operates under conditions very different from a typical Non Governmental Organization
(NGO) and its relationship with its employees is radically different from that between an
NGO and its beneficiaries. The business firm has to earn the money it pays to its workers,
and do so in a competitive environment. Because of this, the basic relationship between
the firm and its employees cannot be one of “beneficence” (in the sense of free giving
without expecting anything in return), but one of co-operation. Ultimately, a business
firm is a community of persons who come together to co-operate for their mutual benefit.
As we argued in the case of the relationship of a firm with its customers, fair co-operation
is not by itself any less loving or ethical than free-giving: each of these attitudes can be
the appropriate expression of love in different circumstances.
A firm will treat its employees as mere means, for instance, if it is only interested in their
doing the job for which they are needed and has absolutely no interest in their human and
professional fulfillment, except in so far as it may have an impact on their productivity.
But an action of management which aims at preserving or protecting the conditions of
fair co-operation in the firm, or its health as a business enterprise, cannot be said to treat
any of the employees purely as means —even if it has a negative effect on the interests of
some of them. Thus, the injunction not to treat anybody merely as a means does not
exclude actions such as terminating the employment of some employees (e.g., if it is
necessary to preserve the economic viability of the firm), or paying some employees
significantly more than others (e.g., if their contributions to the firm and/or the salaries
they can command in other firms are much larger).
In a competitive environment, a business firm typically can carry few “passengers”
without jeopardizing its success and, ultimately, its survival and the jobs of all its
employees. Treating employees as ends means that things such as salary scales; design of
jobs; disciplinary processes; hiring, promotion and separation decisions; decision making
in matters that affect employees; and so on, are organized with a view to make possible
the fulfillment of all employees. It does not mean to “carry along” employees who are
unwilling or unable to make an effective contribution to the common enterprise. As was
8
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 7.
179
the case in the relationship firm/customers, we see once again that the fundamental
category of business ethics—even of a Christian business ethics—is not and cannot be
“beneficence” (in the sense of free giving) but “co-operation.”
There is always a danger that all this talk of the dignity of man might remain at the level
of lofty rhetoric. Man’s dignity requires that he be treated with respect, and this respect
assumes concrete and very specific forms, and results in definite requirements, in each
historical period. The following two quotations offer a broad outline of these
requirements in the context of a modern developed country. One comes from the Catholic
Episcopal Conference of the United States (1986) and the other from a group of
influential evangelicals (1990). They give us a first outline of the practical requirements
of the attitude of respect for the human dignity of one’s employees that is required by the
Christian tradition. This basic outline will be fleshed out further in this and the next
chapters.
The provision of wages and other benefits sufficient to support a family in dignity is a basic
necessity to prevent this exploitation of workers. The dignity of workers also requires
adequate health care, security for old age or disability, unemployment compensation,
healthful working conditions, weekly rest, periodic holidays for recreation and leisure and
reasonable security against arbitrary dismissal. These provisions are all essential if workers
are to be treated as persons rather than simply as a "factor of production.”9
People should never be treated in their work as mere means. We must resist the tendency
to treat workers merely as costs or labour inputs ...
…
For most people work is an arduous good. Many workers suffer greatly under the burden
of work. In some situations people work long hours for low pay, working conditions are
appalling, contracts are non-existent, sexual harassment occurs, trade union
representation is not allowed, health and safety regulations are flouted. These things
occur throughout the world whatever the economic system. The word "exploitation" has a
strong and immediate meaning in such situations. The God of the Bible condemns
exploitation and oppression. God's liberation of the Israelites from their oppression
served as a paradigm of how God's people should behave towards workers in their midst
(Lv 25:39-55).”10
A moral work environment
Before concluding this section I would like to discuss very briefly a specific requirement
of the dignity and worth of employees to which it will not be possible to devote a section
of its own. As I indicated above the most important reason why man is precious is that he
is called to eternal life, a sharing in God’s own life. Of course, it is a fundamental
Christian teaching that this is not something that happens automatically, but rather an
opportunity that is offered to man and that he must freely accept. This opportunity will be
rejected if a man freely chooses a way of life that contradicts the demands and
9
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
Oxford Declaration, 1990, nos. 21, 24.
10
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requirements of God’s life in us. This is why the greatest harm that can be done to a
human being is to contribute to his moral corruption. John Bunyan (1628-1688) stresses
how, simply through his bad example, a person “may be the ruin” of those working for
him:
Attentive… Shew me how many wayes a Master may be the ruin of his poor Apprentice.
Wise. Nay, I cannot tell you of all the wayes, yet some of them I will mention…
If the Master be unconscionable in his Dealing, and trades with lying words; or if bad
Commodities be avouched to be good, or if he seeks after unreasonable gain, or the like;
his servant sees it, and it is enough to undo him.11
In the same vein, Liguori (1696-1787) states that it is the duty of a master to dismiss any
of his servants whose actions give bad example to others and who does not correct
himself.
Masters sin gravely:
…
If they don’t dismiss from the home the one who corrupts the children or others in the
household with depraved words, example or customs and who is not improved after being
reprimanded.12
In these words Liguori has directly in mind the case of a domestic servant, but there is no
reason why his teaching should not be generalized to all types of employees.
In the same line John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) enumerates the requirement about which
we are talking among the basic rights of all employees:
To these rights is certainly joined the right to demand working conditions in which …
morals are safeguarded.13
Additional material on respect for the human dignity of employees
For your lifeblood I will surely require a reckoning; of every beast I will require it and of
man; of every man's brother I will require the life of man. Whoever sheds the blood of
man, by man shall his blood be shed; for God made man in his own image (Gn 9:5-6).
When you buy a Hebrew slave, he shall serve six years, and in the seventh he shall go out
free, for nothing (Ex 21:2).
What is man, that thou dost make so much of him, and that thou dost set thy mind upon
him (Jb 7:17).
If I have rejected the cause of my manservant or my maidservant, when they brought a
complaint against me; what then shall I do when God rises up? When he makes inquiry,
11
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. III, Cap. II, 342.
13
John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, n. 19.
12
181
what shall I answer him? Did not he who made me in the womb make him? And did not
one fashion us in the womb? (Jb 31:13-15).
Who shows no partiality to princes, nor regards the rich more than the poor, for they are
all the work of his hands? (Jb 34:19).
I say, "You are gods, sons of the Most High, all of you” (Ps 82:6).
For God created man incorruptible, and to the image of his own likeness he made him
(Wis 2:23).
The Lord enters into judgment with the elders and princes of his people: "It is you who
have devoured the vineyard, the spoil of the poor is in your houses. What do you mean by
crushing my people, by grinding the face of the poor?" says the Lord God of hosts (Is
3:14-15).
Do justice and righteousness, and deliver from the hand of the oppressor him who has
been robbed. And do no wrong or violence to the alien, the fatherless, and the widow, nor
shed innocent blood in this place (Jer 22:3).
I made a covenant with your fathers when I brought them out of the land of Egypt, out of
the house of bondage, saying, 'At the end of six years each of you must set free the fellow
Hebrew who has been sold to you and has served you six years; you must set him free
from your service.' But your fathers did not listen to me or incline their ears to me. You
recently repented and did what was right in my eyes by proclaiming liberty, each to his
neighbor, and you made a covenant before me in the house which is called by my name;
but then you turned around and profaned my name when each of you took back his male
and female slaves, whom you had set free according to their desire, and you brought
them into subjection to be your slaves. Therefore, thus says the Lord: You have not
obeyed me by proclaiming liberty, every one to his brother and to his neighbor; behold, I
proclaim to you liberty to the sword, to pestilence, and to famine, says the Lord. I will
make you a horror to all the kingdoms of the earth (Jer 34:13-17).
Thus says the Lord of hosts, Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy each to his
brother, do not oppress the widow, the fatherless, the sojourner, or the poor; and let none
of you devise evil against his brother in your heart (Zc 7:9-10).
Then I will draw near to you for judgment; I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers,
against the adulterers, against those who swear falsely, against those who oppress the
hireling in his wages, the widow and the orphan, against those who thrust aside the
sojourner, and do not fear me, says the LORD of hosts (Mal 3:5).
But I say to you that every one who is angry with his brother shall be liable to judgment;
whoever insults his brother shall be liable to the council, and whoever says, 'You fool!'
shall be liable to the hell of fire (Mt 5:22).
“Then the King will say to those at his right hand, “Come, O blessed of my Father,
inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry
and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you
welcomed me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in
prison and you came to me.”
182
Then the righteous will answer him, “Lord, when did we see thee hungry and feed thee,
or thirsty and give thee drink? And when did we see thee a stranger and welcome thee, or
naked and clothe thee? And when did we see thee sick or in prison and visit thee?”
And the King will answer them, “Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of
these my brethren, you did it to me” (Mt 25:34-40).
It is the Spirit himself bearing witness with our spirit that we are children of God (Rom
8:16).
Love is patient and kind; … it is not arrogant or rude… it is not irritable or resentful (1
Cor 13:4-5).
Do you not know that you are God's temple and that God's Spirit dwells in you? If any
one destroys God's temple, God will destroy him. For God's temple is holy, and that
temple you are (1 Cor 3:16-17).
And because you are sons, God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying,
"Abba! Father!" So through God you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son then
an heir (Gal 4:6-7).
Masters, do the same to them, and forbear threatening, knowing that he who is both their
Master and yours is in heaven, and that there is no partiality with him (Eph 6:9).
Perhaps this is why he was parted from you for a while, that you might have him back for
ever, no longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a beloved brother, especially to me
but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord (Phm 15-16).
See what love the Father has given us, that we should be called children of God; and so
we are (1 Jn 3:1).
Saint Ignatius of Antioch (? - c. 107) – Do not treat slaves, whether men or women, in an
overbearing manner.14
Didache (80-90) – Do not be harsh when giving orders to male or female slaves, since
they trust in the same God as yours; otherwise they may cease to fear Him who is over
you both. He has not come to call men according to their station but those whom the
Spirit has made ready. 15
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Man is therefore justly dear to God, since he is
His workmanship. The other works of creation He made by the word of command alone,
but man He framed by Himself, by His own hand, and breathed into him what was
peculiar to Himself.16
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Domestics, too, are to be treated like ourselves;
for they are human beings, as we are. For God is the same to free and bond.17
14
St. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to Polycarp, 4.3
Didache, 4, 10.
16
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, bk. I, ch. III.
17
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, bk. III, ch. XII.
15
183
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Seeing your brother is seeing God.18
Origen (185-254) – Consider that man’s heart is no small thing, for it can embrace so
much. Do not measure its greatness by its physical dimensions, but by the power of its
thought, whereby it is able to attain the knowledge of so many truths. In the heart it is
possible to prepare the way of the Lord, to lay out a straight path where the Word and
the Wisdom of God may pass.19
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – Let the master love his servant, although he be his
superior. Let him consider wherein they are equal, even as he is a man… let a master
who has a believing servant love him as a son or as a brother, on account of their
communion in the faith, but still preserving the difference of a servant.20
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Do you realize that we are walking among many images of
Christ? Therefore be careful not to give the impression that we despoil these images of
the crown Christ set on all. Let us endeavour not to take from him whom we ought to
give. But instead, we not only do not honour the poor, but we dishonour them, we
obliterate and persecute them, and we fail to realize that each time we harm them we
injure the image of God.21
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Thou renderest masters forbearing to their servants, from a
regard to God their common Master, and more disposed to advise than to compel.22
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – Do not despise these men in their abjection, do
not think them of no account. Reflect what they are and you will understand their dignity;
they have taken upon them the person of our Savior.23
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 35 - c. 394) – “I have bought men and women slaves” At what
price, tell me for your life? What have you found among all beings that is so valuable as
this nature? What low price did you set on intelligence? At what price did you value the
image of God?24
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 35 - c. 394) – God made man capable of carrying out his role
as king of the earth ... Man was created in the image of the One who governs the
universe. Everything demonstrates that from the beginning man's nature was marked by
royalty... Man is a king. Created to exercise dominion over the world, he was given a
likeness to the king of the universe; he is the living image who participates by his dignity
in the perfection of the divine archetype.25
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Look at Paul writing on behalf of Onesimus, a
runaway slave; he is not ashamed to call him his child, his very heart, his brother, his
partner. What can I say? Jesus Christ lowered himself to the point of making our slaves
18
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, 1, 19.
Origen, Homilies on Luke, 21.
20
Apostolic Constitutions, bk. IV, 12.
21
St. Ambrose, Sermon on Psalm 118.
22
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 30.
23
St. Gregory of Nyssa, On the Love for the Poor.
24
St. Gregory of Nyssa, Hom. IV on Eclesiasticus.
25
St. Gregory of Nyssa, On the Making of Man, 4.
19
184
his brothers. If they are brothers of Jesus Christ, then they are also our brothers.26
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – What is it that is about to be created, that enjoys
such honour? It is man—that great and wonderful living creature, more precious in the
eyes of God than all other creatures! For him the heavens and the earth, the sea and all
the rest of creation exist. God attached so much importance to his salvation that he did
not spare his own Son for the sake of man.27
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – “and with fear and trembling": that is, toward God,
fearing lest He one day accuse you for your negligence toward your slaves.
"And forbear threatening;" be not irritating, he means, nor oppressive.28
Saint Gregory the Great (540-604) – Awake, O man, and recognize the dignity of thy
nature. Recollect thou wast made in the image of God, which although it was corrupted
in Adam, was yet re-fashioned in Christ.29
Calvin (1509-1564) – If we would not violate the image of God, we must hold the person
of man sacred.30
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – If you have servants be open and honest in your
dealings with them.31
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Heads of households and superiors are bound to
take care of their servants and of their other subjects. This is evident from 1 Timothy 5, 8 …
And the reason is that they are their head and take the place of parents. Therefore they are
bound in a certain way to those same things as parents.32
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – Masters should take the same care of
their servants as of their own children, remembering the warning of St. Paul that if they
do not have care for them, they will be more severely punished on the day of judgement.
Servants are to give you service and to be loyal to you, and you must treat them not as
slaves but as your children and your brethren.33
Leo XIII (pope 1878-1903) – It is shameful and inhuman to use men as things for gain
and to put no more value on them than what they are worth in muscle and energy.34
Pius XI (pope 1922-1927) – As there is in him a spiritual and immortal soul, likewise he
is a person endowed by his Creator with such marvellous gifts of mind and body that he
can rightly be called a ‘microcosm’ (to use the expression of ancient writers), that is to
say, a little world, which is worth more than all the rest of the created universe.35
26
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on Philemon, 2.
St. John Chrysostom, In Gen. Sermo, II, 1.
28
St. John Chrysostom, Homily XXII on the Epistle to the Ephesians.
29
St. Gregory the Great, Sermo XXVII in Nativitate Domini, 6.
30
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. 2, ch. 8, 40.
31
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 5.
32
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. III, Cap. II, 342.
33
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “Are Your Affairs Going Better?” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1960.
34
Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, n. 31.
35
Pius XI, Divini Redmeptoris, n. 27.
27
185
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – It is a serious thing to live in a society of possible gods and
goddesses, to remember that the dullest and most uninteresting person you can talk to
may one day be a creature which, if you say it now, you would be strongly tempted to
worship, or else a horror and a corruption such as you now meet, if at all, only in a
nightmare. All day long we are, in some degree, helping each other to one or other of
these destinations. It is in the light of these overwhelming possibilities, it is with the awe
and the circumspection proper to them, that we should conduct all our dealings with one
another, all friendships, all loves, all play, all politics.36
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – There will come a time when every culture, every institution,
every nation, the human race, all biological life is extinct and every one of us is still
alive. Immortality is promised to us, not to these generalities. It was not for societies or
states that Christ dies, but for men … as organs in the Body of Christ, as stones and
pillars in the temple, we are assured of our eternal self-identity and shall live to
remember the galaxies as an old tale.37
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – We cannot truly pray to God the Father of all if we
treat any people in other than brotherly fashion, for all men are created in God’s
image.38
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Now, man is not wrong when he regards himself as
superior to bodily concerns, and as more than a speck of nature or a nameless
constituent of the city of man. For by his interior qualities he outstrips the whole sum of
mere things. He plunges into the depths of reality whenever he enters into his own heart;
God, Who probes the heart, awaits him there; there he discerns his proper destiny
beneath the eyes of God.39
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – There is a growing awareness of the exalted dignity
proper to the human person, since he stands above all things, and his rights and duties
are universal and inviolable. Therefore, there must be made available to all men
everything necessary for leading a life truly human, such as food, clothing, and shelter;
the right to choose a state of life freely and to found a family, the right to education, to
employment, to a good reputation, to respect, to appropriate information, to activity in
accord with the upright norm of one's own conscience, to protection of privacy and
rightful freedom even in matters religious.40
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Hence, the social order and its development must
invariably work to the benefit of the human person if the disposition of affairs is to be
subordinate to the personal realm and not contrariwise, as the Lord indicated when He
said that the Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath.41
36
C. S. Lewis, “The Weight of Glory” in The Weight of Glory and other Essays, MacMillan, New York,
1980, pp. 18-19.
37
C. S. Lewis, “Membership” in The Weight of Glory and other Essays, MacMillan, New York, 1980, p.
116.
38
Nostra Aetate, 5.
39
Gaudium et Spes, 14.
40
Gaudium et Spes, 26.
41
Gaudium et Spes, 26.
186
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – … as well as disgraceful working conditions, where
men are treated as mere tools for profit, rather than as free and responsible persons; all
these things and others of their like are infamies indeed. They poison human society, but
they do more harm to those who practice them than those who suffer from the injury.
Moreover, they are supreme dishonor to the Creator.42
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – In the economic and social realms, too, the dignity and
complete vocation of the human person and the welfare of society as a whole are to be
respected and promoted. For man is the source, the center, and the purpose of all
economic and social life.43
Synod of Bishops (1971) – Because every man is truly a visible image of the invisible God
and a brother of Christ, the Christian finds in every man God himself and God’s absolute
demand for justice and love.44
Pontifical Council for Social Communications (1971) - Individuals have irreducible
dignity and importance, and may never be sacrificed to collective interests.45
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The reality of the Redemption, in its human dimension,
reveals the unheard-of greatness of man, “qui talem ac tantum meruit habere
Redemptorem” [who deserved to have such a Redeemer].46
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Man is called to a fullness of life which far exceeds the
dimensions of his earthly existence, because it consists in sharing the very life of God.
The loftiness of this supernatural vocation reveals the greatness and the inestimable
value of human life even in its temporal phase.47
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – As a starting point our faith
communities underline the following values:
Human Dignity
It is the right of all persons and their communities to be treated and to treat others with
justice, love, compassion and respect.48
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – When the individual is not recognized and loved in the
person's dignity as the living image of God (cf. Gen 1:26), the human being is exposed to
more humiliating and degrading forms of "manipulation," that most assuredly reduce the
individual to a slavery to those who are stronger.49
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The person is not at all a "thing" or an "object" to be used,
but primarily a responsible "subject," one endowed with conscience and freedom; called
42
Gaudium et Spes, 27.
Gaudium et Spes, 63.
44
1971 Synod of Bishops, Justice in the World, Part II.
45
Pontifical Council for Social Communications, Communio et Progressio, n. 23.
46
John Paul II, Dives in Misericordia (1980), 7.
47
John Paul II, Evangelium vitae, n. 2.
48
Working Group on Public Policy and Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada
(ELCIC), What Does Our God Require of Us?
49
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 5.
43
187
to live responsibly in society and history; and oriented towards spiritual and religious
values.50
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Every business operates with assumptions about
human nature… What should we as Christians believe about the nature of people at
work? What concepts will guide our management style?
A familiar Christian belief is that we are all created in the image of God. We believe this
is critical to our thinking about people on the production line, in the office, or at the
board of directors meeting. This is foundational truth that should permeate our thinking,
for it is at the core of what it means to be human.51
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – One of the biggest temptations we all face in business
is to become so absorbed with our products and services that we treat people as mere
factors of production and means to an end. This is almost natural because people, like
other resources, are employed in many impersonal functions that produce economic
wealth. People can be seen only as costs. We can be tempted to treat them only as a
means to success. Decision making becomes far more complex when we take people
seriously. When every person and every individual act has larger value than just the
bottom line, decisions become more difficult.
…
It takes time and money to care for people. It takes time to listen. It takes time to think
about them and respond appropriately. It takes time and money and creativity to
implement programs and procedures that take people’s needs into consideration. It takes
time to find and develop people’s abilities and talents. Love is hard work and it is
costly.52
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(1997) – In the light of the Christian faith a certain vision of man is outlined. Man is an
image of God, created as somebody who stands before him and speaks with him and
therefore endowed with a unique and inalienable dignity.53
John Paul II (pope 1978-2005 ) – The Jubilee Year… invites us to face the economic and
social imbalances which exist in the world of work, re-establishing the just hierarchy of
values, with, at the top, the dignity of the men and women who work, their freedom,
responsibility and participation.54
Privacy
Privacy is a term that only came into widespread use during the second half of the 20th
Century. It is a slippery term as it covers a variety of concerns. For instance, the U.S.
Supreme Court based its upholding of the “right” to perform abortions on its
50
Id.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, pp. 39-40.
52
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp, 95-6.
53
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, para. 93.
54
John Paul II, Speech on Jubilee of Workers, Rome, May 1, 2000.
51
188
understanding of the doctrine of privacy. It is clear that a Christian cannot assent blindly
to all the “rights” that some people try to legitimize under the ample mantle of a so-called
general right to privacy.
On the other hand, some other interests that are widely understood to be subsumed under
a general right to privacy have much better credentials in the Christian tradition than the
right to abortion. In this section we will consider two such interests that are sometimes
threatened in employment situations: the interest not to be subjected to pressure by one’s
employer to change, or at least to hide, one’s fundamental beliefs and convictions; and
the interest to be allowed an area free from the prying of others both in the physical and
intellectual realms. These interests are so important that they constitute authentic human
rights and there is sound support for both of them in the Christian tradition.
The idea of freedom of choice as a gift appears already in the Old Testament:
God created man and left him under the control of his free choice (Sir 15:14).
In the New Testament there are frequent references to the freedom that Christ won for us
and to the importance of not falling back into slavery:
For you were called to freedom, brethren; only do not use your freedom as an opportunity
for the flesh, but through love be servants of one another (Gal 5:13).
An example of how the early Christians realized that this gift of freedom excludes
compulsion is provided by Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215). It is especially
interesting that Clement emphasizes how God himself respects this freedom of man.
While God easily could compel man to comply with his law, he chooses to respect man’s
freedom even if this entails that man will sometimes use this freedom for evil purposes.
Of course, if God himself respects man’s freedom, it follows that there can be no possible
justification to force a man to do something against his conscience “for his own good”55:
For God compels not (for compulsion is repugnant to God), but supplies to those who
seek, and bestows on those who ask, and opens to those who knock.56
A contemporary official reaffirmation of this right can be found in the encyclical
Centesimus Annus of John Paul II (pope 1978- ):
Finally … the right to express one's own personality at the workplace without suffering
any affront to one's conscience or personal dignity [needs to be guaranteed].57
55
A different matter is preventing somebody from acting according to his conscience to protect the rights
of others. Thus, if somebody’s religion prescribes the performance of human sacrifices, any human
authority would be perfectly justified in preventing him from doing so. The important point, however, is
that this is not done “for his own good,” but rather to prevent him from harming others.
56
Clement of Alexandria, Who Is the Rich Man Who Will Be Saved?, X.
57
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 15.
189
The aspect of privacy which consists in protection from unjustified prying by others in
one’s personal affairs has also been defended in contemporary Christian statements. An
example is the following official statement by a Vatican agency (1971):
But the right to information is not limitless. There is the right to privacy which protects
the private life of families and individuals.58
It is worth noticing that in this statement the right to privacy is stated in the context of a
right to information. This is significant as none of these rights is absolute. On the
contrary, they limit each other. An employer may have good reasons, based on the
common good of the members of the firm, to seek to be informed about some aspects of
the activities of his employees and this will rightly limit their right to privacy. For
instance, the employer may seek to monitor his employees’ telephone calls in order to
carry out quality control on the levels of customer service. In practice, stating that
employees have a right to privacy means that their interest in having a personal space free
from intrusion by others should be seriously taken into account, and that it should not be
violated for comparatively unimportant reasons, or when less intrusive methods of
protecting the interests of the firm are available.
Additional material on privacy
Origen (185-254) – God does not want to impose the good, but wants free beings.59
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Thou renderest masters forbearing to their servants, from a
regard to God their common Master, and more disposed to advise than to compel.60
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – The soul shows its royal and exalted
character... in that it is free and self-governed, swayed autonomously by its own will. Of
whom else can this be said, save a king?... Thus human nature, created to rule other
creatures, was by its likeness to the King of the universe made as it were a living image,
partaking with the Archetype both in dignity and in name.61
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – There is a growing awareness of the exalted dignity
proper to the human person, since he stands above all things, and his rights and duties
are universal and inviolable. Therefore, there must be made available to all men
everything necessary for leading a life truly human, such as … the right … to protection
of privacy and rightful freedom even in matters religious.62
Vatican council II (1962-1965) – This Vatican Council declares that the human person
has a right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are to be immune from
coercion on the part of individuals or of social groups and of any human power, in such
58
Pontifical Council for the Instruments of Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, 1971, no 42.
Origen, On Prayer, 29.
60
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 30.
61
St Gregory of Nyssa, On the Making of Man, 4.
62
Gaudium et Spes, n. 26.
59
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wise that no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether
privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others within due limits.63
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – It is possible for business to “meddle” too much in
the personal lives of employees. This may make problems worse. We may intrude on
privacy.64
Motivation and discipline
In addressing the issue of the motivation of employees, an elementary realism forces us
to pay special attention to issues like the material and non-material rewards that they
should obtain for their services to the firm and the disciplinary means to use to constrain
those who are disruptive. In this section we will focus primarily on the issue of discipline
leaving the issue of pay and other rewards for a different section.
It is important, however, to be very clear from the beginning that in the Christian
tradition discipline is a subsidiary means of motivation. Compulsion is not the ideal way
of motivating human beings to do their duty. We cannot base a whole conception of
management on those ways of acting that are appropriate to deal with lazy and
irresponsible employees, however numerous they may be in a given setting. On the
contrary, it is essential that we be aware of the way a Christian should treat an employee
who is responsible and faithful. On that issue Scripture provides very clear guidance:
If thou have a faithful servant, let him be to thee as thy own soul: treat him as a brother:
because in the blood of thy soul thou hast gotten him (Sir 33:31).
The employee who himself is fully aware of the demands of his own Christina vocation
will not be motivated primarily by fear of the stick or by the carrots that may be attached
to good performance, but by much deeper considerations—primarily the awareness that
by using well the gifts God has given to him he is living out his Christian vocation and
playing his own role in the plans of God.
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but
the same Lord; and there are varieties of working, but it is the same God who inspires
them all in every one. To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common
good (1 Cor 12:4-7).
Accordingly, a Christian—and for that matter, any good man—should do his work not by
constraint (whether stick or carrot) but by virtue of a willing awareness of what God
expects of him:
Tend the flock of God that is your charge, not by constraint but willingly, not for
shameful gain but eagerly, not as domineering over those in your charge but being
63
Dignitatis Humanae, n. 2.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 113.
64
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examples to the flock (1 Pt 5:2-3 ).
All this is important because a tendency to concentrate on the pathologies of the work
situation, the cases of irresponsible people who have no real internal motivation to do
their work, may easily lead to actions that tend to put off the spark of responsible
motivation in those who have it. Necessary as it is to be clear about the ways that can be
used to discipline those who refuse to submit to the legitimate requirements of the
business firm, it is even more important to be aware of the objectives and considerations
that, in the Christian view, should motivate a worker. Ultimately a Christian is motivated
to work, and work well, by a complex of considerations about the place of work in the
Christian view of reality, his solidarity with other people, his personal vocation and the
place of work in it, and the eternal significance of human actions, which were expounded
in the first two chapters. The first responsibility of a manager in motivating his
employees should be to do his best to keep alive and foster such motivation. To do
otherwise and to take as one’s focus the pathological cases and what needs to be done to
control them, leads managers to foster a permanent attitude of childishness and
irresponsibility among their employees. The often-heard justification of this on the basis
of examples found in the Bible does not settle the question. As Saint Thomas Aquinas
(1224-1274) points out, the motivation methods typically found in the Old Testament
were not meant to set definitive standards in this question:
The Old Law was given to a people as yet imperfect in comparison to the perfection
which was to result from Christ's coming: and for this reason, that people is compared to
a child that is still under a pedagogue (Gal. 3:24)… It was therefore fitting that the Old
Law should conduct men to God by means of temporal goods for which the imperfect
have an affection.65
What is the method of motivation ideally suited to a Christian (and, to repeat once again,
to a mature and upright human being)? It is well set out by Pope John XXIII (pope 19581963):
Wherefore, a civil authority which uses as its only or its chief means either threats and
fear of punishment or promises of rewards cannot effectively move men to promote the
common good of all. Even if it did so move them, this would be altogether opposed to
their dignity as men, endowed with reason and free will. As authority rests chiefly on
moral force, it follows that civil authority must appeal primarily to the conscience of
individual citizens, that is, to each one's duty to collaborate readily for the common good
of all.66
Still, having said this, experience shows that human beings often fail to comply
voluntarily with what is needed to promote the common good of a business organization.
The problem then is to decide how to deal with those who choose to pursue their own
selfish interests in disregard of the interests of others. There is a certain general
impression that a “Christian employer” should be a soft employer—somehow like an
ineffectual old auntie of whom one can always take advantage. Interestingly enough, the
65
66
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 99, a. 6.
John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, n. 47.
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Bible shows us once and again that God himself does not treat the Jewish people in a soft
and indulgent way. He gives clear warning that he will punish, and punish severely, the
betrayal of the covenant into which the Jewish people voluntarily entered.
If you be willing, and will hearken to Me, you shall eat the good things of the land. But if
you will not, and will provoke Me to wrath: the sword shall devour you (Is 1:19,20).
Our Lord himself did not hesitate to act energetically when he had to. Among many
examples of this, perhaps the one that stands out most vividly was the expulsion of the
money-changers and merchants from the Temple:
In the temple he found those who were selling oxen and sheep and pigeons, and the
money-changers at their business. And making a whip of cords, he drove them all, with
the sheep and oxen, out of the temple; and he poured out the coins of the money-changers
and overturned their tables (Jn 2:14-15).
Another point that is clearly stated in the Bible is that the fact that God uses discipline is
in no way incompatible with his love for those he disciplines. On the contrary, being
subject to punishment is explicitly declared to be a sign of God’s love:
For the Lord reproves him whom he loves, as a father the son in whom he delights (Prv
3:12).
Those whom I love, I reprove and chasten (Rv 3:19).
God himself recommends the use of discipline—even corporal discipline—for sons:
He who spares the rod hates his son, but he who loves him is diligent to discipline him
(Prv 13:24).
Do not withhold discipline from a child; if you beat him with a rod, he will not die. If you
beat him with the rod you will save his life from Sheol (Prv 23:13-14).
(At this point I would like to give a warning. Many texts of Scripture about discipline
make reference to discipline in the family. One should generalize from such quotations
only ideas about modalities of acceptable sanctions and the spirit in which they should be
meted out, but not about the rightness of using disciplinary powers in contexts different
from those the texts themselves envisage. The obvious danger of doing that would be to
smuggle in a paternalist conception of authority that uncritically extends to other ambits
the responsibilities of a father towards his son).
Discipline—sometimes a stern discipline—is also recommended for servants and slaves:
By mere words a servant is not disciplined, for though he understands, he will not give
heed (Prv 29:19).
[Be not ashamed] to make the side of a wicked slave to bleed (Sir 42:5).
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On the other hand, we are taught that punishment must never be inflicted just because one
is angry or as means to vent one’s feelings. And in disciplining others, one should always
keep in mind that all of us have faults; this should be reflected in the way in which the
disciplinary measures are imposed:
Let a good man strike or rebuke me in kindness (Ps 141:5).
Masters, do the same to them, and forbear threatening, knowing that he who is both their
Master and yours is in heaven, and that there is no partiality with him (Eph 6:9).
In any case, discipline should be administered with measure and a sense of proportion,
“with judgement”:
Set him [your slave] to work: for so it is fit for him. And if he be not obedient, bring him
down with fetters, but be not excessive towards any one: and do no grievous thing
without judgment (Sir 33: 30).
Fathers, do not provoke your children to anger, but bring them up in the discipline and
instruction of the Lord (Eph 6:4).
While the essential objective of discipline in communities other than the family is to
protect the common good of the community, an important secondary objective should be
the improvement of the person being disciplined. At the very least discipline should
convey the message that what was done is considered wrong by the person imposing the
discipline. From this, ideally, the person punished would conclude that it is actually
wrong, and this should leave him wiser:
The rod and reproof give wisdom, but a child left to himself brings shame to his mother
(Prv 29:15).
A further step should be an internalization of that standard and, perhaps after several
repetitions of this process, a better character in the person disciplined
For the moment all discipline seems painful rather than pleasant; later it yields the
peaceful fruit of righteousness to those who have been trained by it (Heb 12:11).
Up to this point I have concentrated primarily on biblical admonitions on discipline. Let
us see now some signposts on the way later Christian writers received and elaborated this
material.
Saint Augustine (354-430), among other things, stresses the subsidiary role of discipline,
that is to say, that it should not be used as the primary motivational tool:
Thou renderest masters forbearing to their servants, from a regard to God their common
Master, and more disposed to advise than to compel.67
67
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 30.
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He also stresses that the aim of discipline should be the protection of the common good
of the community concerned and, as far as possible, the improvement of the person
disciplined:
And if any member of the family interrupts the domestic peace by disobedience, he is
corrected either by word or blow, or some kind of just and legitimate punishment, such as
society permits, that he may himself be the better for it, and be readjusted to the family
harmony from which he had dislocated himself. For as it is not benevolent to give a man
help at the expense of some greater benefit he might receive, so it is not innocent to spare
a man at the risk of his falling into graver sin. To be innocent, we must not only do harm
to no man, but also restrain him from sin or punish his sin, so that either the man himself
who is punished may profit by his experience, or others be warned by his example.68
It is especially interesting, in view of the common opinion to which I referred above, that
a Christian should be characteristically “good” or “soft,” to notice that in this quotation
Saint Augustine makes explicitly the point that administering discipline can be a duty.
The head of a community has a definite responsibility to uphold appropriate standards in
that community. If, because of the unreasonableness of some of the community members,
those standards are threatened and the way to uphold them is to impose discipline, to fail
to do so would be a dereliction of duty.
Still, an ever-present danger for those who are in a position to administer discipline is to
take advantage of this to satisfy their own craving for self-affirmation, or to relieve their
own feelings. A point that is repeated again and again by Christian writers, quite aware of
the more unsavory aspects of human nature, is that the only proper justification of
discipline is objective: the demands of the common good of the community, never the
purely subjective feelings of the person administering it. Thus Saint Basil (329-379) says:
We are bidden to practice fairness and justice also toward our slaves. Do not employ
force because you are in command and do not take advantage because it is within your
power to do so.69
The need for reasonableness and moderation in administering discipline is more
colourfully expressed by Saint John Chrysostom (344-407):
Women, whenever they are angry with their maid-servants, fill the whole house with
their own clamor. And oftentimes too, if the house happens to be built along a narrow
street, then all the passers-by hear the mistress scolding, and the maid weeping and
wailing. What can possibly be more disgraceful than the sound of those wailings? What
in the world has happened there? All the women round immediately peep in and one of
them says, "Such a one is beating her own maid." Whatever can be more shameless than
this? "What then, ought one not to strike at all?" No, I say not so, (for it must be done,)
but then it must be neither frequently, nor immoderately, nor for any wrongs of thine
own, as I am constantly saying, nor for any little failure in her service, but only if she is
doing harm to her own soul. If thou chastise her for a fault of this kind, all will applaud,
68
69
St. Augustine, The City of God, bk. XIX, ch. 16.
St. Basil, Sermon on Mercy and Justice.
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and there will be none to upbraid thee; but if thou do it for any reasons of thine own, all
will condemn thy cruelty and harshness.70
In the following quotation, Saint Benedict (480-547) reflects the subsidiary motivational
role of discipline. For the person who has his own motivation to act rightly, a warning is
all that is needed in case of a mistake. Discipline, in the sense of imposition of some
unwelcome punishment, is only needed for “the wicked and the hard of heart.” However,
a point on which it is useful to reflect is that the world in not divided into two neat
groups, “the wicked and the hard of heart” on the one hand and the “good and saintly” on
the other. The fact is that all of us are sometimes “wicked and hard of hart” and therefore
in need of discipline to really learn our lesson.
For in his teaching the Abbot should always… mingle gentleness with severity, as the
occasion may call for… The well-disposed and those of good understanding, let him
correct at the first and second admonition only with words; but let him chastise the
wicked and the hard of heart, and the proud and disobedient at the very first offense with
stripes and other bodily punishments.71
Of course, the head of a modern business firm would be making a very serious mistake if
he took Saint Benedict’s advice to the letter and started administering “stripes and bodily
punishments” to his subordinates. What is an appropriate punishment depends in
important ways on the standards accepted in each society, and the days of bodily
punishments in a working context (at least outside the army) are long past.
In the next quotation, Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) elaborates on the point that
being a soft ruler often shows not the Christian quality of mercy, but rather a form of
refined selfishness: the soft ruler is often moved by the desire to avoid giving himself a
bad time and betrays lack of true concern for the good of the community entrusted to his
care. The quotation has added spice if one realizes that this was a common woman
addressing a pope, and that even though she is speaking in general terms, it was obvious
to both of them that she was referring very specifically to him personally:
He who is enamored with himself can only do evil. He is like a woman bringing forth
still-born children. When such a man is set over others, he will do evil, for because of his
self-love and the fear of men to which he is given because of his selfishness, holy justice
is dead in him. He sees his subjects commit sins, yet he does not reproach them and
pretends not to see anything. Or if he reproaches them he does it with so much tepidity
and indifference that there is no result, and in the end vice sticks to them only more
firmly than before. He is always trying to avoid shocking anyone and raising
contradiction. And why? Because he is seeking only himself ... If one does not cauterize
the wound with fire and iron, but only puts on an ointment, one does not cure it but
poisons everything and often enough causes death.72
Obviously Saint Catherine of Siena did not suffer herself from the vice she reproves in
70
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on Ephesians, 15, 3.
St. Benedict, Rule, ch. 3.
72
St. Catherine of Siena, Letter to Pope Gregory XI.
71
196
the pope, and was quite ready to do what had to be done and say what had to be said.
A last quotation, this time from the Anglican bishop Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), explains
in positive terms and with precision the characteristics of discipline administered in
accordance with Christian principles:
Masters must correct their servants with gentleness, prudence, and mercy; not for every
slight fault, not always, not with upbraiding and disgraceful language, but with such only
as may express and reprove the fault, and amend the person.73
Several of the above points are brought to bear to a modern business context in a practical
way by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990):
Love demands that inadequate performance be addressed kindly. Although we must
never attack human worth, dignity, or value, we must never fail to confront unacceptable
behavior and performance. To be just and kind is to seek positive, corrective action and
carry it out in a manner that demonstrates and affirms the value of the worker while
constructively communicating the need for change.74
These same authors address another point of great importance: controls are not antipeople; people need the help of external controls to bring their own behaviour under
control. In fact, placing a person in an environment in which there are no controls at all
can be a form of tempting him; on the contrary, providing adequate controls is a form of
practicing charity with our employees:
We must recognize that temptation is everywhere is business. When we place people in
positions of potential temptation—handling large sums of cash, overseeing valuable
merchandise, being under great pressure in a job where cheating will probably escape
detection, and so on—we must also provide controls over that temptation… In this regard
we have a responsibility to be our brother’s keeper in business.75
Additional material on motivation and discipline
The two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phin'ehas, were priests of the Lord… Now the sons of
Eli were worthless men; they had no regard for the Lord. … Thus the sin of the young
men was very great in the sight of the Lord; for the men treated the offering of the Lord
with contempt. … And there came a man of God to Eli, and said to him, "Thus the Lord
has said, 'I revealed myself to the house of your father when they were in Egypt subject to
the house of Pharaoh…. Why then look with greedy eye at my sacrifices and my offerings
which I commanded, and honor your sons above me by fattening yourselves upon the
choicest parts of every offering of my people Israel?' … Behold, the days are coming,
when I will cut off your strength and the strength of your father's house, so that there will
73
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, Sect. II.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 33.
75
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 42.
74
197
not be an old man in your house. … Then the Lord said to Samuel, "Behold, I am about to
do a thing in Israel, at which the two ears of every one that hears it will tingle. … And I
tell him that I am about to punish his house for ever, for the iniquity which he knew,
because his sons were blaspheming God, and he did not restrain them (1 Sam 1:3; 2:12,
17, 27, 29, 31; 3:11 & 13).
But Machabeus ever trusted with all hope that God would help them. And he exhorted his
people not to fear the coming of the nations, but to remember the help they had before
received from heaven, and now to hope for victory from the Almighty. And speaking to
them out of the law, and the prophets, and withal putting them in mind of the battles they
had fought before, he made them more cheerful: Then after he had encouraged them, he
shewed withal the falsehood of the Gentiles, and their breach of oaths. So he armed every
one of them, not with defence of shield and spear, but with very good speeches and
exhortations, and told them a dream worthy to be believed, whereby he rejoiced them all
(2 Mac 15:7-11).
But thou hast mercy upon all, because thou canst do all things, and overlookest the sins
of men for the sake of repentance (Wis 11:24).
And therefore thou chastisest them that err, by little and little: and admonishest them,
and speakest to them, concerning the things wherein they offend: that leaving their
wickedness, they may believe in thee, O Lord (Wis 12:2).
But thou hast taught thy people by such works, that they must be just and humane, and
hast made thy children to be of a good hope: because in judging thou givest place for
repentance for sins (Wis 12:19).
He that loveth his son, frequently chastiseth him (Sir 30:1).
Behold my servant … He will not cry or lift up his voice, or make it heard in the street; a
bruised reed he will not break, and a dimly burning wick he will not quench; he will
faithfully bring forth justice (Is 42:1-3).
You have polluted the land with your vile harlotry. Therefore the showers have been
withheld, and the spring rain has not come (Jer 3:2-3).
They know no bounds in deeds of wickedness; they judge not with justice the cause of the
fatherless, to make it prosper, and they do not defend the rights of the needy. Shall I not
punish them for these things? says the Lord (Jer 5:28-29).
Their houses shall be turned over to others, their fields and wives together; for I will
stretch out my hand against the inhabitants of the land, says the Lord. For from the least
to the greatest of them, every one is greedy for unjust gain; and from prophet to priest,
every one deals falsely (Jer 6:12-13).
For if you truly amend your ways and your doings, if you truly execute justice one with
another, if you do not oppress the alien, the fatherless or the widow, or shed innocent
blood in this place, and if you do not go after other gods to your own hurt, then I will let
you dwell in this place, in the land that I gave of old to your fathers for ever (Jer 7:5-7).
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Their tongue is a deadly arrow; it speaks deceitfully; with his mouth each speaks
peaceably to his neighbor, but in his heart he plans an ambush for him. Shall I not punish
them for these things? says the Lord; and shall I not avenge myself on a nation such as
this? (Jer 9:8-9).
Therefore thus says the Lord of hosts: "Behold, I will punish them; the young men shall
die by the sword; their sons and their daughters shall die by famine” (Jer 11:22).
Behold, I will pluck them up from their land, and I will pluck up the house of Judah from
among them. And after I have plucked them up, I will again have compassion on them,
and I will bring them again each to his heritage and each to his land (Jer 12:14-15).
Because your fathers have forsaken me, says the Lord, and have gone after other gods
and have served and worshiped them, and have forsaken me and have not kept my law,
and because you have done worse than your fathers, for behold, every one of you follows
his stubborn evil will, refusing to listen to me; therefore I will hurl you out of this land
into a land which neither you nor your fathers have known, and there you shall serve
other gods day and night, for I will show you no favor (Jer 16:11-13).
If at any time I declare concerning a nation or a kingdom, that I will pluck up and break
down and destroy it, and if that nation, concerning which I have spoken, turns from its
evil, I will repent of the evil that I intended to do to it (Jer 18:7-8).
The clamor will resound to the ends of the earth, for the Lord has an indictment against
the nations; he is entering into judgment with all flesh, and the wicked he will put to the
sword, says the Lord (Jer 25:31).
Thus says the Lord: Stand in the court of the Lord's house, and speak to all the cities of
Judah which come to worship in the house of the Lord all the words that I command you
to speak to them; do not hold back a word. It may be they will listen, and every one turn
from his evil way, that I may repent of the evil which I intend to do to them because of
their evil doings (Jer 26:2-3).
For I am with you to save you, says the Lord; I will make a full end of all the nations
among whom I scattered you, but of you I will not make a full end. I will chasten you in
just measure, and I will by no means leave you unpunished (Jer 30:11).
For the Lord will not cast off for ever, but, though he cause grief, he will have
compassion according to the abundance of his steadfast love; for he does not willingly
afflict or grieve the sons of men (Lam 3:31-33).
If I say to the wicked, 'You shall surely die,' and you give him no warning, nor speak to
warn the wicked from his wicked way, in order to save his life, that wicked man shall die
in his iniquity; but his blood I will require at your hand. But if you warn the wicked, and
he does not turn from his wickedness, or from his wicked way, he shall die in his iniquity;
but you will have saved your life (Ezk 3:18-19).
And I will make the land desolate, because they have acted faithlessly, says the Lord God
(Ezk 15:8).
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Moreover I swore to them in the wilderness that I would scatter them among the nations
and disperse them through the countries, because they had not executed my ordinances
(Ezk 20:23-24).
Again, though I say to the wicked, 'You shall surely die,' yet if he turns from his sin and
does what is lawful and right, if the wicked restores the pledge, gives back what he has
taken by robbery, and walks in the statutes of life, committing no iniquity; he shall surely
live, he shall not die (Ezk 33:14-15).
Come, let us return to the Lord; for he has torn, that he may heal us; he has stricken, and
he will bind us up (Hos 6:1).
“I gave you cleanness of teeth in all your cities, and lack of bread in all your places, yet
you did not return to me," says the Lord. … "I smote you with blight and mildew; I laid
waste your gardens and your vineyards; your fig trees and your olive trees the locust
devoured; yet you did not return to me," says the Lord (Am 4:6&9).
And he prayed to the Lord and said, "I pray thee, Lord, is not this what I said when I was
yet in my country? That is why I made haste to flee to Tarshish; for I knew that thou art a
gracious God and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love, and repentest
of evil (Jon 4:2).
Who is a God like thee, pardoning iniquity and passing over transgression for the
remnant of his inheritance? He does not retain his anger for ever because he delights in
steadfast love (Mi 7:18).
The Lord is slow to anger and of great might, and the Lord will by no means clear the
guilty (Na 1:3).
But he turned and said to Peter, "Get behind me, Satan! You are a hindrance to me; for
you are not on the side of God, but of men" (Mt 16:23).
Then Peter came up and said to him, "Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me,
and I forgive him? As many as seven times?" Jesus said to him, "I do not say to you seven
times, but seventy times seven”( Mt 18:21-22).
Judge not, and you will not be judged; condemn not, and you will not be condemned;
forgive, and you will be forgiven (Lk 6:37).
But Peter said, "Anani'as, why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to
keep back part of the proceeds of the land? While it remained unsold, did it not remain
your own? And after it was sold, was it not at your disposal? How is it that you have
contrived this deed in your heart? You have not lied to men but to God." When Anani'as
heard these words, he fell down and died. And great fear came upon all who heard of it
(Acts 5:3-5).
For though absent in body I am present in spirit, and as if present, I have already
pronounced judgment in the name of the Lord Jesus on the man who has done such a
thing. When you are assembled, and my spirit is present, with the power of our Lord
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Jesus, you are to deliver this man to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that his spirit
may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus (1 Cor 5:3-5).
Love is patient and kind; … it is not arrogant or rude (1 Cor 13:4-5).
I write this while I am away from you, in order that when I come I may not have to be
severe in my use of the authority which the Lord has given me for building up and not for
tearing down (2 Cor 13:10).
I warned those who sinned before and all the others, and I warn them now while absent,
as I did when present on my second visit, that if I come again I will not spare them since
you desire proof that Christ is speaking in me. He is not weak in dealing with you, but is
powerful in you (2 Cor 13:23).
Be angry but do not sin; do not let the sun go down on your anger (Eph 4:26).
Let all bitterness and wrath and anger and clamor and slander be put away from you,
with all malice, and be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one another, as God
in Christ forgave you (Eph 4:31-32).
Declare these things; exhort and reprove with all authority. Let no one disregard you (Ti
2:15).
And have you forgotten the exhortation which addresses you as sons? --"My son, do not
regard lightly the discipline of the Lord, nor lose courage when you are punished by him.
For the Lord disciplines him whom he loves, and chastises every son whom he receives."
It is for discipline that you have to endure. God is treating you as sons; for what son is
there whom his father does not discipline? (Heb 12:5-7).
Let every man be quick to hear, slow to speak, slow to anger (Jas 1:19).
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Thou shalt not issue orders with bitterness to thy
maidservant or thy man-servant, who trust in the same [God], lest thou shouldst not
reverence that God who is above both; for He came to call men not according to their
outward appearance, but according as the Spirit had prepared them.76
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – For God compels not (for compulsion is
repugnant to God), but supplies to those who seek, and bestows on those who ask, and
opens to those who knock.77
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – Let [the bishop] be patient and gentle in his
admonitions.78
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – When in office, again, it is not right to be harsh and severe,
nor may one be too easy; lest on the one hand we should seem to be exercising a despotic
power, and on the other to be by no means filling the office we had taken up.79
76
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
Clement of Alexandria, Who Is the Rich Man Who Will Be Saved?, X.
78
Apostolic Constitutions, II,5
79
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, Book II, ch. 24.
77
201
Saint Basil (329-379) – Habitual mildness of manner, then, and humility of heart should
characterize the superior.80
Saint Augustine (354-430) – We should never take issue with another’s sin without first
examining our own conscience by inner questioning and by then replying, before God,
without ambiguity, that we are acting out of love.81
Saint Augustine (354-430) – We should correct out of love, not out of a desire to hurt
them, but with the affectionate intention of getting them to change. If we correct others in
that way we shall be keeping very well the precept, ‘If your brother sins against you, go
and tell him his fault, between you and him alone.’ Why do you correct him? Because it
hurts you to have been offended by him? God forbid! If you do it for self-love you achieve
nothing. If it is love that moves you, you do very well.82
Saint Benedict (480-547) – Let [the Abbott] not love one more than another, unless it be
one whom he findeth more exemplary in good works and obedience. Let not a free-born
be preferred to a freedman, unless there be some other reasonable cause... Therefore, let
him have equal charity for all, and impose a uniform discipline for all according to
merit.83
Saint Benedict (480-547) – If a brother is found stubborn or disobedient or proud or
murmuring, or opposed to anything in the Holy Rule and a contemner of the
commandments of his Superiors, let him be admonished by his Superiors once and
again in secret, according to the command of our Lord (cf Mt 18:15-16). If he doth not
amend let him be taken to task publicly before all. But if he doth not reform even then,
and he understandeth what a penalty it is, let him be placed under excommunication; but
if even then he remaineth obstinate let him undergo corporal punishment.84
Saint Benedict (480-547) – Let [the abott] hate vice, but love the brethren. And even in
his corrections, let him act with prudence and not go to extremes, lest, while he aimeth to
remove the rust too thoroughly, the vessel be broken. Let him always keep his own frailty
in mind, and remember that “the bruised reed must not be broken” (Is 42:3). In this we
are not saying that he should allow evils to take root, but that he cut them off with
prudence and charity, as he shall see it is best for each one, as we have already said; and
let him aim to be loved rather than feared.85
Saint Gregory the Great (540-604) – Differently to be admonished are subjects and
prelates: the former that subjection crush them not, the latter that superior place elate
them not: the former that they fail not to fulfil what is commanded them, the latter that
they command not more to be fulfilled than is just: the former that they submit humbly,
the latter that they preside temperately.86
80
St. Basil, Long Rules, q. 43.
St. Augustine, Exp. in Gal, 57.
82
St. Augustine, Sermon 82, 4.
83
St. Benedict, Rule, ch. 2.
84
Ibid., ch. 23.
85
Ibid., ch. 64.
86
St. Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule, part III, ch. IV.
81
202
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – Keeping quiet when you can and should take someone to
task is the same as consenting [in what he has done]; and we know that the same
punishment is reserved for those who consent as for those who actually do the evil.87
Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) – Let those who have received the power of judging
others, exercise judgement with mercy, just as they themselves want to obtain mercy from
the Lord.88
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Sometimes [anger] is ordered by reason or it is
restrained within proper limits by reason, as when one is angry because it is justly fitting
to be angry and within proper limits. This is an act of virtue and it is called righteous
anger.89
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – In order to achieve some good or prevent some
evil, the virtuous man will sometimes not shrink from causing sorrow to those alongside
him.90
Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) - I think it would be well, if our dear Christ on
earth [the Holy Father]... would set himself free from two things which cause the misery
of the Bride of Christ’ [the Church].. . The first is his far too tender clinging to his
kinsfolk and his far too great care for them. The second is that he is far too good-natured
and merciful. Therefore do Christ’s members decay, because there is no one to chastise
them!91
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – From what has been said it is evident how
reprehensible those parents are who, through an indiscreet tenderness, do not correct or
punish their children but let them become vitiated by laxity and evil habits. What greater
cruelty than to see your own child drowning in a river and rather than pull him out by the
hair and causal him pain, you would let him drown? Those parents are no less cruel who,
because they are unwilling to correct or punish their children, let then drown in a sea of
vices. I do not know the works by which I could fittingly condemn this carelessness.92
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – However, the punishment of one’s children should
be done with discretion and mildness, seeking the proper time and occasion to correct
their faults. This should never be done in the heat of anger, but always when one is in
control of reason.93
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – One shares the sins of another through silence if
he does not admonish his neighbor when it is his duty to do so. God calls such persons
“dumb dogs not able to bark,” and speaking through Ezechiel, He says: “If when I say to
the wicked: Thou shalt surely die, thou declare it not to him, nor speak to him, that he
may be converted from his wicked way and live, the same wicked man shall die in his
iniquity, but I will require his blood at thy hand.”
87
St. Bernard, Sermon on the Birth of St. John the Baptist, 9.
St. Francis of Assisi, A Letter to the Faithful.
89
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on The Ten Commandments (5th Commandment).
90
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II 114, 1, ad 3.
91
St. Catherine of Siena, Letter to the Abbot of Marmoutier.
92
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 5.
93
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 5.
88
203
Negligence occurs when we do not punish the wicked when it is our duty to do so. Thus,
judges are guilty of sin if they tolerate evils in the state and do not use the power that
God has given them for the punishment of evil. Parents and teachers also sin in this way
when through too much indulgence they overlook the vices and sins of their children or
students, like the priest Heli, who knew that his sons did evil but did not chastise them. 94
Council of Trent (xxx) – If on account of the gravity of the sin [public] punishment be
necessary, they [bishops] must use rigour with meekness, justice with mercy, and severity
with gentleness, so as to maintain without asperity that discipline which is good and
necessary for people, and which leads those who are corrected to mend their ways; or, if
they do not wish to change, so that their punishment may serve as a salutary warning to
others and lead them away from vice.95
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – In the first place, they are not by words or
actions to exercise too much harshness towards their children. This is the instruction of
St. Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians: Fathers, he says, provoke not your children to
anger, lest they be discouraged. For there is danger that the spirit of the child may be
broken, and he becomes abject and fearful of everything. Hence (the pastor) should
require parents to avoid too much severity and to choose rather to correct their children
than to revenge themselves upon them.
Should a fault be committed which requires reproof and chastisement, the parent should
not, on the other hand, by undue indulgence, overlook its correction. Children are often
spoiled by too much lenity and indulgence on the part of their parents.96
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – This miserable life is but the road to a blessed life;
do not let us fall out by the way one with another; let us go on with the company of our
brethren gently, peacefully, and kindly. Most emphatically I say it, If possible, fall out
with no one, and on no pretext whatever suffer your heart to admit anger and passion….
Of course it is a duty to resist evil and to repress the faults of those for whom we are
responsible, steadily and firmly, but gently and quietly.97
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Masters sin gravely if they don’t dismiss from the
home the one who corrupts the children or others in the household with depraved words,
example or customs and who is not improved after being reprimanded.98
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – Kindness, merely as such, cares not whether its object
becomes good or bad, provided only that it escapes suffering. As Scripture points out, it
is bastards who are spoiled: the legitimate sons, who are to carry on the family tradition,
are punished.99
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Successful reproof of another rests on three
ingredients: a previously established caring relationship between the parties, wherever
possible; a genuine interest in the person at the time of the correction; and the certainty
94
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. IV, ch. 17.
Council of Trent, On Reform, ch. 1.
96
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Fourth Commandment.
97
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.8.
98
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. III, Cap. II, 342.
99
C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, ch. 3.
95
204
that it is the conduct or behaviour of the person that is being addressed, not his or her
personal worth.100
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Along with our obligation to address inappropriate
behavior we have a responsibility to eliminate or reduce obvious temptations.
Temptations are awakened desires whose satisfaction would be immoral. Although there
are no limits to the variety of human desires stimulated in the work environment, we can
reduce the level of temptation by carefully designed control structures and make
consequences commensurate with offenses.101
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – The Christian leader relates to people with gentleness
and meekness, not arrogance and pride. Booth Jesus and Moses are examples of
powerful leaders who used the power of meekness.102
Fair hearing
It is also important to pay attention to the way in which discipline is administered, and
especially to the way of establishing that somebody has fallen short of prescribed
standards. It is only too human for a manager to hear that one of his employees has done
something wrong and there and then conclude that “standards have to be upheld” and
therefore the employee has to be disciplined. Experience shows, however, that very
frequently, if one takes the trouble to ask the employee for his own version of events, a
very different picture emerges. Strictly speaking “fair hearing” refers to this process of
giving the person accused of a fault the opportunity to present his own version of events
and confront his accusers, before deciding on his guilt. Here, however, we will be using
the expression “fair hearing” in a wider sense, referring to a general attitude of avoiding
jumping to conclusions on insufficient evidence and taking pains in finding and weighing
available evidence before applying disciplinary measures.
Obviously a business firm is not a court of law and the formality usually associated to
judicial proceedings would be out of place in a business context. However, because of the
dignity of human beings and the respect that they deserve, the Christian tradition has
always insisted on the importance of presuming the innocence of people until they are
found guilty according to sufficient evidence. This tradition has also often warned against
the tendency to jump to conclusions on the basis of hostile feelings, prejudice or just
plain carelessness. The importance of satisfying serious standards of evidence before
condemning somebody is taught from the earliest books of the Bible:
A single witness shall not prevail against a man for any crime or for any wrong in
connection with any offense that he has committed; only on the evidence of two
witnesses, or of three witnesses, shall a charge be sustained. If a malicious witness rises
100
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 45.
101
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 47.
102 102
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 135.
205
against any man to accuse him of wrongdoing, then both parties to the dispute shall
appear before the Lord, before the priests and the judges who are in office in those days;
the judges shall inquire diligently (Dt 19:15-18).
As I have already indicated, the ultimate basis of this attitude of taking pains before
finding somebody guilty is the respect due to the human dignity of every person. This
point is made clearly in the Book of Job:
If I have rejected the cause of my manservant or my maidservant, when they brought a
complaint against me; what then shall I do when God rises up? When he makes inquiry,
what shall I answer him? Did not he who made me in the womb make him? And did not
one fashion us in the womb (Jb 31:13-15).
It is common among people who occupy positions of authority to imagine that they are
too important to squander their precious time ascertaining carefully the ins and outs of a
relatively trivial case involving some rank and file employee. Job, however, indicates that
the lowly person is as good as, or better than, the man of rank (“Did not he who made me
in the womb made him?”) and concludes that he is as entitled as “his betters” to be
treated with respect in finding out whether or not he has committed a fault. An
elementary aspect of this respect is to make an effort to find out what actually happened.
The Bible also makes the point that one of the traits of the expected Messiah is precisely
that he will judge with righteousness, without jumping to conclusions on the basis of
superficial impressions, and that he will take as much care in deciding the cases of the
poor as those of the powerful:
And the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him ... He shall not judge by what his eyes see,
or decide by what his ears hear; but with righteousness he shall judge the poor, and
decide with equity for the meek of the earth (Is 11:2-4).
I already indicated above that we will use here the expression “fair hearing” in a wide
sense, referring to taking care in weighing all available evidence. However, an
indispensable aspect of this is the practice of fair hearing in its most usual and restricted
meaning of giving an opportunity to the accused to state his case and confront his
accusers, as it is at this stage when very often what seemed to be an open and shut case is
revealed to have unexpected aspects and complications:
He who states his case first seems right, until the other comes and examines him (Prv
18:17).
Another important reason why the practice of fair hearing is so important is to protect
people against malicious accusations and biased reports motivated by prejudice, spite or
ill-feeling. The point is made clearly in the Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380):
Do not admit less evidence to convict any one than that of three witnesses, and those of
known and established reputation; inquire whether they do not accuse out of ill-will or
envy: for there are many that delight in mischief, forward in discourse, slanderous, haters
of the brethren, making it their business to scatter the sheep of Christ; whose affirmation
206
if thou admittest without nice scanning the same, thou wilt disperse thy flock, and betray
it to be devoured by wolves.103
Additional material on fair hearing
On the evidence of two witnesses or of three witnesses he that is to die shall be put to
death; a person shall not be put to death on the evidence of one witness (Dt 17:6).
Before thou inquire, blame no man: and when thou hast inquired, reprove justly (Sir
11:7).
But he standing in the midst of them, said: Are ye so foolish, ye children of Israel, that
without examination or knowledge of the truth, you have condemned a daughter of
Israel? (Dan 13:48).
Nicodemus, who had gone to him before, and who was one of them, said to them, "Does
our law judge a man without first giving him a hearing and learning what he does?" (Jn
7:50-51).
Never admit any charge against an elder except on the evidence of two or three witnesses
(1 Tm 5:19).
Apostolic Constitution (c. 380) – We said before that judgment ought not to be given
upon hearing only one of the parties; for if you hear one of them when the other is not
there, and so cannot make his defence to the accusation brought against him, and rashly
give your votes for condemnation, you will be found guilty of that man's destruction, and
partaker with the false accuser before God, the just Judge.104
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Do not harass and press hard on a man whose fault is not
clearly proved.105
Saint Basil (329-379) – We ought not condemn anyone, even if his accusers be many,
before making a careful study of his case in his presence.106
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – There is still another weakness. I mean excessive gullibility.
It is like a shrewd small fox. I have not met any important person who has succeeded in
protecting himself against it. This is the root of these attacks of anger without motive,
that rigour in punishing the innocent and those hasty verdicts passed on absent people.107
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Again, it requires that no one pass sentence
without a sufficient knowledge of the case. 108
United States Catholic Conference (1977) – In assessing whether or not an institution
103
Apostolic Constitutions, II, 21.
Apostolic Constitutions, II, 51.
105
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. II, ch.. 24.
106
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 54.
107
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, XIV. 23.
108
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
104
207
provides the elements of a just and fair workplace, a number of questions arise such as:
—Do workers have easy access to written procedures that explain how to resolve
disputes with supervisors or file a grievance to protect their rights or the rights of
others?109
Emphasis on community
We have already seen how the very high dignity of human beings demands that in using
their services their own ultimate fulfillment should be taken into account. But how do
human beings reach fulfillment? Christianity has much to say on this. One of its
characteristic teachings, that stands in sharp contrast to the individualism that is so
common nowadays, is that man finds fulfillment in community. From this follows a
strong insistence on the need for social arrangements and structures to foster the
formation of strong communities rather than encourage individualism and isolation.
Beyond specific references, the importance of community in the Christian view of man
derives from three basic doctrines found in the Bible. The first is that man has been
created in God’s image and likeness (Gn 1:26). Now the God of the Bible, in marked
contrast to the God of the philosophers, is not depicted as standing for all eternity in
splendid isolation and self-sufficiency. Rather, the Christian God is a trinity, in which
three divine persons relate to each other in an eternal community of love. A human being
who has no significant connections with others is less than a true image of such God.
The basic strategy that can be detected in God’s plan to bring human beings to himself is
closely related to this fundamental doctrine. In the Old Testament God did not relate to
human beings as individuals separated from each other, on a purely one-on-one basis.
Instead, he formed a covenant community, the people of Israel, and it was through
incorporation into this community that men entered into close personal communion with
God. Similarly, in the New Testament, the Church becomes the new covenant community
into which individuals are incorporated in order to be saved. Both in the Old and the New
Testaments, man becomes closer to God the better a member he is in that community of
God’s people.
Finally, the nature of the salvation that the Christian God offers to man is not
individualistic. God’s promise to man is that he can be admitted to form part of an eternal
community (the kingdom of God) in which all the saved are closely joined to each other
and share into the life of everlasting communion of the Trinity. Many images of this state
of salvation are community images: a kingdom, a banquet, a family, a city. If the ultimate
purpose of God for human beings is to prepare them for a life of eternal communion, it is
not surprising that he delights when they succeed already now in forming close
communities:
109
United States Catholic Conference. Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, 1997, II.A.
208
Behold, how good and pleasant it is when brothers dwell in unity! (Ps 133:1).
It is also significant that the early steps of the Church after the ascension of our Lord are
characterized by a very intense community life:
Now the company of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one said that
any of the things which he possessed was his own, but they had everything in common
(Acts 4:32).
The idea that an essential aspect of God’s plan for man is to train him for communion and
that this provides an important interpretative key to understand God’s actions is
emphasized very early by Church Fathers. Thus Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215)
states:
Mankind has been created by God for communion. That is why He began by
communicating to all what he has, making men sharers in his Intelligence and creating
everything for all.110
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) also points out how God delights in seeing men joined
by strong bonds of communion:
Nothing is dearer to God than mutual union and concord among men.111
The same basic insight is also found in John Calvin:
God desires the whole human race to be united in mutual service.112
Evan though the importance of the formation of close communities in God’s plan for man
has been perceived from very early times, until the end of the Middle Ages there was
little need to emphasize it. In all Christian societies up to that time, as in other traditional
societies, the importance of the communitarian element was pervasive and was at no risk
of being forgotten. On the contrary, the real risk then was for the rights of the individual
man to be overlooked. However, with the Renaissance, the Reformation and, finally, the
triumph of the ideas of the Enlightenment, things changed radically. Nowadays most
people tend to conceive of man in individualistic terms and society is more often than not
viewed as a threat to man’s freedom and integrity rather than as a necessary condition of
his fulfillment. In an environment in which individualism is often taken for granted,
Christian teachers have had to elaborate in much greater detail the importance for man of
being intimately bonded in strong communities.
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) affirmed strongly that man needs communities to
develop fully his own potentialities as an individual, that God created man for social life,
not for isolation, and that the task of creating human communities is an integral part of
110
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, 2.12.
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, 16.8
112
John Calvin, Commentaries, Is 2:12.
111
209
our co-operation in the bringing about of the kingdom of God, which one day will be
finally accomplished by God’s saving grace:
But God did not create man as a solitary, for from the beginning "male and female he
created them" (Gn 1:27). Their companionship produces the primary form of
interpersonal communion. For by his innermost nature man is a social being, and unless
he relates himself to others he can neither live nor develop his potential.113
… God did not create man for life in isolation, but for the formation of social unity…
This communitarian character is developed and consummated in the work of Jesus
Christ… He sanctified those human ties, especially family ones, which are the source of
social structures…
This solidarity must be constantly increased until that day on which it will be brought to
perfection. Then, saved by grace, men will offer flawless glory to God as a family
beloved of God and of Christ their Brother.114
A document of the Lutheran Church in America (1980) makes the same point in striking
terms by affirming that “there is no humanity but co-humanity”:
Life under God is also meant to be life in community. There is no humanity but cohumanity; for one cannot be human alone. It is only together that persons can realize their
creation in God's image… It is in the basic human relationships of domestic, political, and
economic life that persons share in their common humanity.115
This work to create better and stronger communities has a very significant eschatological
dimension. This means that all our efforts in time to create closer bonds among human
beings are not something merely transitory and destined to come to an end with the end
of the world. On the contrary, these efforts will find their completion and perfection in
eternity. For this reason they are an important aspect of our Christian life and
commitment. These points are strikingly made by John Paul II (pope 1978- ):
Faced with a divided world which is in search of unity, we must proclaim with joy and
firm faith that God is communion, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, unity in distinction, and
that he calls all people to share in that same Trinitarian communion. We must proclaim
that this communion is the magnificent plan of God the Father; that Jesus Christ, the
Incarnate Lord, is the heart of this communion, and that the Holy Spirit works ceaselessly
to create communion and to restore it when it is broken. We must proclaim that the
Church is the sign and instrument of the communion willed by God, begun in time and
destined for completion in the fullness of the Kingdom.116
In recent times there has been also an increasingly explicit recognition that this emphasis
on community has specific consequences for the organization of business firms. Pius XI
(pope 1922-1939) emphasized the importance of conceiving business firms not just as
113
Gaudium et Spes, n. 12.
Ibid, n. 32
115
Economic Justice: Stewardship of Creation in Human Community, Statement adopted by the Tenth
Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Seattle, 1980.
116
John Paul II, Ecclesia in America, n. 33.
114
210
arms-length arrangements in which an owner contracts for the labour of the employees
and in which the substance of the arrangement is exhausted in an exchange of labour for
salary. He rather advised that business firms should be made as much as possible real
communities. He proposed the model of partnerships in which all concerned are owners
and can rightly consider the enterprise as being their own.
We consider it more advisable, however, in the present condition of human society that,
so far as is possible, the work-contract be somewhat modified by a partnership-contract,
as is already being done in various ways and with no small advantage to workers and
owners. Workers and other employees thus become sharers in ownership or management
or participate in some fashion in the profits received.117
It should be emphasized that the Pope realized that many practical problems lay on the
way of the ideal he was proposing; this is why he made a point of affirming explicitly
that there was nothing intrinsically wrong in the relationship employer-employee. He did
not have an all-purpose solution to be applied everywhere in a mechanical fashion. He
was instead proposing an ideal and a line of experimentation. Further calls in the same
direction have been made by later popes. John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) stressed the need
for the business firm to become a true human community in which all parties co-operate
out of commitment to each other and to a common good (the success of the firm, also in
serving effectively its customers) in which all are truly interested:
Every effort must be made to ensure that the enterprise is indeed a true human
community, concerned about the needs, the activities and the standing of each of its
members. This demands that the relations between management and employees reflect
understanding, appreciation and good will on both sides. It demands, too, that all parties
co-operate actively and loyally in the common enterprise, not so much for what they can
get out of it for themselves, but as discharging a duty and rendering a service to their
fellow men.118
John Paul II (pope 1978- ) has drawn attention specifically to the fact that in order to
grow as a person man needs the support of a community and that a man who works in a
business firm focused on the attainment of business profits to the exclusion of a genuine
concern for the welfare of its workers, that is to say, in a business firm which is a purely
instrumental arrangement rather than a genuine community, will be lacking such support
in a very important dimension of his life.
Alienation is found also in work, when it is organized so as to ensure maximum returns
and profits with no concern whether the worker, through his own labor, grows or
diminishes as a person, either through increased sharing in a genuinely supportive
community or through increased isolation in a maze of relationships marked by
destructive competitiveness and estrangement, in which he is considered only a means
and not an end.
The concept of alienation needs to be led back to the Christian vision of reality, by
recognizing in alienation a reversal of means and ends. When man does not recognize in
117
118
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 64.
John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, n. 91.
211
himself and in others the value and grandeur of the human person, he effectively deprives
himself of the possibility of benefitting from his humanity and of entering into that
relationship of solidarity and communion with others for which God created him.119
It follows from all we have seen in this section that the Christian ideal of a business
organization is very far from the “nexus of contracts” picture of neoclassical economic
theory. Not, let me hasten to add, because there is anything wrong with such a construct
as a matter of economic theory. The problem arises when people try to organize real live
human communities on that basis. In the Christian view of things the relationship
between employer and employee should not be reduced to a mere arms-length
relationship in which one party buys the services of the other and mutual commitments
are kept to a minimum. The relationship of employment is the more in accordance with
Christian ideals of human interaction the more it becomes a relationship of co-operation
for a common objective, the more the parties to it form a true community concerned with
promoting some goods common to all its members, and the more there is a real mutual
commitment among the members. How far it is possible to move along these roads in
each concrete case is something that will have to be determined in each situation in the
light of the specific circumstances of that case.
Additional material on the importance of community
And behold, a lawyer stood up to put him to the test, saying, "Teacher, what shall I do to
inherit eternal life?" He said to him, "What is written in the law? How do you read?" And
he answered, "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your
soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself."
And he said to him, "You have answered right; do this, and you will live" (Lk 10:25-28).
This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you (Jn 15:12).
I do not pray for these only, but also for those who believe in me through their word, that
they may all be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be
in us, so that the world may believe that thou hast sent me (Jn 17:20-21).
And they devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of
bread and the prayers ... And all who believed were together and had all things in
common (Acts 2:42-44).
Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep. Live in harmony with one
another; do not be haughty, but associate with the lowly; never be conceited … If
possible, so far as it depends upon you, live peaceably with all (Rom 12:15-18).
And his gifts were that some should be apostles, some prophets, some evangelists, some
pastors and teachers, to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body
of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of
God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ (Eph.
4:11-13).
119
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 41
212
Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258) – [The Church is] a multitude gathered together by the unity
of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.120
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – It is always a work of love to join with others and
take part in their good works.121
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – [God] desires us to be so perfectly united to him as
to make us one with him. He has desired this in order to teach us that, since we have been
loved with an equal love whereby he embraces us all in the most blessed Sacrament, he
desires that we love one another with that love which tends towards union, and to the
greatest and most perfect form of union. We are all nourished by the same bread, that
heavenly bread of the divine Eucharist, the reception of which is called communion, and
which symbolizes that unity which we should have with one another, without which we
could not be called children of God.122
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The Church recognizes that worthy elements are found
in today's social movements, especially an evolution toward unity, a process of
wholesome socialization and of association in civic and economic realms. The promotion
of unity belongs to the innermost nature of the Church.123
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Christian communion between men on their earthly
pilgrimage brings us closer to Christ.124
Lutheran Church in America (1970) – Concern for human survival, fulfillment, and
community flows from the very heart of the Christian faith. The church has long
proclaimed both humankind's natural oneness "in Adam" and eschatological oneness "in
Christ."125
John Paul II (pope 1978- ) – It is characteristic of work that it first and foremost unites
people. In this consists its social power: the power to build a community. In the final
analysis, both those who work and those who manage the means of production or who
own them must in some way be united in this community.126
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – The same God who came to the aid of an
oppressed people and formed them into a covenant community continues to hear the cries
of the oppressed and to create communities which are responsive to God's word. God's
love and life are present when people can live in a community of faith and hope. These
cardinal points of faith of Israel also furnish the religious context for understanding the
saving action of God in the life and teachings of Jesus.127
120
St. Cyprian, On the Lord’s Prayer, 23.
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, II.15.
122
St. Francis de Sales, Sermon on the Third Sunday of Lent.
123
Gaudium et Spes, n. 42.
124
Lumen Gentium, n. 50.
125
A Social Statement on World Community: Ethical Imperatives in an Age of Interdependence; Adopted
by the Fifth Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 25July 2, 1970.
126
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 20.
127
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, 1986, n. 40.
121
213
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Being a person in the image and likeness of God thus also
involves existing in a relationship, in relation to the other "I". This is a prelude to the
definitive self-revelation of the Triune God: a living unity in the communion of the
Father, Son and Holy Spirit ... The fact that man "created as man and woman" is the
image of God means not only that each of them individually is like God, as a rational and
free being. It also means that man and woman, created as a "unity of the two" in their
common humanity, are called to live in a communion of love, and in this way to mirror in
the world the communion of love that is in God, through which the Three Persons love
each other in the intimate mystery of the one divine life … To be human means to be
called to interpersonal communion.128
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith (1985) – Whatever the type of work, the
worker must be able to perform it as an expression of his personality. There follows from
this the necessity of a participation which, over and above a sharing in the fruits of work,
should involve a truly communitarian dimension at the level of projects, undertakings
and responsibilities.129
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – In fact, the purpose of a business firm is not simply to make
a profit, but is to be found in its very existence as a community of persons who in various
ways are endeavoring to satisfy their basic needs, and who form a particular group at the
service of the whole of society.130
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – A business cannot be considered only as a “society of capital
goods”; it is also a “society of persons” in which people participate in different ways
and with specific responsibilities, whether they supply the necessary capital for the
company’s activities or take part in such activities through their labour.131
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – …render thanks to God for the great gift of Church
communion which is the reflection in time of the eternal and ineffable communion of the
love of God.132
United Church of Christ (Puritans) (1987) – A just economic system builds and enhances
human communities wherein people can live with dignity and well-being …
The Bible emphasizes the intrinsic need for persons to live in community in order to
achieve fulfillment and well-being and to be faithful to God's intentions. In the Old
Testament the individual entered into a relationship with God through membership in the
covenant community that defined mutual rights and responsibilities to God and one
another. As recounted in the gospels, Jesus began calling followers almost immediately
after initiating his public ministry. Once formed, this community of grace played a
central role in his ministry.133
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – … because God needs fellowship, we do too. We are
128
John Paul II, Mulieris Dignitatem, n. 7.
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation, n. 86.
130
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 35.
131
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 43.
132
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n.31
133
United Church of Christ, Christian Faith and Economic Life.
129
214
created to live in community.134
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – We are called not to be rugged individualists, but
members of community. We are to live in relationship to others.135
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – We should not, for example, take our decisions to hire
or fire an employee lightly. When employees are hired they join a community of people at
work, and many workers will desire to stay with this group for a long time. We should be
sure that the job we offer provides for long-term possibilities. If it doesn’t, perhaps it’s
better to hire from a temporary agency whose workers have few long-term expectations.
When we release someone we should similarly be sure our reasons are good ones.
Isolating any person from the community of workers is a serious issue.136
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Human communities are made up of persons.
Governing them well is not limited to guaranteeing rights and fulfilling duties such as
honoring contracts. Right relations between employers and employees … presuppose a
natural good will in keeping with the dignity of human persons concerned for justice and
fraternity.137
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – God does require moral and
ethical choices by people and communities. We face turbulent times, where we are
witnessing the destruction of a sense of community. Nonetheless, choices are available to
us. Reconstruction of community requires that we inform our collective moral choices by
the values that define us.138
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal
Conference (1997) – The vocation to organize responsibly life and the world is addressed
to all human beings, but not as isolated beings. God has created man as an individual
and as a social being and has called him in the community of the people of God.139
134
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 41.
135
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 157.
136
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, pp, 55-6.
137
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2213.
138
What Does Our God Require of Us? A statement adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
139
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 96.
215
CHAPTER 6 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES - II
CHAPTER 6 – THE FIRM AND ITS EMPLOYEES - II ........................................ 217
Participation .............................................................................................................. 217
Additional material on participation ................................................................. 218
Compensation ............................................................................................................ 221
Duty to pay what has been agreed
221
The salary as price for labour 222
Salary proportionate to the contribution made by the worker
A living wage 224
Salary and the common good 226
223
Additional material on compensation ............................................................... 227
Time for rest and family ........................................................................................... 231
Family 232
Rest and other aspects of employees’ lives
233
Additional material on rest/family.................................................................... 235
Job design .................................................................................................................. 241
Additional material on job design .................................................................... 244
Right to work ............................................................................................................. 245
Additional material on right to work ................................................................ 247
Participation
The explicit emphasis on the need to create participative structures in the way the
workplace is organized is relatively recent in Christian teaching. It derives in part from
the idea that business firms should be true communities. In a true community nobody is
only a “hired hand”; all community members are concerned with the success of the
community and feel responsible for it. It follows that an essential requirement for firms to
become communities is to give to all employees opportunities for genuine participation in
the affairs of the firm. Another reason for the emphasis on participation is the idea that
workers should be respected according to their dignity; this demands that they be helped
to develop their capacities and that they should never be treated as mere machines. An
important means for the full human development of employees is for them to participate
in the decisions that concern their own work and also the firm as a whole.
We already referred in the last section to the call by Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) that the
employment relationship be made to approach the arrangements typical of a partnership.
In that call he already explicitly suggested that workers should share in management and
participate in the profits of the enterprise:
First of all, those who declare that a contract of hiring and being hired is unjust of its own
nature, and hence a partnership-contract must take its place, are certainly in error... We
consider it more advisable, however, in the present condition of human society that, so
far as is possible, the work-contract be somewhat modified by a partnership-contract, as
is already being done in various ways and with no small advantage to workers and
217
owners. Workers and other employees thus become sharers in ownership or management
or participate in some fashion in the profits received.1
Sharing, so far as possible, in decision-making at all levels is the element of participation
which has come to be seen as strategically important. This is reflected in the two
quotations –one from John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) and one from Vatican II (1964)—
that follow:
But We have no doubt as to the need for giving workers an active part in the business of
the company for which they work—be it a private or a public one.2
While taking into account the role of every person concerned–owners, employers,
management, and employees–and without weakening the necessary executive unity, the
active participation of everybody in administration is to be encouraged.3
The next statement, from the Lutheran Church in America (1980), stresses an important
reason, within a Christian perspective, why participatory structures should be
encouraged: there is much more to human fulfillment than having enough goods and
services to consume:
Persons should be permitted and encouraged to participate in fundamental as well as
market decisions governing the economy. Members of a society should be co-determiners
of the quality of their economic life. Such co-determination, requiring differing structures
appropriate for differing situations, is the basic right of persons whom God has created in
co-humanity as responsible stewards…
A society is healthier when its members are encouraged to participate responsibly in
determining their own lives rather than being only the passive consumers of goods and
services....4
Additional material on participation
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Economic development must remain under man's
determination and must not be left to the judgment of a few men or groups possessing
too much economic power … It is necessary, on the contrary, that at every level the
largest possible number of people … have an active share in directing that
development.5
Synod of Bishops (1971) – It is impossible to conceive true progress without
recognizing the necessity … of a development composed both of economic growth and
participation… Participation constitutes a right which is to be applied both in the
economic and in the social and political field.6
1
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 64.
John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, n. 91.
3
Gaudium et Spes, n. 68
4
Economic Justice: Stewardship of Creation in Human Community, Statement adopted by the Tenth
Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Seattle, 1980.
5
Gaudium et Spes, n. 65.
6
Synod of bishops, Justice in the world, 1971, Part I.
2
218
United States Catholic Bishops (1978) – In its teaching, the Church has noted a
number of basic human rights in economic life, including … the right to participation
in economic decisions.7
John Paul II (1988) – The social doctrine of the Church invites all with energy to
progress towards forms of participation in which all, in their different roles, may feel
that they are working in what is their own, while being aware of working for the good
of all.8
John Paul II (1991) – This teaching also recognizes the legitimacy of workers' efforts
to obtain full respect for their dignity and to gain broader areas of participation in the
life of industrial enterprises so that, while cooperating with others and under the
direction of others, they can in a certain sense "work for themselves"[85] through the
exercise of their intelligence and freedom.9
Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith (1985) – Whatever the type of work, the
worker must be able to perform it as an expression of his personality. There follows
from this the necessity of a participation which, over and above a sharing in the fruits
of work, should involve a truly communitarian dimension at the level of projects,
undertakings and responsibilities.10
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – A new experiment in bringing democratic
ideals to economic life calls for a serious exploration of ways, to develop new patterns
of partnership among those working in individual firms and industries ... New forms of
partnership between workers and managers are one means for developing greater
participation and accountability within firms ... Capital cannot do without labor nor
labor without capital. The organization of firms should reflect and enhance this mutual
partnership. In particular, the development of work patterns for men and women that
are more supportive of family life will benefit both employees and the enterprises they
work for ... In our 1919 Program of Social Reconstruction we observed "the full
possibilities of increased production will not be realized so long as the majority
workers remain mere wage earners. The majority must somehow become owners, at
least in part, of the instruments of production." We believe this judgment remains
generally valid today ...Catholic social teaching has endorsed on many occasions
innovative methods for increasing worker participation within firms. The
appropriateness of these methods will depend on the circumstances of the company or
industry in question and on their effectiveness in actually increasing a genuinely
cooperative approach to shaping decisions …11
United Church of Christ (Puritans) (1987) – A just economic system is inclusive,
involving all people in responsible, participatory, and economically rewarding activity
… The covenant between God and humanity is a model of relationships among people,
expressed in the covenant of mutual responsibility and commitment. All people are
called to participate in, and to share the fruits of, creation and redemption….
7
United States. Catholic Bishops, To Do the Work of Justice (1978), 28.
John Paul II, Speech to businessmen and workers in Modena, Italy, 4.VI.88, n. 3.
9
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 43.
10
Sacred Congregation for the doctrine of Faith, Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation, n. 86
11
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
8
219
… economic democracy assumes wide participation in ownership and management of
economic institutions and structures.12
Oxford Declaration (1990) – We recognise that no political system is directly
prescribed by Scripture, but we believe that biblical values and historical experience
call Christians to work for the adequate participation of all people in the decisionmaking processes on questions that affect their lives.13
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Christian managers must consider it their
responsibility to develop work environments that foster the creation and utilization of
constructive ideas. This enhances the worker’s stature, brings enormous benefits to
everyone, and also brings glory to God.14
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – [Christian leaders] try to open the secrets of the
organization and help people learn how to work within it so that people can participate
in decisions when they are affected.15
GHDA (Lutheran) (1991) – Development must involve full and active participation by
those most affected in identifying their needs and in making decisions.16
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – Structures must be created which will allow everyone a responsible
participation in social and economic life.17
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee (1999) – Management
… should provide the opportunity for and encourage workers to participate in
decisions about the workplace, the delivery of services and their own economic wellbeing.18
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee (1999) – Management
should share fairly with workers the economic benefits of their work.19
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee (1999) – According to
Catholic social thought, all human beings have the right to participate in society and in
the institutions that make up their communities. Workers must be able to participate in
the decisions made in the workplace that affect their lives and their livelihood.20
12
Christian Faith and Economic Life, United Church of Christ, 1987.
Oxford Declaration, 1990, n. 54.
14
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 63.
15
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 151.
16
GHDA, Covenant for a Common Future: A Working Definition of Development, 1991.
17
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference, For a Future of
Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 113.
18
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, III.B
19
Idem.
20
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, II.B
13
220
Compensation
There are abundant references to salaries and wages both in the Bible and in the works of
Christian writers; this is not surprising as the relationship employer/employee is very
common and very important. Conflicts and abuses have been frequent and
correspondingly there have been frequents attempts to clarify the responsibilities of the
parties to the relationship. Employees often find themselves in a position of weakness and
employers are correspondingly tempted to take advantage of that situation; at the same
time that weakness of the employee also makes the abuses of the employers especially
grave from a moral point of view. Already in the early books of the Bible we find strong
condemnations of such abuses.
You shall not oppress a hired servant who is poor and needy, whether he is one of your
brethren or one of the sojourners who are in your land within your towns; you shall give
him his hire on the day he earns it, before the sun goes down (for he is poor, and sets his
heart upon it); lest he cry against you to the Lord, and it be sin in you (Dt 24:14-15).
The duties of the employer in relation to the salary of his employees are complex. They
can be better understood if we think of them as a building with several storeys. On the
ground floor stands the fact that the relationship of employment results from an
agreement of the parties and this creates the basic duty to respect the terms of this
agreement. Above this there is another floor: labour is an economic good which has a
market price; accordingly, as in all commercial transactions, the employer has the duty
not to take advantage of the ignorance or special need of the employee to get him to agree
to a salary which is below the price of labour in the relevant market. Next, there is still
another storey; even though there is a market for labour, the Christian tradition insists
that one should not just buy “labour,” but rather enter into a co-operative relationship
with the whole man who provides that labour; from this co-operative relationship result
some responsibilities about sharing the fruits of the common enterprise in a way that will
reflect the respective contributions of the parties to it. At an even higher level in the
building stand responsibilities which derive from the fact that commonly salary is the
means through which the vast majority of employees acquire the means to live; because
of this, in the absence of special circumstances, a fair wage must be a living wage and
even, where there are no other structures to support living standards, a family wage.
Finally, on top of everything there are considerations which derive from the interrelations
which exist among salary levels, unemployment rates, and the competitiveness of
different industries and societies: the demands of the common good of the society are
also relevant in determining a just salary. Obviously, taking into account such a complex
set of considerations in arriving at a single salary is not easy.
Duty to pay what has been agreed
As I have just pointed out, the most basic duty of the employer is to respect the terms that
he agreed with his employee. In the Bible we find frequent injunctions against employers
who refuse to pay the salary they promised or who unreasonably delay payment. These
221
injunctions are especially severe because employees and their families often are totally
dependent on this salary for meeting basic needs:
Woe to him who builds his house by unrighteousness, and his upper rooms by injustice;
who makes his neighbor serve him for nothing, and does not give him his wages (Jer
22:13).
Behold, the wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud,
cry out; and the cries of the harvesters have reached the ears of the Lord of hosts (Jas
5:4).
The salary as price for labour
While the employer has a strict duty to pay the salary he agreed to pay, it is not true that,
provided there has been agreement by the two parties, any salary is, by that very fact,
just. The Bible condemns those who oppress the worker on his wages, and there is no
indication that the only possible oppression is not to pay the promised wages:
Then I will draw near to you for judgment; I will be a swift witness against … those who
oppress the hireling in his wages… and do not fear me, says the Lord of hosts (Mal 3:5).
It is not uncommon for some employees to find themselves in situations of special
weakness when they come to bargain with potential employers. Think for instance of a
situation which is today relatively common: the immigrant in a foreign land whose papers
are not in order or who in other ways fears that if he makes trouble he may be deported.
Employers often take advantage of such situations to pay these employees salaries greatly
below the usual level in their society for similar workers. If they are reproached that, in
the expression of Malachi, they are “oppressing the hireling in his wages,” they will
quickly retort that there cannot be oppression as the worker has freely accepted that
wage. The Spanish Catholic theologian Vitoria (1483-1546) already dealt with that
argument five centuries ago:
If the master tells his servant: “if you accept this remain in my home, and if you do not,
go wherever you wish”, I say he is obliged to restitution even if he has agreed with the
servant … I say that it was not voluntary without qualification, but there was some
mixture of involuntariness: the need which forced the servant to serve him, because he
was unable to do otherwise, because he would have died of hunger and he did not find
any other place where to go.21
The Puritan Richard Baxter (1615-1691) is also categorical in stating that an agreement
to pay to a worker less than the value of his work is unjust.
[The Christian must not desire] to get another’s goods or labour for less than it is worth.22
21
22
Vitoria, Commentaries to the II-II of Saint Thomas, q. 77, a. 1.
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
222
The fact that he makes the point indistinctly of goods and of labour shows clearly that it
is the market price of labour that he has in mind. The application to the issue of salaries
of the general doctrine of the just price, which we already discussed at length in Chapter
4, was by no means peculiar to Baxter. Many Christian writers make the point that the
general considerations which have relevance to determine the fair price of other goods or
servicers also apply to the determination of a fair salary. The practical implication of this
is that the salary paid to an employee must be at least the common salary for that type of
employees in that market, even if for some reason (such as ignorance, weakness, or a
special situation of need) the employee is ready to accept a lower salary.
I indicated above that nowadays these principles have frequent application in relation to
immigrants. Vatican Council II (1962-1965) made reference specifically to them:
When workers come from another country or district and contribute to the economic
advancement of a nation or region by their labor, all discrimination as regards wages and
working conditions must be carefully avoided.23
Salary proportionate to the contribution made by the worker
We have already had ample opportunity in the last chapter to see how in the Christian
view of things the relationship between employer and employee should go beyond an
arms-length arrangement in which each of the parties seeks only to satisfy his own
interests. A business organization reflects better Christian ideals the more it is a living
human community. It is obviously consistent with this conception that the employee be
rewarded not only according to the price of his skill and effort in the market, but also
according to what he has contributed to the common effort. A striking application of this
standard can be found in the provisions of Deuteronomy on slaves to which I already
made reference in the last chapter: slaves also must share in the wealth they have
contributed to create.
If your brother, a Hebrew man, or a Hebrew woman, is sold to you, he shall serve you six
years, and in the seventh year you shall let him go free from you. And when you let him
go free from you, you shall not let him go empty-handed; you shall furnish him liberally
out of your flock, out of your threshing floor, and out of your wine press; as the Lord
your God has blessed you, you shall give to him (Dt 15: 12-14).
It is perhaps especially interesting in this context that the measure Deuteronomy suggests
for the reward to be given to the former slave is precisely “as the Lord your God has
blessed you, you shall give to him,” that is to say, the servants must share in the rewards
that have accrued to their master while they were working for him.
The Law also prescribed:
You shall not muzzle an ox when it is treading out the grain (Dt 25:4).
23
Gaudium et Spes, n. 66.
223
Saint Paul makes it clear that this injunction does not refer primarily to oxen but to
employees, “because the plowman should plow in hope and the thresher thresh in hope of
a share in the crop.” 24 As it is well known, Saint Paul applied this general principle to the
case of preachers of the Gospel.
Saint Basil (329-379) also uses the standard of reciprocity for the benefits the master
receives from his servants as a guideline in determining fair salaries:
Masters, mindful of the true Master, should, after the Lord’s example, give in return to
their bond-servants, insofar as they can, in the fear of God and out of clemency, whatever
benefits they may receive from them.25
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) also takes it for granted that reward must be
proportionate to contribution:
He who contributes both money and labour must benefit more than he who contributes
either only money or only labour.26
Finally, Pope John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) teaches unequivocally that the contribution
each person makes is a factor that must be taken into account in determining a fair salary:
Other factors too enter into the assessment of a just wage: namely, the effective
contribution which each individual makes to the economic effort.27
A living wage
If the employment relationship were a purely private transaction between two individuals,
the above factors would be sufficient to determine a just salary, and in fact these are the
factors that many Christians in the past considered. However, as salary is the means
through which the vast majority of employees acquire the means to support themselves
and their families, it has become progressively clearer that the issue must be considered
also from the point of view of the right ordering of society.
The Mosaic laws already contained provisions that tended to ensure access by all to the
basic necessities of life. Thus, for instance, there were rules on tithing; there were also
rules that enjoined the owners of fields to leave on the ground part of the harvest in order
to provide for the support of the needy, and still other rules, which also had at least in part
the same purpose, about leaving the land periodically to lie fallow:
At the end of every three years you shall bring forth all the tithe of your produce in the
same year, and lay it up within your towns; and the Levite, because he has no portion or
24
1 Cor 9:9-10.
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 75.
26
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub. XIV.
27
John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, n. 71.
25
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inheritance with you, and the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow, who are within
your towns, shall come and eat and be filled; that the Lord your God may bless you in all
the work of your hands that you do (Dt 14:28-29).
When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap your field to its very border,
neither shall you gather the gleanings after your harvest. And you shall not strip your
vineyard bare, neither shall you gather the fallen grapes of your vineyard; you shall leave
them for the poor and for the sojourner: I am the Lord your God (Lv 19:9-10).
For six years you shall sow your land and gather in its yield; but the seventh year you
shall let it rest and lay fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave
the wild beasts may eat. You shall do likewise with your vineyard, and with your olive
orchard (Ex 23: 10-11).
Taken together, all these rules ensured that even somebody who was destitute would at
least have the means to gather enough food to eat.
The rule that prescribed that if a poor man gave his garments in pledge for a loan, it
should be restored to him, obviously had also as its purpose to ensure that nobody was
ever deprived of a basic requirement and by implication it extended also to other
necessities:
If ever you take your neighbor's garment in pledge, you shall restore it to him before the
sun goes down; for that is his only covering, it is his mantle for his body; in what else
shall he sleep? And if he cries to me, I will hear, for I am compassionate (Ex 22:26-27).
In societies in which there were no social security systems, and in which the vast majority
of people depended on wages to ensure a livelihood, it soon became clear that the only
practical means of ensuring that the basic needs of everybody were covered, was that, in
so far as it was possible, salaries should be sufficient to meet such basic needs.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the theologians of the Salamanca School in Spain still
focused primarily on the duty to pay one’s servants the going rate, that is to say, the
market price for labour. But very soon after them, and even contemporarily with them,
Christian teachers started to state explicitly more often the need for wages to be sufficient
at least to cover the basic needs of the employee. Thus, for instance, Jeremy Taylor
(1613-1667):
Servants and masters are of the same kindred, of the same nature, and heirs of the same
promises, and therefore, [servants] must be provided of necessaries, for their support and
maintenance.28
Similarly, Richard Baxter (1615-1691):
Ordinarily the common sort of tenants in England should have so much abated of the
fullest worth [of the rent for the land they cultivate] that they may comfortably live on it,
28
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. II.
225
and follow their labours with cheerfulness of mind and liberty to serve God in their
families, and to mind the matters of their salvation, and not to be necessitated to such toil
and care and pinching want, as shall make them liker slaves than free men.29
This passage does not refer directly to paid employment, but it is prompted by similar
concerns: that diligent workers (in this case agricultural tenants) may be able to obtain
from their work enough income to cover their basic needs.
By the twentieth century the idea that a salary should be a living wage, that is to say, that,
provided that a firm was in a position to pay, the salaries it paid its workers should enable
them to provide for their needs (that include those of their families), had become
uncontroversial among Christians. It will suffice here to provide two references, one from
Pope Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) and another from the Lutheran Church in America
(1966):
In the first place, the worker must be paid a wage sufficient to support him and his
family.30
We believe that in nations where conditions of abundance exist, it should be the goal of
the national economy to provide every able bodied adult with the opportunity for
meaningful employment sufficiently remunerative to secure, at the very least, the
minimal necessities required in our society for living in decency and dignity.31
Perhaps some readers may have been asking themselves what is meant by a salary which
should be sufficient to cover the “basic needs” of a worker and his family. The last
quotation gives the traditional answer to this question. In this context, “needs” does not
refer only to basic physiological needs, but to all that is required to be a productive
member of a society and to be accepted as member of that society rather than as an
outcast. Obviously, this concept is relative. In many countries nowadays, for instance, it
is taken for granted that all children must attend secondary school, and in fact a boy who
does not receive formal schooling is likely to be severely handicapped for the rest of his
life. In many societies, however, this was not the case a hundred years ago. Accordingly,
in such societies, even if being able to provide a secondary education to one’s children
was not a basic “need” a hundred years ago, it is a “need” today.
Salary and the common good
Finally, a greater appreciation of the links among different aspects of modern economies
has in recent times led many Christians to realize that the salary of a group of workers
can have important effects on the wider society. For instance, it may affect the rate of
inflation, competitiveness, the ability of other workers to find employment, the relative
29
The Practical Works of Richard Baxter (Vol. 1), Ligonier, PA, Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1990
(1625).
30
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 71.
31
A Social Statement on Poverty Adopted by the Third Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in
America, Kansas City, Missouri, June 21-29, 1966.
226
incomes of different social groups, and the salary demands of other workers. Once such
interrelations are identified, it goes without saying that basic Christian tenets prescribe
the need of taking into account such effects on the common good of the society.32 These
concerns are reflected in the following two references:
Lastly, the amount of the pay must be adjusted to the public economic good. We have
shown above how much it helps the common good for workers and other employees, by
setting aside some part of their income which remains after necessary expenditures, to
attain gradually to the possession of a moderate amount of wealth. But another point,
scarcely less important, and especially vital in our times, must not be overlooked:
namely, that the opportunity to work be provided to those who are able and willing to
work. This opportunity depends largely on the wage and salary rate, which can help as
long as it is kept within proper limits, but which on the other hand can be an obstacle if it
exceeds these limits.33
Therefore, although rightful differences exist between men, the equal dignity of persons
demands that a more humane and just condition of life be brought about. For excessive
economic and social differences between the members of the one human family or
population groups cause scandal, and militate against social justice, equity, the dignity of
the human person, as well as social and international peace.34
Additional material on compensation
The wages of a hired servant shall not remain with you all night until the morning (Lv
19:13).
Then David came to the two hundred men, who had been too exhausted to follow David,
and who had been left at the brook of Besor; and they went out to meet David and to meet
the people who were with him; and when David drew near to the people he saluted them.
Then all the wicked and base fellows among the men who had gone with David said,
"Because they did not go with us, we will not give them any of the spoil which we have
recovered, except that each man may lead away his wife and children, and depart." But
David said, "You shall not do so, my brothers, with what the Lord has given us; he has
preserved us and given into our hand the band that came against us. Who would listen to
you in this matter? For as his share is who goes down into the battle, so shall his share
be who stays by the baggage; they shall share alike." And from that day forward he made
it a statute and an ordinance for Israel to this day (1 Sam 30:21-25).
Tobit then called his son Tobias and said to him, “My son, see to the wages of the man
who went with you; and he must also be given more” He replied, “Father, it would do me
no harm to give him half o what I have brought back. For he has led me back to you
safely, he cured my wife, he obtained the money for me, and he also healed you”. The old
man said, “He deserves it” So he called the angel and said to him”, Take half of all that
you two have brought back” (Tb 12:1-5).
32
See ch. 1 for a discussion of the importance of social solidarity in Christian teaching.
Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, n. 74.
34
Gaudium et Spes, n. 29.
33
227
Moreover they slew above twenty thousand of them that were with Timotheus and
Bacchides who fought them, and they made themselves masters of the high strong holds:
and they divided amongst them many spoils, giving equal portions to the feeble, the
fatherless and the widows, yea and the aged also (2 Mac 8:30).
Woe to him who builds his house by unrighteousness, and his upper rooms by injustice;
who makes his neighbor serve him for nothing, and does not give him his wages (Jer
22:13).
For the laborer deserves his food (Mt 10:10).
For the laborer deserves his wages (Lk 10:7).
Do we not have the right to our food and drink? … Or is it only Barnabas and I who have
no right to refrain from working for a living? Who serves as a soldier at his own
expense? Who plants a vineyard without eating any of its fruit? Who tends a flock without
getting some of the milk? … the plowman should plow in hope and the thresher thresh in
hope of a share in the crop (1 Cor 9:4-10 ).
It is the hard-working farmer who ought to have the first share of the crops (2 Tm 2:6).
Behold, the wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud,
cry out; and the cries of the harvesters have reached the ears of the Lord of hosts (Jas
5:4).
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Pay the worker his salary, do not defraud him in the wages
due for his work … Do not do harm then to the servant who truly works, nor to the
labourer who spends his life working; do not despise the poor man who earns a living
with his work and provides for himself with his salary. For it is homicide to keep from a
man the salary he needs to live.35
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – But holy Tobit, not satisfied within these limits of virtue,
knew also that the servant should be paid his reward. He offered up to a half share and
not by chance found an angel as a servant … - In fact we must not doubt that our servant
may be an angel since he can be Christ who is to be found in the small ones.36
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Can there be anybody more evil than these men who
have fields and get their money from the land? If one examines the way they treat the
poor and tired labourers, one will see that they are more cruel than the barbarians. They
impose constant and unbearable burdens and force them to do the most painful jobs …
not giving them a moment’s rest … filling their granaries and cellars at the expense of
the labour and sweat of those unhappy men, while they are not allowed to carry home
even the smallest part. All the fruit has to go to filling their vats of iniquity and they pay
the worker only a few coins.37
35
St. Ambrose, Commentariess on the Book of Tobit, n. 92.
St. Ambrose, Commentaries on the Book of Tobit, n. 91.
37
St. John Chrysostom, Homily LXI on the Epistle to the Romans, n. 3.
36
228
Saint Thomas More (1477-1535) – Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful,
that is so prodigal of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or
such others who are idle, or live either by flattery or by contriving the arts of vain
pleasure, and, on the other hand, takes no care of those of a meaner sort, such as
ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom it could not subsist? But after the public
has reaped all the advantage of their service, and they come to be oppressed with age,
sickness, and want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten, and all the
recompense given them is that they are left to die in great misery. The richer sort are
often endeavouring to bring the hire of labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent
practices, but by the laws which they procure to be made to that effect, so that though it is
a thing most unjust in itself to give such small rewards to those who deserve so well of the
public, yet they have given those hardships the name and colour of justice, by procuring
laws to be made for regulating them.38
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – They sin against the seventh Commandment …
who do not pay their employees or who delay payment without reason, so that the
employees suffer harm.39
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – It is an odious oppression and injustice to defraud a
servant or labourer of his wages, yea, or to give him less than he deserveth.40
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Masters sin gravely if they don’t provide suitable
maintenance; if they don’t pay a just salary (as long as the servants served faithfully) or
delay it without a reasonable cause.41
Leo XIII (pope 1878-1903) – Let it be granted then that worker and employer may enter
freely into agreements and, in particular, concerning the amount of the wage; yet there is
always underlying such agreements an element of natural justice, and one greater and
more ancient than the free consent of contracting parties, namely, that the wage shall not
be less than enough to support a worker who is thrifty and upright. If compelled by
necessity or moved by fear of a worse evil, a worker accepts a harder condition … he
certainly submits to force, against which justice cries out in protest.42
Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) – For it is indeed true that beyond the justice that is called
commutative there is social justice which has to be observed… The function of social
justice is to require of the individual whatever may be necessary for the common good. ..
It is not possible to provide well for the whole society unless to all individual members—
men, that is, who are endowed with the dignity of personality—is imparted everything
that they need for the exercise of their social functions…
Social justice will not be satisfied unless the workers are able to earn a wage which will
provide a secure livelihood for themselves and their families; unless it is made
practicable for them to acquire a modest property and so avoid that running sore of
pauperism which afflicts so many; unless finally there are suitable policies adjusted to
38
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
40
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
41
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. III, Cap. II.
42
Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, n. 63.
39
229
their needs enabling them, whether through private or public insurance institutions, to
provide against the needs of old age, sickness and unemployment.43
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Finally, remuneration for labor is to be such that man
may be furnished the means to cultivate worthily his own material, social, cultural, and
spiritual life and that of his dependents, in view of the function and productiveness of
each one, the conditions of the factory or workshop, and the common good.44
United States Catholic Bishops (1978) – In its teaching, the Church has noted a number
of basic human rights in economic life, including the right to productive employment, the
right to just wages, the right to an adequate income, the rights of workers to organize and
bargain collectively, the right to own property for the many as a protection of freedom,
and the right to participation in economic decisions.45
United States Catholic Conference (USA) (1986) – The provision of wages and other
benefits sufficient to support a family in dignity is a basic necessity to prevent this
exploitation of workers.46
Lutheran Church in America (1980) – [Economic justice] includes the provision for basic
human need, fair compensation for work done, and the opportunity for the full utilization
of personal gifts in productive living …
At the same time it provides for those minimal necessities which, in a given social and
cultural setting, are prerequisites for participation in society, and it provides for those
members of the society who, because of circumstances not of their making, cannot
provide for themselves.47
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – A workman’s wages should be sufficient to enable him to
support himself, his wife and his children.48
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Furthermore, society and the State must ensure wage levels
adequate for the maintenance of the worker and his family, including a certain amount
for savings.49
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Christians living in a market economy must ask
whether the market is just in all cases. The market sets wages and compensation through
an informal bidding process, governed by labor supply and demand. There are many
good things about the way the market sorts through the allocation of labor resources.
The market is so broad and deep that it generally keeps individual managers and
companies from gross manipulation of the wages they pay. … The market when it works
well protects the individual, the company, and the consumer.
There are, however, several morally disturbing aspects of using the market process alone
to determine the wages of different job classes. The market sometimes reflects specific
43
Pius XI, Divini Redemptoris, nos. 53-54.
Gaudium et Spes, n. 67.
45
United States Catholic Bishops, To Do the Work of Justice (1978) 28.
46
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
47
Economic Justice: Stewardship of Creation in Human Community, Statement adopted by the Tenth
Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Seattle, Washington, 1980.
48
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 8.
49
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 15.
44
230
cultural values that cannot be justified in the light of Scripture. Discrimination based on
gender is one such example. At one organization highly skilled administrative secretaries
are paid at a lower rate than poorly trained people in jobs with lower skill levels in the
maintenance department. The administrative assistants are generally women. The
maintenance department personnel are men.50
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Just remuneration for the work of an adult who is
responsible for a family means remuneration which will suffice for establishing and
properly maintaining a family and for providing security for its future. Such
remuneration can be given either through what is called a family wage—that is, a single
salary given to the head of the family for his work, sufficient for the needs of their family
without the other spouse having to take up gainful employment outside the home—or
through other social measures such as family allowances or grants to mothers devoting
themselves exclusively to their families.51
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994)) – Everyone should be able to draw from work
the means of providing for his life and that of his family, and of serving the human
community.52
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – A just wage is the legitimate fruit of work. To
refuse or withhold it can be a grave injustice. In determining fair pay both the needs and
the contributions of each person must be taken into account. "Remuneration for work
should guarantee man the opportunity to provide a dignified livelihood for himself and
his family on the material, social, cultural and spiritual level, taking into account the role
and the productivity of each, the state of the business, and the common good." Agreement
between the parties is not sufficient to justify morally the amount to be received in
wages.53
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee (1999) – Management
should share fairly with workers the economic benefits of their work.54
Time for rest and family
It is an almost universal complaint that the demands of work leave little space for other
dimensions of our lives. In fact, after many decades during which the hours devoted to
working were being progressively reduced in many countries, in recent years this trend
has been reversed, especially for executive and professional employees.
The primary responsibility for having balance in our lives belongs to each one of us.
However, it is also true that in many cases the demands that firms place on their
50
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp, 68-9.
51
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 19.
52
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2428.
53
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2434.
54
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, III.B.
231
employees create pressures that many of them find it almost impossible to resist. As we
shall see, Christian sources are emphatic that it is an important responsibility of
employers to do what they can to structure job responsibilities and demands in ways that
make it effectively possible for their employees to harmonize their professional
responsibilities with other important aspects of their lives.
Family
We have already seen how important it is, for human beings to be able to flourish in the
way that God intended for them, that they create and maintain healthy communities. It is
a characteristic Christian teaching that the most intimate of human communities—the
family—is especially important for this. Christianity also teaches that the health of
families is especially important to ensure a healthy society. These traditional teachings
were repeated by Vatican Council II (1962-1965):
The good of the individual person and of human and Christian society is
intimately linked with the healthy condition of that community produced by
marriage and family.55
Because of this importance of the family, the Council also taught that it should
be protected in practical ways.
All those, therefore, who exercise influence over communities and social
groups should work efficiently for the welfare of marriage and the family.56
Many people are likely to conclude from this last statement that “the public authorities
ought to do something.” It is interesting, however, that the Council does not speak of
public authorities, but rather of “all those who exercise influence over communities and
social groups.” This includes the public authorities, but most definitely it also includes
owners and managers of business organizations, at least in so far as their own firms are
concerned. Families are affected by their actions as the conditions that they create in their
organizations make it either easy or difficult for their employees to devote to their
families the time and attention they need if they are to develop in a healthy manner.
A little later the Council becomes more specific:
The entire process of productive work, therefore, must be adapted to the needs of the
person and to his way of life, above all to his domestic life, especially in respect to
mothers of families, always with due regard for sex and age. … Applying their time and
strength to their employment with a due sense of responsibility, they should also all enjoy
sufficient rest and leisure to cultivate their family … life.57
55
Gaudium et Spes, n. 47.
Gaudium et Spes, n. 52.
57
Gaudium et Spes, n. 67.
56
232
The idea that the family deserves special protection and therefore that it should be given
priority over many other responsibilities that ordinarily rank high in our order of
priorities is not new. The Bible already contained very specific indications in that regard:
When a man is newly married, he shall not go out with the army or be charged with any
business; he shall be free at home one year, to be happy with his wife whom he has taken
(Dt 24:5).
In the early Christian literature the Pastor of Hermas (140-155) also has a similar
teaching:
And although you love your sons, yet did you not warn your house, but permitted them to
be terribly corrupted. On this account is the Lord angry with you... For, on account of
their sins and iniquities, you have been destroyed by the affairs of this world.58
The point here is that the father must not slight the care of his family for other business.
The man to whom this passage refers loved his sons, but this was not enough. He ought
to have taken practical steps to be able to devote closer attention to them. Because he
failed to do so, and in consequence his children were badly brought up, he is now
condemned. Of course, from this perspective any person, such as his employer, who
shared in the responsibility for having created the situation that led him to neglect his
children, would also have shared in that condemnation.
Many difficulties arise in practice in trying to organize work in a firm in a way that will
not put undue pressure on its employees to neglect their family duties. If an employer
were just to say: “Anyone who has a family problem please take care of it and never
mind the job,” it is more than likely that some people would take undue advantage of this
blanket alibi and the firm would become uncompetitive in short order. This is one area in
which there is need for serious work in order to devise effective practical approaches.
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) make the point that Christians, precisely because of the
very special appreciation for family life that they have, should be at the forefront of this
innovative effort:
We should take leadership in finding creative and innovative approaches for providing
quality care for families and protecting family rights affected by the workplace. We
should begin by discussing the concerns our employees have about family life. Such
discussions may lead to redesigned jobs, flexible working hours, policies that allow for
shared jobs, varieties in benefit packages, or revised time-off policies. Such changes will
take time and effort, but we cannot ignore the need to build up the family life of
employees.59
Rest and other aspects of employees’ lives
58
Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. I, 3, 1.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 111.
59
233
Important as it is that employers try to make sure that the demands of work do not crowd
out the time that employees need to take care of their families, this is not the only aspect
of the lives of employees that should be protected. Man has been created to work, but not
only to work. A healthy life should have many other facets and concerns, and a healthy
organization of work should leave room for them.
It is very well known that the Bible places great emphasis on the institution of the
Sabbath as a carefully regulated work-free day that allows men to rest and worship God.
Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy … but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the
Lord your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter,
nor your manservant or maidservant, nor your animals, nor the alien within your gates
(Ex 20:8-10).
It is perhaps worth stressing that the above quotation is not couched in purely personal
terms (“you have to keep the Sabbath”) but very emphatically orders the employer to
ensure that his relations and employees also observe the Sabbath.
The duty to observe the Sabbath, in its ceremonial details, was specific to the Jews, and
Christians very soon started marking Sunday as the Day of the Lord. However, the duty
to reserve time for rest and worship that stands at the basis of the institution of the
Sabbath is universally valid. The most basic point that is embodied in this institution is
that man is not a purely economic animal and that he should never allow his whole
attention to be absorbed by economic endeavours.
In commenting on a passage of the Gospel of Saint Mark in which Our Lord provides for
the rest of his disciples, Saint Bede (672-735) makes an interesting point:
The Lord makes his disciples rest, to show those in charge that people who work or
preach cannot do so without breaks.60
This admonition has permanent value, precisely because managers and entrepreneurs all
too easily become engrossed in the effort to attain the objectives they have set to
themselves and in the process tend to forget that both themselves and those under them
have (or ought to have) a life outside work. The same point is made by Saint Thomas
Aquinas (1224-1274), with the additional twist that he does not scruple to say that the
single-mindedness of superiors who concentrate all their energies in their work and
demand the same from their subordinates, is a form of cruelty:
Lastly, we are given this Commandment [Remember that you keep holy the Sabbath
Day] in order to exercise works of kindliness to those who are subject to us. For some are
so cruel to themselves and to others that they labor ceaselessly all on account of money.61
60
61
St. Bede, In Marci Evangelium Expositio.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Ten Commandments (3rd Commandment).
234
The need for balance in the life of a Christian is very important, especially because it is
necessary if he is to be able to reserve time to cultivate his personal relationship with
God. Saint Bernard (1090-1153) did not hesitate to tell Pope Eugene that in so far as he
allowed his duties as pope to absorb all his time, without reserving any for himself, such
occupations were “accursed.” It is difficult to imagine a more emphatic way to make the
point that a man should never allow himself to be fully absorbed by his work. If not even
the work of a pope is a good enough excuse, what else will be?
So far can lead you those accursed tasks if, in the way you started, they keep absorbing
you fully without keeping anything for yourself. You are wasting your time …62
Finally, a contemporary quotation from a document of the American Catholic Bishops
(1999), which outlines a number of guidelines to follow in the management of Catholic
hospitals, repeats the same teaching in contemporary terms. It is perhaps to be
emphasised that the bishops consider the point important enough to affect the justice of
the entire relationship of employment:
In assessing whether or not an institution provides the elements of a just and fair
workplace, a number of questions arise such as:
…
—Are work hours flexible so as to permit adequate rest, leisure time, educational
opportunities and quality family time?63
Additional material on rest/family
Six days you shall work, but on the seventh day you shall rest; in plowing time and in
harvest you shall rest (Ex 34:21).
And these words which I command you this day shall be upon your heart; and you shall
teach them diligently to your children (Dt 6:6-7).
Discipline your son, and he will give you rest; he will give delight to your heart (Prv
29:17).
If you turn back your foot from the sabbath, from doing your pleasure on my holy day,
and call the sabbath a delight and the holy day of the Lord honorable; if you honor it, not
going your own ways, or seeking your own pleasure, or talking idly; then you shall take
delight in the Lord, and I will make you ride upon the heights of the earth; I will feed you
with the heritage of Jacob your father, for the mouth of the Lord has spoken (Is 58:1314).
And he said to them, "Come away by yourselves to a lonely place, and rest a while" (Mk
6:31).
62
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, III, 3.
United States Catholic Conference Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, II.A.
63
235
And he [John the Baptist] will go before him in the spirit and power of Eli'jah, to turn the
hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just, to
make ready for the Lord a people prepared (Lk 1:17).
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) - Thou shalt not withdraw thy hand from thy son, or from thy
daughter, but from their infancy thou shalt teach them the fear of the Lord.64
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) – Labor, but not to the point of exhaustion.65
Saint Jerome (349?-420) – Look after the upkeep of your home in such a way that you
also give some repose to your soul. Choose an appropriate place, a little apart from the
family din, and take refuge there as in a harbour, as one who escapes a great storm of
worries. Quiet down, with the tranquility of your retreat, the waves of concerns stirred up
by external affairs… I don’t say this to try to keep you from your loved ones; rather I’m
trying to help you learn to meditate on how you should behave towards them.66
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Can there be anybody more evil than these men who
have fields and get their money from the land? If one examines the way they treat the
poor and tired labourers, one will see that they are more cruel than the barbarians. They
impose constant and unbearable burdens and force them to do the most painful jobs …
not giving them a moment’s rest …67
Saint Basil (329-379) – The time which you lent to God is not lost: He will return it to
you with large interest. Whatever difficulties may trouble you the Lord will disperse
them. To those who have preferred spiritual welfare, He will give health of body,
keenness of mind, success in business, and unbroken prosperity.68
Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) – Consider and see that the day of death approaches
(cf. Gen 47:29). I beg you therefore with reverence, as I am able, lest on account of the
cares and the anxious concerns from this world, which you have, you surrender the Lord
to forgetfulness or turn away from His mandates.69
Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) – Let those friars, to whom the Lord has given the
grace to work, work faithfully and devoutly, in such a way that, having excluded idleness,
the enemy of the soul, they do not extinguish the spirit of holy prayer and devotion.70
Saint Thomas More (1477-1535) – In Utopia, they do not wear themselves out with
perpetual toil from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is
indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life amongst all
mechanics except the Utopians.71
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – Prudence enables us to approach our occupations
with a moderate spirit so that we shall not be smothered by too much work, for St.
64
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, I, 12.
66
St. Jerome, Letter, 148, 24.
67
St. John Chrysostom, Homily LXI on the Epistle to the Romans, n. 3.
68
St. Basil, The Hexameron, Homily III.
69
St. Francis of Assisi, A Letter to the Rulers of the Nations.
70
St. Francis of Assisi, The Regula Bullata, ch. V.
71
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
65
236
Francis says in his rule that all things should serve for our spiritual improvement. It
prevents us from giving ourselves so completely to external works that we lose our peace
of soul and neglect the interior acts of virtue.72
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – For if God commands the exemption of cattle
from labor on the Sabbath, still more imperative is the obligation to avoid all acts of
inhumanity towards servants, or others whose labor and industry we employ.73
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – It is a great mistake to be so strict as to grudge any
recreation either to others or one's self.74
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – Servants and masters are of the same kindred, of the same
nature, and heirs of the same promises, and therefore [the servants’] recreations [should
be] fitting and healthful. 75
John Bunyan (1628-1688) –
Attentive. Shew me how many wayes a Master may be the ruin of his poor Apprentice.
Wise. Nay, I cannot tell you of all the wayes, yet some of them I will mention…
If he be not moderate in the use of his Apprentice; if he drives him beyond his strength; if
he holds him to work at unseasonable hours; if he will not allow him convenient time to
read the Word, to Pray, &c. This is the way to destroy him.76
John Wesley (1703-1791) – But this it is certain we ought not to do; we ought not to gain
money at the expense of life, nor (which is in effect the same thing) at the expense of our
health. Therefore, no gain whatsoever should induce us to enter into, or to continue in,
any employ, which is of such a kind, or is attended with so hard or so long labour, as to
impair our constitution. Neither should we begin or continue in any business which
necessarily deprives us of proper seasons for food and sleep, in such a proportion as our
nature requires.77
Leo XIII (pope 1878-1903) – It is neither just nor human so to grind men down with
excessive labor as to stupefy their minds and wear out their bodies…
In all agreements between employers and workers there is always the condition
expressed or understood that proper rest be allowed, proportionate to the wear and tear
of one's strength.78
Leo XIII (pope 1878-1903) – It is the duty of employers to see that the worker is free for
adequate periods to attend to his religious obligations… and in no way to alienate him
from care for his family… Likewise, more work is not to be imposed than strength can
endure, nor that kind of work which is unsuited to age or sex.79
72
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 1.
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Third Commandment.
74
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.31.
75
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. II.
76
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
77
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
78
Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, nn. 59 and 60.
79
Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, n. 31.
73
237
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – Thus we may have a duty to rescue a drowning man and,
perhaps, if we live on a dangerous coast, to learn lifesaving so as to be ready for any
drowning man when he turns up. It may be our duty to lose our lives in saving him. But if
anyone devoted himself to lifesaving in the sense of giving it his total attention – so that
he thought and spoke of nothing else and demanded the cessation of all other human
activities until everyone had learned to swim – he would be a monomaniac. The rescue of
drowning men is, then, a duty worth dying for, but not worth living for ... He who
surrenders himself without reservation to the temporal claims of a nation, or a party, or a
class is rendering to Caesar that which, of all things, most emphatically belongs to God:
himself.80
John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) – Women have the right to working conditions in
accordance with their requirements and their duties as wives and mothers.81
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The entire process of productive work, therefore, must
be adapted to the needs of the person and to his way of life, above all to his domestic life,
especially in respect to mothers of families, always with due regard for sex and age. …
Applying their time and strength to their employment with a due sense of responsibility,
they should also all enjoy sufficient rest and leisure to cultivate their familial, cultural,
social and religious life. They should also have the opportunity freely to develop the
energies and potentialities which perhaps they cannot bring to much fruition in their
professional work.82
Vatican (1983) – Families have a right to a social and economic order in which the
organization of work permits the members to live together, and does not hinder the unity,
well-being, health and the stability of the family, while offering also the possibility of
wholesome recreation.83
John Paul II (pope 1978-2005 ) – In this context it should be emphasized that on a more
general level the whole labor process must be organized and adapted in such a way as to
respect the requirements of the person and his or her forms of life, above all life in the
home, taking into account the individual's age and sex.84
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – Economic and social policies as well as the
organization of the work world should be continually evaluated in light of their impact on
the strength and stability of family life. The long-range future of this nation is intimately
linked with the wellbeing of families, for the family is the most basic form of human
community. Efficiency and competition in the marketplace must be moderated by greater
concern for the way work schedules and compensation support or threaten the bonds
between spouses and between parents and children.85
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The encyclical [Rerum novarum] affirms just as clearly the
right to the "limitation of working hours," the right to legitimate rest and the right of
80
C. S. Lewis, “Learning in War-Time” in The Weight of Glory and other Essays, MacMillan, New York,
1980, p. 24.
81
John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, n. 19.
82
Gaudium et Spes, n. 67.
83
Charter of the Rights of the Family, 1983, Article 10.
84
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 19.
85
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
238
children and women to be treated differently with regard to the type and duration of
work.86
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The family is the basic cell of society. It is the cradle of life
and love, the place in which the individual "is born" and "grows." Therefore a primary
concern is reserved for this community…
Required in the face of this is a vast, extensive and systematic work, sustained not only by
culture but also by economic and legislative means, which will safeguard the role of the
family in its task of being the primary place of "humanization" for the person and
society…87
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Above all where social and cultural conditions so easily
encourage a father to be less concerned with his family or at any rate less involved in the
work of education, efforts must be made to restore socially the conviction that the place
and task of the father in and for the family is of unique and irreplaceable importance.88
Oxford Declaration (1990) – In that the Sabbath commandment interrupted work with
regular periods of rest, it liberates human beings from enslavement to work. The Sabbath
erects a fence around human productive activity and serves to protect both human and
non-human creation. Human beings have, therefore, both a right and an obligation to
rest.
Worship is central to the Biblical concept of rest. In order to be truly who they are,
human beings need periodic moments of time in which God's commands concerning their
work will recede from the forefront of their consciousness as they adore the God of
loving holiness and thank the God of holy love.89
Oxford Declaration (1990) – Four criteria derived from Christian faith help us to
evaluate the development and use of technology. First, technology should not foster
disintegration of family or community.90
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – One of the myths that pervades our society is that “we
can have it all”. That is not true. There is not enough time and energy to do everything
that is good. Pursuing a career often requires long hours and single-minded purpose.
Little time and energy is left for family and church. Priority choices need to be made
between work, family, community, church, recreation, personal time, and social life.
Often church and family are the first to suffer. These priorities are particularly hard to
set when both parents work away from home.91
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Every Christian should avoid making
unnecessary demands on others that would hinder them from observing the Lord's Day.92
86
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 7.
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 40.
88
John Paul II, Familiaris Consortio, n. 25.
89
Oxford Declaration, 1990, nn. 28, 30.
90
Oxford Declaration, 1990, n. 10.
91
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 7.
92
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2187.
87
239
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Just as God “rested on the seventh day from
all his work which he had done,” human life has a rhythm of work and rest. The
institution of the Lord's Day helps everyone enjoy adequate rest and leisure to cultivate
their familial, cultural, social, and religious lives.93
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – God's action is the model for human action. If
God “rested and was refreshed” on the seventh day, man too ought to “rest” and should
let others, especially the poor, “be refreshed.”94
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal
Conference (1997) – The world of work and business must take into account the needs of
families; also when the economy is doing well and there is high demand for labour, the
problems of the family cannot remain a marginal issue, but must be an element of every
economic policy. Thus, for instance, more skilled part-time jobs are needed, available for
both men and women …95
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal
Conference (1997) – Sunday is an irreplaceable good of social culture. The protection of
Sunday is ever more threatened by the fact of giving preference of economic interests.
Sunday must remain protected. As the Day of the Lord, it has a central religious content.
It is also a time to spend with the family, friends and neighbours, and is therefore an
important cultural good that one cannot alienate at will.96
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The alternation between work and rest, built into human
nature, is willed by God himself, as appears in the creation story in the Book of Genesis
(cf. 2:2-3; Ex 20:8-11): rest is something ‘sacred’, because it is man’s way of
withdrawing from the sometimes excessively demanding cycle of earthly tasks in order to
renew his awareness that everything is the work of God..97
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – If after six days of work—reduced in fact to five for many
people—people look for time to relax and to pay more attention to other aspects of their
lives, this corresponds to an authentic need which is in full harmony with the vision of the
Gospel message.98
Assemblies of God (2001) – A Christian should not sacrifice his relationship with God or
his family for "success". Ultimately our success in life is defined in terms of our
faithfulness to God. Our priorities ought to reflect our responsibilities. We are first of all
responsible to God, then to our families, the church, and then to our neighbors in the
world.99
93
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2184.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2172.
95
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal Conference, For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 193.
96
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal Conference, For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 223.
97
John Paul II, Dies Domini, n. 65.
98
John Paul II, Dies Domini, n. 67.
99
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
94
240
Job design
It would be surprising if our work, an activity to which most of us devote such a large
number of hours, were not to have a marked effect on us. Christians, who have a deep
awareness of the dignity of human beings and of the importance of treating workers with
a respect and care appropriate to that dignity, should pay special attention to structuring
the work process in a way that will make it a help rather than a hindrance to the growth
and fulfilment of the workers.
This issue received intense attention with the arrival of the Industrial Revolution and the
minute division of labour that became common in many industries as competition
increased. In the wake of these developments an increasing proportion of employees
found that their jobs became more monotonous and repetitive and demanded less
judgement and special skills. To a certain extent matters have righted themselves in more
recent times as it has been realised that beyond a certain point division of labour leads to
lower motivation for many workers. In the interest of higher productivity and lower
absenteeism many firms have reversed direction and have started to organise work in
ways that provide greater variety and decision-making responsibility for the workers.
Still, it would be naïve to believe that an alignment of interests between firms and their
workers is automatic in all cases. There are still many circumstances in which there is
little or no economic incentive to make a special effort to design jobs in ways more fitting
for intelligent and responsible human beings. The precise question that concerns us here
is whether a Christian has good reasons to make a serious effort and spend significant
resources in designing work in ways that will promote the human growth of his workers,
even if it is not certain that there will be an immediate economic payoff for these efforts.
On this issue the guidance we get from the Bible is especially clear. As we have already
seen, the Bible teaches the need to respect the human dignity of men, and specifically of
employees; the importance of work in the plans God has for human beings; the role of
men as stewards of creation; and the importance that forming strong communities and
affording to their members opportunities for responsible participation has in God’s
overall plan of salvation. Against this general background, it is specially instructive to
reflect on the rules of the mosaic law which are aimed at ensuring that all men have real
opportunities to keep playing a role as active and responsible members of the community
and that none is relegated permanently to a status of mere passive executors of the plans
of others.
241
The most important among these provisions is the institution of the Jubilee Year. The
basic purpose of this institution was to ensure that over time the Jews were not divided
into two classes: a small number of large property owners and a large number of landless
labourers with no active responsibility for any part of the land. There was a Jubilee Year
every fifty years and on that year all land that had been sold returned to the original
family that owned it. What this amounted to was that in Israel there was no lawful way to
alienate permanently a piece of land. In contemporary terms, the most one could do was
to lease it for a maximum of fifty years.
And you shall count seven weeks of years, seven times seven years, so that the time of
the seven weeks of years shall be to you forty-nine years. And you shall hallow the
fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout the land to all its inhabitants; it shall be a
jubilee for you, when each of you shall return to his property and each of you shall return
to his family. ... In this year of jubilee each of you shall return to his property. …
According to the number of years after the jubilee, you shall buy from your neighbor, and
according to the number of years for crops he shall sell to you (Lv 25: 8-15).
Another provision which also had the aim of ensuring that no family was permanently
dispossessed of land was that which prescribed that land sold could be recovered, even
before the Jubilee Year, at any time the seller or his brother was able to buy it back:
The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is mine; for you are strangers and
sojourners with me … If your brother becomes poor, and sells part of his property, then
his next of kin shall come and redeem what his brother has sold. If a man has no one to
redeem it, and then himself becomes prosperous and finds sufficient means to redeem it,
let him reckon the years since he sold it and pay back the overpayment to the man to
whom he sold it; and he shall return to his property (Lv 25: 23-27).
Perhaps the importance of such provisions can be fully appreciated only by somebody
who is acquainted with both farming communities of property-holders and others of
landless peasants. Such a person would have had the opportunity of contrasting the
typical steadiness, self-respect and dependability of those who have been secure in the
possession of their land for several generations with the shiftiness, subservience and
fatalism typical of those who are perpetually dependent on the goodwill of the landlords.
Experience shows once and again that people whose work never demands of them the
exercise of responsibility or judgment, are likely to find that these capacities go rusty by
sheer lack of opportunities to put them to use. The above provisions of the Law of Moses
are best understood precisely as means to secure the conditions in which a large majority
of people would have social roles in which such capacities had to be exercised regularly.
The following quotation shows an appreciation of the central role of work in man’s
vocation and the importance of finding joy in one’s calling.
So I saw that there is nothing better than that a man should enjoy his work, for that is his
lot (Eccl. 3:22).
242
Of course, it is highly unlikely that man will come to truly enjoy a work in which there is
no room for spontaneity and in which he is deprived of initiative and is reduced to
playing the role of a beast of burden or, worse (in a modern context), of an appendage to
a machine.
Moving now to the patristic age, the following quotation is of special interest for several
reasons. Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) is notable, among other things, for
being one of the very few Fathers who was so far able to transcend his own experience
and the conditions of his time that he dared to utter a blanket condemnation of the
institution of slavery, rather than concentrating his efforts, as the great majority of
Fathers did, on securing an improvement of the condition of slaves and reminding slave
owners of the bonds of human and Christian brotherhood linking them to their slaves. But
what is of special interest for our present purposes is that, with sure instinct, he based his
condemnation of slavery on the original ordination of God who set man up as master and
ruler of the world under God. Most fundamentally, the institution of slavery is wrong
because it directly contradicts this basic vocation of man.
And in this way he who was created to be master of the earth and destined by his maker
to rule, that one you place under the yoke of servitude, as if you wanted to contravene
and oppose God’s ordinance.100
Saint Gregory of Nyssa identified accurately the most basic reason why an institution like
slavery is radically wrong. One should keep in mind, however, that on the same basis,
one should also condemn any situation, outside of cases of emergency or unavoidable
need, in which human beings are put to work in ways that stunt their possibilities of
human development and attack their dignity.
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) makes another fundamental point, and one on which
other Christian teachers have had frequent occasion to insist, when it teaches that work
has two main effects. On the one hand work produces things; this is an effect that nobody
has any difficulty in perceiving and on which attention is usually concentrated. But work
also has an impact on the worker himself. The Council draws the only possible
conclusion for a Christian: man is much more important than any artifacts he may
produce.
Human activity, to be sure, takes its significance from its relationship to man. Just as it
proceeds from man, so it is ordered toward man. For when a man works he not only alters
things and society, he develops himself as well. He learns much, he cultivates his
resources, he goes outside of himself and beyond himself. Rightly understood this kind of
growth is of greater value than any external riches which can be garnered. A man is more
precious for what he is than for what he has.101
The evangelical Christians who produced the Oxford Declaration (1990) insist on the
same ideas. They also contrast a basic attitude that gives priority to “having” over
100
101
St. Gregory of Nyssa, Homily IV on Ecclesiasticus.
Gaudium et Spes, n. 35.
243
“being.” Then they make the point that thinking of workers merely as productive inputs
while forgetting their humanity is simply unchristian.
The market system can be an effective means of economic growth, but can, in the
process, cause people to think that ultimate meaning is found in the accumulation of more
goods. The overwhelming consumerism of Western societies is testimony to the fact that
the material success of capitalism encourages forces and attitudes that are decidedly nonChristian. One such attitude is the treatment of workers as simply costs or productive
inputs, without recognition of their humanity.102
The point they make in addressing more directly our present concerns is strongly
reminiscent of Saint Gregory of Nyssa:
Persons created in the image of God must not become mere accessories of machines.103
What conclusions should one draw from this material? It is difficult to be specific, as
much depends on the circumstances of each case and on the real room for manoeuver
which each firm may actually have. It is clear that in making decisions about the design
of jobs a Christian employer cannot think only of issues of productivity and profitability.
At the very least he must always have an active concern for the effect that the way in
which the work is organized may have on the character of the workers and on their
opportunities for personal development. Employers must be ready to go to a good deal of
trouble in the effort to ensure that the work is as adequate as possible for human beings,
and this irrespective of whether or not they can see an immediate economic payoff for
such efforts. If, as it is often the case, it turns out that eventually such economic payoff
follows, that will be a very welcome bonus.
Additional material on job design
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – It is necessary to provide for [farmers and workers]
those working conditions which will not impede their human culture but rather favor it.104
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – The entire process of productive work, therefore, must
be adapted to the needs of the person and to his way of life … The opportunity, moreover,
should be granted to workers to unfold their own abilities and personality through the
performance of their work. 105
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – When man develops the earth by the work of his hands
or with the aid of technology… he carries out the design of God manifested at the beginning
of time, that he should subdue the earth, perfect creation and develop himself. 106
.
102
Oxford Declaration, n. 59.
Oxford Declaration, n. 10.
104
Gaudium et Spes, n. 60.
105
Gaudium et Spes, n. 67.
106
Gaudium et Spes, n. 57.
103
244
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – Work should enable the working person to
become "more a human being," more capable of acting intelligently, freely and in ways that
lead to self-realization.107
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Yet, beyond the recognition of everyone’s
contribution, doing justice in business carries an obligation to provide opportunities for
employees to exercise as much responsibility as possible.108
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – We need to ask, “what will make these people’s work
more creative and responsible? What tasks will use their ideas as well as their physical
efforts?” We have an obligation to find and implement answers to such questions. Why?
We could reduce costs and increase productivity. That’s good business. But the gains in
the quality of life for those involved are even more important. Human dignity is
enhanced.109
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – Following the principle of subsidiarity social structures must be
structured in such a way that individuals and the smallest communities may have the
necessary space to develop themselves in an autonomous and responsible way.110
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – The co-operation to the development of the whole man and
of every man is a duty of all towards all.111
Right to work
The proclamation of a right to work is of comparatively recent origin and this explains
the lack of material about this issue in older Christian writings. There are several reasons
for this. In the first place, the whole language of rights is itself relatively recent.
Secondly, although unemployment was by no means unknown in times past, it became a
regular and frequent problem only during the last two centuries, once the complexity of
the way in which economic activity was organized increased dramatically and economies
became subject to frequent cyclical swings. Finally, it has been only in the last seventy
years that governments have had tools that would allow them to attack systematically the
problem of unemployment; there is not much point in talking about a right to work if
nobody is in a position to do anything effectively about it.
The Constitution Gaudium et Spes (1964) of Vatican Council II contains a definite
statement of the right to work, together with a summary of its main grounds:
107
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 65.
109
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 65.
110
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 120.
111
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 31.
108
245
By his labor a man ordinarily supports himself and his family, is joined to his fellow men
and serves them, and can exercise genuine charity and be a partner in the work of
bringing divine creation to perfection. Indeed, we hold that through labor offered to God
man is associated with the redemptive work of Jesus Christ, Who conferred an eminent
dignity on labor when at Nazareth He worked with His own hands. From this there
follows for every man the duty of working faithfully and also the right to work.112
The implicit argument is that work is so important for man that every man has not only a
duty to work, but also a right to be provided with the opportunity to work. An important
aspect of this quotation that must kept in mind in order to understand the seriousness with
which a right to work has been vindicated in the recent past by many Christian churches,
is that it does not reduce the right to work to the right to earn a sufficient income. It notes
the fact that a man supports himself and his family through work, but it goes far beyond
this in noting the role of work in inserting us in society and in associating us to the
creative and redemptive work of God. We will not rehearse here the points already made
in the section on work in Chapter 1, but in the end what they amount to is that in the
Christian view of human beings, to deny a man the chance to work is to deny him not
only an essential means to achieve fulfillment but, even more, an intrinsic aspect of that
fulfillment.
What does it mean that human beings have a “right to work”? In the first place, as the
next two quotations—one from the Lutheran Church in America (1966) and the other a
joint statement of the Lutheran and Catholic Churches in Germany (1997)—make clear,
it means that providing work for all those who are able and willing to work should be a
goal of public policy:
We believe that in nations where conditions of abundance exist, it should be the goal of
the national economy to provide every able bodied adult with the opportunity for
meaningful employment sufficiently remunerative to secure, at the very least, the
minimal necessities required in our society for living in decency and dignity.113
Also in the society of the future, most people will derive from paid work the greater part
of their income and their participation in social life. In such a society a person’s right to
opportunity, to personal development and to participation, is a human right to work.
Although this ethical right to paid work cannot become a right individually enforceable, it
still creates a duty for those responsible for economic, occupational, incomes, and social
policy to do all they can in order to ensure participation in paid work.114
Still, it would be too easy to assume that the only correlative duty to the right to work is
that of the public authorities to strive to create the conditions that make it possible that
there will be a job available for all those who want to obtain one. If the ground of the
right to work is that work is so important for the fulfilment of human beings, every
person who is in a position to help create the conditions for other people to work must
112
Gaudium et Spes, n. 67.
A Social Statement on Poverty Adopted by the Third Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in
America, Kansas City, Missouri, June 21-29, 1966.
114
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice 1997, para. 151.
113
246
have a certain responsibility to do so. The concrete force of this responsibility will
depend on the circumstances of each case: resources available to each individual or
group, their ability to influence events, competing responsibilities they may have, and so
on. But the Christian teaching is that all of us have the duty to do what is in our hands to
help others find work to do. At the very least, no Christian aware of the important role
that work plays in the lives of human beings can afford to adopt the currently fashionable
casual attitude to the dismissal of workers. A Christian may be forced by circumstances
to let go one or more workers, but this will be because the common good of those
involved in a business organization urgently requires that he do so, not because he thinks
it is a matter of little importance or no concern of his. These are points that are well
reflected in the two quotations—from the Council of the Evangelical church in Germany
and the German Catholic Episcopal Conference (1997)—with which I close this section.
Because paid work is the existential foundation which ensures the livelihood, the social
integration and the personal development of the individual, it is a task of an economic
system which is just and has a social orientation to allow access to paid work to all
women and men who need and desire it.
… This is also a responsibility of every businessman… 115
In cases in which effective measures of retrenchment are unavoidable one must give
preference to sharing work over job reduction and dismissals.116
Additional material on right to work
United States Catholic Bishops (1978) – In its teaching, the Church has noted a number
of basic human rights in economic life, including the right to productive employment, the
right to just wages, the right to an adequate income, the rights of workers to organize and
bargain collectively, the right to own property for the many as a protection of freedom,
and the right to participation in economic decisions.117
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – We must first direct our attention to a fundamental issue: the
question of finding work or, in other words, the issue of suitable employment for all who
are capable of it. The opposite of a just and right situation in this field is unemployment,
that is to say, the lack of work for those who are capable of it. …
… Here too the criterion for these pacts and agreements must more and more be the
criterion of human work considered as a fundamental right of all human beings.118
Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith (1985) – Every person has a right to work, and
this right must be recognized in a practical way by an effective commitment to resolving
the tragic problem of unemployment. The fact that unemployment keeps large sectors of
the population and notably the young in a situation of marginalization is intolerable. For
115
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice 1997, para. 168.
116
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice 1997, para. 245.
117
United States Catholic Bishops, To Do the Work of Justice (1978), 28.
118
John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, n. 18.
247
this reason the creation of jobs is a primary social task facing individuals and private
enterprise, as well as the state.119
Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas (1985) – We have been
confronted time and time again with the deep human misery–coupled in some cases with
resentment, in others with apathy and hopelessness –that is [unemployment’s] result. The
absence of regular paid work has eroded self-respect.120
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – Because work is this important, people have
a right to employment.121
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – Among the most important of these [human] rights, mention
must be made of… the right to share in the work which makes wise use of the earth’s
material resources, and to derive from that work the means to support oneself and one’s
dependents.122
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – It is the right of all persons
and communities to adequate access to the resources necessary for a full life, including
access to worthwhile work.123
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – Therefore it is necessary to create structures which allow individuals
to have a responsible participation in social and economic life. They include, besides the
right to political participation, access to the possibility of work and employment which
may allow the worker a decent life comparable with that of the majority of the people and
an effective contribution to the common good.124
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – In the debate about the struggle against unemployment the churches
have always stressed the principle of sharing paid work. They have never argued that it is
possible to bring unemployment to an end exclusively or principally by this means, but
this option must be utilized. The reduction of working hours with a corresponding
reduction in salaries can be useful to create new jobs and make it easier for men and
women to render compatible attention to the family and professional work. A greater
number of part-time jobs and the elimination of overtime are also useful in order to
better share the work available.125
119
Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation, n. 85.
Archbishop of Canterbury’s Commission on Urban Priority Areas, Faith in the City, 1985.
121
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
122
John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, n. 47.
123
What Does Our God Require of Us? A statement adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
124
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 113.
125
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice, 1997, para. 172.
120
248
CHAPTER 7 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – I
CHAPTER 7 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – I ........................................................ 250
Suppliers, creditors and shareholders..................................................................... 250
Financial reports.................................................................................................. 251
Other issues ......................................................................................................... 254
Additional material on suppliers, creditors and shareholders ................................. 256
The duty to care for the poor and needy................................................................. 258
Additional material on the duty to care for the poor and needy ............................. 262
The Christian concept of property .......................................................................... 269
Additional material on the Christian concept of property ...................................... 273
Suppliers, creditors and shareholders
I am devoting a single section to discussing the responsibilities of a firm towards its
suppliers, creditors and shareholders. This approach may well seem surprising to many
people who will think that the responsibilities of a firm towards its shareholders is an
issue of such importance that it deserves separate treatment. I am acting in this way
because there are very few specific references to the rights of shareholders as such in the
body of writings I have made it my task to investigate in this book1 and what I am trying
to do here is to distil teachings from the Christian tradition, not primarily to present my
own ideas in relation to problems about which there is insufficient material in that
tradition.
The Christian tradition contains a wealth of teachings about how the rights of owners
should be respected, but at this point it is important to be careful. In most contemporary
legal systems, strictly speaking shareholders own their shares, not the company.
Therefore to apply uncritically to the relationship between shareholders and their
company what the Christian tradition teaches about the relationship between an owner
and his property could be seriously misleading. And once we go beyond the provisions of
any given legal system, there is very little in the writings of mainstream Christian
teachers to support the idea that shareholders own the company; in fact there is very
strong support for a rival conception of the firm which sees it as a human community
formed at least by (some) shareholders and the employees. I have already treated in
Chapter 5, in the section entitled “Emphasis on community,” the issue of business firms
as human communities. In a similar way, if we leave aside the provisions of specific legal
systems, we have seen in Chapter 2, in the section “Profit and business purpose”, that
ultimately there is much in the Christian tradition against the idea that firms should be
run with a single-minded concentration on the creation of shareholder value. Still, as I
1
I explain in the Preface the criteria I used to delimit the universe of my research.
250
have intimated, the legal provisions in force in each country are also very relevant to this
issue, and in practical terms much will depend on the legal system of each country.
But while the exact position of shareholders in the firm vis-à-vis other stakeholders is an
issue on which relatively little material can be found in the tradition and that is strongly
conditioned by legal considerations, it is clear that, whatever other rights they may have,
shareholders ought to be accorded at the very least the standing appropriate to a supplier
of financial resources, and that is why I group them here with other suppliers. Of course,
the terms of the shareholders’ agreement with the company give them some rights that
most other suppliers lack, but that is well accommodated within the teachings of the
Christian tradition by the fact that that tradition teaches insistently that any supplier is
entitled to have the terms of his contract respected.
Creditors are also suppliers of finance and, besides, most suppliers become also creditors.
Because of this I will also include in this section material on the responsibilities of a
business firm towards its creditors. Accordingly, whenever I use the term suppliers in the
following pages, if the contrary does not appear clearly from the context, I intend to
include in it also shareholders and creditors.
Financial reports
An important area of responsibilities towards one’s suppliers derives from the duty to tell
the truth. We have already spoken at length of the stress laid in the Christian tradition on
neither lying nor seeking to mislead others. Issues of truthfulness are very important in
relation to the provision of financial information on which present and potential
investors, creditors and suppliers tend to rely heavily. The main considerations at stake
were already discussed in Chapter 4, in the section “Communication with customers.”
Perhaps an application to some cases of financial information of the principles which we
discussed in Chapter 4 will be helpful in appreciating their practical bearing in this area.
Consider the following cases
During the month of December firm A ships goods for which orders already exist
faster than it is usually done at other times of the year. The purpose of this is to be
able to book the sales within that accounting year rather than in the following one.
Ultimately, the objective is to report the best possible results in that accounting
year, as the company is about to be sold and the results of the last period available
are bound to have an important bearing on the price which will be paid for the
firm.
During the month of December of a given year firm B delays longer than usual
shipping goods to its customers in order to book the sales in a later accounting
period. Its purpose is to delay the recognition of profit for tax purposes in order to
take advantage of an expected tax holiday.
251
In the case of firm A, the obvious purpose of accelerating the shipment of existing orders
is to create a wrong impression about the level of demand for its products in order to
increase its valuation with a view to a sale of the company. Therefore the company would
seem to intend to mislead the readers of its financial reports and its actions would seem to
be in clear breach of Christian standards.
However, in the case of firm B, which delayed shipping goods in order to reduce the
profit of the current year and maximise that of the following year, all in the expectation
of benefiting from an impending tax holiday, a realistic analysis would seem to be as
follows: the firm had the option of acting in one way or another (shipping faster or more
slowly goods already ordered), chose to act in the way that was more favourable to its
interests (by shipping them more slowly), and then described accurately in its financial
statements what it had done. As its primary purpose was to take maximum advantage
legitimately of an expected tax holiday, rather than to create a wrong impression, it could
not be said to be acting with the intention to mislead the readers of its financial reports.
The difference in outward behaviour between the two cases is a fine one, but I am
bringing up those cases on purpose, in order to emphasise that the standard that has the
better backing from the Christian sources is precisely that one should avoid acting “with a
purpose to mislead.” Perhaps at this point the reader would be well advised to refer back
to Chapter 4 in order to revise the reasons behind this standard.
Another important point that was made in Chapter 4 was that while it is wrong to seek to
mislead others, this is not at all equivalent to saying that one has a positive duty to avoid
at all costs that others will be misled. I argued there that the appropriate Christian
standard is not that one should make every possible effort to prevent that others be
misled, but rather that one make a reasonable effort to avoid their being misled.
This apparently small distinction is very relevant in the field of financial information.
Thus, for instance, does truthfulness require that if one's best estimate of an asset's useful
economic life is, say, seven years, the asset be depreciated precisely over that period? Not
according to what I have just said. Decisions on depreciation can legitimately be made in
the light of many factors and objectives: e.g. to reduce taxes in a legitimate manner, or to
ensure a high degree of prudence in distributing dividends. Nobody familiar with the
relevant accounting conventions would conclude from a certain depreciation rate that the
firm is asserting that it honestly believes the expected life of the asset equals the
depreciation period. It is true that one can foresee with practical certainty that some
readers of a financial report will be misled—and therefore will suffer harm—by the
adoption of a depreciation period markedly different from the expected useful life of the
asset. But as we are assuming that the firm's purpose is not to mislead readers of its
financial statements, the issue here is whether it is consistent with an attitude of love for
its neighbours for the firm to accept that harmful collateral effect of its decisions on
depreciation periods. The answer will generally be affirmative: those harmed suffer
because of their own failure to take reasonable precautions (either educate themselves in
accountancy or seek the help of experts). Love for neighbour does not demand that a firm
accept special harm to its owners and employees (resulting from being unable to use the
252
depreciation periods that best fit its own legitimate objectives) for the sake of protecting
others from harms from which they could easily protect themselves if they were to take
reasonable precautions.
The idea that seeking to mislead others is wrong is also very relevant to an assessment of
some accounting practices in widespread use. Two such practices are popularly known by
the colourful names of “the kitchen sink approach2” and “cookie jar accounting.3” Both
of them have recently been very much in the news. Also in the case of these issues the
relevant Christian principle is the same to which we have been referring: both love for
truth and love for neighbour require not only that one refrain from lying, but also that one
do not act with the intention to induce wrong beliefs in others.
We saw in Chapter 4 that common Christian teaching does not assert that one has a duty
to disclose all the information one has. Instead, we find in the Christian tradition many
admonitions to take into account all of one’s responsibilities when deciding what to say
and what not to say. There are many situations in which it will be more consistent with
love towards our neighbours not to disclose some of the information we have.
Speaking generally all that can be said in relation to financial reporting is that one will
have to weigh in each case the prospective benefits and harms of disclosing information,
keeping in mind, however, that, other things being equal, one's responsibilities towards
dependents and close associates (which often can be harmed by the indiscriminate
disclosure of information) reasonably take priority over one's responsibilities to advance
the general interests of human beings at large (some of whom will be likely to benefit by
the disclosure of such information).
In the area of financial reporting three ways in which disclosing information can cause
harm to oneself or to one’s associates deserve special consideration:
a) In the first place, information is a competitive weapon. Knowledge of a firm’s cost
structure and financial position can be very useful to a competitor. In fact, the importance
2
When a new team takes over the management of a company, it may well be in their interest to present a
very negative picture of the current condition of the business by taking actions such as making big charges
for needed restructuring, bad debts, contingent liabilities, etc. in the first set of financial statements they
issue (the “kitchen sink” full of left overs). This is not as paradoxical as it may seem at first sight. In the
first place, they are not going to be blamed for the bad news which, logically enough, the capital markets
will attribute to the past actions of their predecessors in office. Secondly, the capital markets are often
encouraged by this show of decisiveness on the part of the new team, who will be perceived as having the
courage to bite the bullet, acknowledge the problems which their predecessors were trying to sweep under
the carpet, and deal forthrightly with them. Finally, getting all the bad news out of the way at one stroke
also provides an opportunity for the new management team to exaggerate the provisions and write downs it
makes and in this way create fat reserves which can be run down in the future, charging some future costs
against them instead of taking them above the line; in this way the new management will be able to report
better results in future financial statements.
3
This expression refers to the practice of “managing earnings” by charging large provisions against
revenues in good years, thus creating large reserves (the “cookie jar”) which can be drawn down in bad
years in order to be able to report better profits. The net effect is to smoothen the fluctuations of earnings.
253
of securing such information is explicitly asserted in leading strategy texts.4 Accordingly,
it is always a relevant consideration to ask oneself whether one's competitors could be
able to use against one's firm the information one has divulged.
b) Other parties with whom one has to negotiate, such as unions or suppliers, could
benefit to one's detriment from having detailed knowledge of one's financial position.
c) Finally, there is a very real risk that other parties may draw unwarranted conclusions
from information about one's own firm, with serious consequences for the firm. Thus, for
instance, the investing public may erroneously conclude that because the firm lost money
this quarter, it is also likely to continue incurring losses in the future; this perception may
lead to a severe drop in its share price and to the firm finding it more difficult to secure
credit.
Because of these factors, generally speaking it seems consistent with Christian standards
of truthfulness and love of neighbour to assert that there is no general positive duty to
provide financial information to other parties. Although other parties generally have an
interest in obtaining financial information about one's organization, such interest often
will conflict with the interests of the members of the organization and one generally has
stronger responsibilities towards the latter. Of course, when this conflict does not
obtain—and in many specific circumstances it will not obtain—then one will be free to
provide more information and to do so can even be a duty; but such cases are by way of
exception to a more general rule.
Thus, as a concrete example, the financial statements of German companies tend to be far
less transparent and informative than those of their English or American counterparts. Do
German companies—or those of other countries with accounting regimes which require
little disclosure—have an ethical duty to go beyond what the law of their country
demands and put out more informative financial statements? If we keep in mind the
preceding considerations this would not seem to be the case. If there is no third party who
has a positive right to receive information (and in the absence of a general law or of an
explicit or implicit undertaking by the company, usually there will not be one) we have
seen that the responsibility of the firm is not that of providing this or that level of
information, but the much more limited one of not deceiving or misleading and of
complying with the law.
Of course, all these matters are technical and involved and I cannot treat them here in
detail. My objective is only to draw attention to the fact that the Christian standards of
truthfulness which were discussed in Chapter 4 are very relevant to the issue of disclosure
of financial information.
Other issues
4
M. E. Porter, Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, New York, 1980 pp. 71-74; The Conference Board,
Competitive Intelligence, Research Report No. 913, New York, 1988.
254
Typically, any supplier will be acting in accordance with a previous or concomitant
agreement. Fidelity to one’s own commitments is a major theme within the Christian
tradition. An example is this quotation from the Book of Proverbs:
Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, but those who act faithfully are his delight
(Prv 12:22).
There are many ways in which a person may be lacking in faithfulness in his relations
with his suppliers. One is that of the person who from the start did not intend to keep his
commitments and this is covered in this quotation by the reference to “lying lips.” An
excerpt from the Puritan John Bunyan (1628-1688) can give an idea of how seriously
committed Christians have taken the duty of not acquiring any commitments that they felt
they would be unable to discharge:
And now to your second question: To wit, What I would have a man do, that is in his
Creditors debt, and that can neither pay him, nor go on in a trade any longer?
Answ. First of all. If this be his case, and he knows it, let him not run one penny further in
his Creditors debt. For that cannot be done with good conscience. He that knowes he
cannot pay, and yet will run into debt; does knowingly wrong and defraud his neighbour,
and falls under that sentence of the Word of God, The wicked borroweth and payeth not
again.5
Another form of acting unfaithfully in relation to an agreement is to fail to make the
necessary effort to live up to one’s undertakings when doing so becomes onerous. Thus,
for instance, it is common for firms that need additional finance to decide unilaterally to
extend the period of payment to their creditors, irrespective of contractual agreements.
Such behaviour cannot be squared with the demands of Christian principles. In the
language of the Book of Proverbs, it would be a case of failing to act “faithfully.” In the
same line, some words of Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) stress the urgency of
living faithfully up to all of one’s commitments without considering oneself free to
unilaterally modify them:
They sin against the seventh Commandment … who do not pay their just debts, who
6
deprive others of that is rightly owing to them.
We saw in Chapter 4 how in some circumstances there is a positive duty to disclose the
information one has and that in such cases it would be wrong to take advantage of the
ignorance of the party with whom one is negotiating. As the seller must disclose any
substantial hidden defects in the merchandise he is selling, many Christian teachers have
also taught that the buyer is under a similar duty. If the seller is in substantial error as to
the quality of what he is selling, the buyer should warn him. Saint Thomas Aquinas
(1224-1274) provides an example of this view:
5
6
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
255
Moreover what has been said of the seller applies equally to the buyer. For sometimes it
happens that the seller thinks his goods to be specifically of lower value, as when a man
sells gold instead of copper, and then if the buyer be aware of this, he buys it unjustly and
is bound to restitution: and the same applies to a defect in quantity as to a defect in
quality.7
There is another duty of sellers that many Christian teachers have taught that also applies
to buyers. We argued in Chapter 4 that the standard of a just exchange is the principle of
equivalence in value between the items exchanged or between the price paid and the
value of the item sold. 8 If we look at this standard from the point of view of the buyer, it
entails that it would be unjust to take advantage of the ignorance of the seller to buy
something for less than it is worth. Of course, many practical problems arise about how
one should determine what some specific product or service is worth, but as those issues
were already treated in Chapter 4, I will not repeat the discussion here. About the basic
idea as applied to buyers, the following two references from John Bunyan (1628-1688)
and Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) are illustrative.
The same also may be said for buying; no man may always buy as cheap as he can, but
must also use good conscience in buying; The which he can by no means use and keep, if
he buys always as cheap as he can, and that for the reasons urged before. For such will
make a prey of the ignorance, necessity, and fondness of their chapman, the which they
cannot doe with a good conscience.9
The merchant sins if he buys at a lower price from someone who doesn’t know.10
A quotation from the General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) provides a
contemporary reference and emphasises once again the basic duty of fidelity to one’s
commitments that, in the Christian view, should inform the behaviour of business people
towards their suppliers. Even if the legal norms in force make it relatively easy for
somebody to escape from his commitments a Christian knows that he should do his best
to live up to them.
We live in a society of declining morals and ethics. Bankruptcy and Chapter 11
proceedings are being used by many as a means of avoiding rightful obligations. But just
because it has become a way of life for many is no reason for a Christian to follow this
pathway. The Christian must live by a higher code.11
Additional material on suppliers, creditors and shareholders
The wicked borrows, and cannot pay back, but the righteous is generous and gives (Ps
37:21).
7
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 77, a. 2.
In the section “The Christian tradition on pricing.”
9
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
10
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292.
11
The General Council of the Assemblies of God, 2001 (website).
8
256
Do not withhold good from those to whom it is due, when it is in your power to do it. Do
not say to your neighbor, "Go, and come again, tomorrow I will give it" --when you have
it with you (Prv 3:27-28).
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – To buy for less than a thing is worth is therefore
unjust and illicit in itself.12
Saint Bernardine of Siena (1380-1444) – If he buys [cheaply] the property with the
intention to make a profit … because of the situation of need in which the seller was, then
that is usury, not for reason of the purchase in itself, but because of the lack of equity,
because the profit he makes in that contract is contrary to charity with the neighbour
which demanded to help freely the seller who is in need.13
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – [The Christian must not desire] to get another’s goods or labour
for less than it is worth.14
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – The Life and Death of Mr. Badman. Let [the bankrupt
debtor) proffer [to his creditors] all, and the whole all that ever he has in the world; let
him hide nothing, let him strip himself to his raiment for them; let him not keep a Ring, a
Spoon, or any thing from them.
If none of these two will satisfy them, let him proffer them his Body, to be at their dispose,
to wit, either to abide imprisonment their pleasure, or to be at their service, till by labour
and travel he hath made them such amends as they in reason think fit, (only reserving
something for the succour of his poor and distressed Family out of his labour, which in
Reason, and Conscience, and Nature, he is bound also to take care of:) Thus shall he
make them what amends he is able, for the Wrong that he hath done them in wasting and
spending of their Estates.15
John Bunyan (1628-1688) – When Abraham would buy a Burying-place of the Sons of
Heth, thus he said unto them. Intreat for me to Ephron the son of Zohar, that he may give
me the cave of Machpelah, which he hath, in the end his field. For as much as it is worth
shall he give it me. Gen. 23. 8, 9. He would not have it under foot, he scorned it, he
abhored it: It stood not with his Religion, Credit, nor Conscience. So also when David,
would buy a field of Ornon the Jebusite: Thus he said unto him: Grant me the place the
threshing-floor, that I may build an Altar there unto the Lord. Thou shalt give it me for
the full price. He also, as Abraham, made conscience of this kind of dealing: he would
not lie at catch to go beyond, no not the Jebusite, but will give him his full price for his
field. For he knew that there was wickedness, as in selling too dear so in buying too
cheap, therefore he would not do it.16
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The merchant sins if he doesn’t pay his creditors
when he can do so in due time, with serious harm to them.17
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The merchant sins if he pays with goods what he
owes in money against the will of the creditor.18
12
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 71, a. 1.
St Bernardine of Siena, Sermon 34 on the Fourth Sunday of Lent.
14
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
15
John Bunyan, The Life and Death of Mr. Badman.
16
Id.
17
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292.
13
257
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The silversmith or goldsmith sins if he … buys a
precious stone as if it were worth little.19
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Promises must be kept and contracts strictly
observed to the extent that the commitments made in them are morally just. A significant
part of economic and social life depends on the honoring of contracts between physical
or moral persons - commercial contracts of purchase or sale, rental or labor contracts.
All contracts must be agreed to and executed in good faith.20
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Commutative justice obliges strictly; it
requires safeguarding property rights, paying debts, and fulfilling obligations freely
contracted. Without commutative justice, no other form of justice is possible.21
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) – Paul’s instruction, "Let no
debt remain outstanding" (Rom. 13:8). The context and the remainder of the verse
explain Paul’s primary application of the debt statement, "Let no debt remain
outstanding except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his
fellowman has fulfilled the law." Paul is dealing first of all with our obligation to love
one another. But applying the statement to financial debts is appropriate because failing
to pay one’s debts is certainly not a demonstration of love. When a purchase is made by
credit card or by a promise to make specified payments over a period of time, there is no
debt as long as the buyer makes regular payments according to the agreement. If,
however, a payment is not made at the agreed time, the buyer is in debt and would violate
Paul’s admonition to owe nothing, especially love. If one cannot meet the terms of the
original agreement, the Christian thing to do would be to contact the creditor explaining
the problem and asking for a substitute agreement. If that cannot be arranged, the unpaid
obligation makes the buyer a debtor.
…
A Christian must be a person of good reputation or "honest report" (Acts 6:3 KJV), one
who can be trusted to pay his just debts. The Bible describes one who does not repay his
debts as a wicked person: "The wicked borrow and do not repay" (Psalm 37:21). Credit
extended for major purchases is usually covered by collateral so that the lender, in case
of the buyer's default, takes back the property leaving no debt. Keeping something that
one has not paid for according to agreement would be a violation of Christian integrity
and a sin. .22
The duty to care for the poor and needy
There are few practical moral responsibilities, if any, that are so firmly linked in the
popular mind with the demands of Christianity as the duty to help the poor and the needy.
And in this case the popular mind is correct. This duty is so strong that nowadays many
churches speak of a “preferential option for the poor” in guiding personal and collective
18
Id.
Id.
20
Catechism of the Catholic Church, no 2410.
21
Catechism of the Catholic Church, no 2411.
22
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
19
258
choices. This attitude can be traced back to the very beginnings of Israel. Not only is it
found as a personal duty to help the poor: it can also be seen to be embedded in some of
the fundamental legal institutions that God gave to Israel. Thus, for instance, caring for
the hungry was not left to the personal initiative of some people. Some very specific
prescriptions on how to harvest ensured that there would be something left over for those
who were in special need:
When you reap your harvest in your field, and have forgotten a sheaf in the field, you
shall not go back to get it; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow; that
the Lord your God may bless you in all the work of your hands. When you beat your
olive trees, you shall not go over the boughs again; it shall be for the sojourner, the
fatherless, and the widow. When you gather the grapes of your vineyard, you shall not
glean it afterward; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 24:1921).
The existence of such collective arrangements did not exempt individuals from their duty
to help the weak and it is clear that the importance of this duty was keenly felt by
observant Jews. Job, speaking in his own defense in the face of the calamities that have
befallen him, argues that he was always extremely careful in helping the poor, knowing
well that failing to do so would have attracted God’s wrath. This makes it even more
difficult for him to understand his misfortunes. Of course, the reader of the Book of Job is
aware that actually Job was very pleasing to God, and that eventually his good fortune
would be restored:
If I have withheld anything that the poor desired, or have caused the eyes of the widow to
fail, or have eaten my morsel alone, and the fatherless has not eaten of it (for from his
youth I reared him as a father, and from his mother's womb I guided him); if I have seen
any one perish for lack of clothing, or a poor man without covering; if his loins have not
blessed me, and if he was not warmed with the fleece of my sheep; if I have raised my
hand against the fatherless, because I saw help in the gate; then let my shoulder blade fall
from my shoulder, and let my arm be broken from its socket. For I was in terror of
calamity from God, and I could not have faced his majesty (Jb 31:16-23).
There is often a certain tendency to minimize one’s responsibility to help the needy on
the basis that failing to help is not doing anything bad; it is just an omission. Well,
apparently, from God’s viewpoint there are no “just omissions.” The prophet Amos
compares the gravity of not helping the needy (an omission) to that of clear sins of
commission such as harming the just or taking bribes:
For I know how many are your transgressions, and how great are your sins--you who
afflict the righteous, who take a bribe, and turn aside the needy in the gate (Am 5:12).
Why is helping the poor important? No doubt, several reasons converge in justifying such
a fundamental responsibility. A very important point, however, which is often repeated in
Scripture is that God has great concern for them; accordingly, somebody who loves God
and is keen in working for God’s purposes must share in that concern:
For the Lord hears the needy, and does not despise his own that are in bonds (Ps 69:33).
259
It follows from this that in helping the needy one is honouring God:
He who oppresses a poor man insults his Maker, but he who is kind to the needy honors
him (Prv. 14:31).
God explicitly promises that he himself will repay for the help given to the poor:
He who is kind to the poor lends to the Lord, and he will repay him for his deed (Prv
19:17).
Christ goes beyond this by proclaiming a mysterious identification between him and the
needy by virtue of which what is done for them is done for him:
Then the King will say to those at his right hand, 'Come, O blessed of my Father, inherit
the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you
gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed
me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and you visited me, I was in prison and
you came to me' (Mt. 25: 34-36).
Clearly, the early Christians took very seriously this responsibility to help the poor. Both
the sharing of goods in the early community in Jerusalem and the collection of Paul
among the churches to help the Jerusalem church are very well know and need no
rehearsing here.23 In the second century the Christian apologist Saint Justin (died c. 165),
in his defence of the Christians addressed to the Emperor, is able to compare the greed
and selfishness of pagans—of the Christians themselves before they converted—to the
fundamental attitude of sharing with the poor proper to the Christians.
We, who loved above all else the ways of acquiring riches and possessions, now hand
over to a community fund what we possess and share it with every needy person.24
Once again, as was the case in early Israel, this help was not left to purely individual
initiative. It was institutionalized in the Church, and the number of people reached was
most impressive. At a time when the Church of Rome was still under persecution,
Cornelius, bishop of Rome, reports in a letter written in the year 251 that there were
under the care of the Church “over fifteen hundred widows and persons in distress, all of
whom the grace and kindness of the Master nourish.”25
The duty to help the needy is such a basic tenet of Christian morality that there is little
point in multiplying quotations, although the interested reader will be able to find a good
number in the “Additional material” section. I include now some words of Saint
Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) because they reflect in his habitual sober and thoughtful
manner what was at his time and has remained a teaching of Catholic morality on which
very many generations of priests have been educated.
23
Cf. Acts 2:44-45 and 2 Cor 9.
24
St. Justin, First Apology, 1.14.
25
Eusebius, Church History, bk. 6, ch. 43.
260
You are bound to help the neighbour in extreme necessity ordinarily even from the goods
somehow necessary for one’s state.26
I have referred several times to the doctrine of hierarchy of responsibilities and have
explained how, according to this common Christian doctrine, the needs of oneself and
one’s dependents justifiably take precedence in one’s attention and in allocating one’s
resources. This quotation from Saint Alphonsus Liguori, however, reminds us that this
doctrine cannot be applied in a mechanical way. It is not the case that any “need” of
mine, however trivial, automatically trumps the most extreme needs of other people near
me. When the other person’s need is extreme and one is directly confronted with the case,
even what otherwise would be serious responsibilities have to give way.
There is room for legitimate differences of opinion as to what are the best practical means
to help the poor. A very strong case can be made that certain ways of helping do actual
harm by contributing to perpetuate situations of dependence. Thus, Chewning, Eby and
Roels (1990) observe:
Some people are poor because they are complacent or do not work. Still other people
struggle from disabilities and circumstances that are no fault of their own. We should
seek ways to help these people that do not create dependency and do encourage self-help
efforts.27
But such doubts and differences of opinion should never be an excuse to water down a
person’s commitment to help, at least in those cases—and there are very many of them—
in which it is clear beyond reasonable doubt that help is needed and that it is not likely to
be harmful. A statement of the Lutheran Church in America (1966) makes this point
clearly:
The Lutheran Church in America commits itself to the struggle against poverty in full
continuity with the biblical testimony about concern for the poor. While it recognizes that
the forms of this struggle are subject to human judgment and are open to differences of
opinion among fully committed Christian persons, it does not believe that commitment to
the struggle is an open question for Christians.28
I opened this section referring to the “preferential option for the poor.” I would like to
conclude it by offering the American Catholic bishops understanding of what this option
implies in practical terms (1986). In this statement, stress is placed on the evaluation of
collective policies, even though personal decisions are also taken into account.
As individuals and as a nation, therefore, we are called to make a fundamental “option for
the poor”…
26
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. II, Tract. III, Cap. II, Dub III, 31.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 198.
28
A Social Statement on Poverty. Adopted by the Third Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in
America, Kansas City, Missouri, June 21-29, 1966.
27
261
In summary, the norms of love, basic justice and human rights imply that personal
decisions, social policies and economic institutions should be governed by several key
priorities…
• The fulfillment of the basic needs of the poor is of the highest priority. Personal
decisions, policies of private and public bodies, and power relationships must all be
evaluated by their effects on those who lack the minimum necessities of nutrition,
housing, education and health care…
• Increasing active participation in economic life by those who are presently excluded
or vulnerable is a high social priority
• The investment of wealth, talent and human energy should be specially directed to
benefit those who are poor or economically insecure.29
These are points that can and should be taken into account in the investment and policy
decisions of firms and individuals. They should also guide the lobbying efforts of
businesses when they seek to influence public policy.
Additional material on the duty to care for the poor and needy
You shall give to him freely, and your heart shall not be grudging when you give to him;
because for this the Lord your God will bless you in all your work and in all that you
undertake. For the poor will never cease out of the land; therefore I command you, You
shall open wide your hand to your brother, to the needy and to the poor, in the land (Dt
15:10-11).
No man shall take a mill or an upper millstone in pledge; for he would be taking a life in
pledge (Dt 24:6).
From the profit of his trading he will get no enjoyment. For he has crushed and
abandoned the poor (Jb 20:18-19).
Is not your wickedness great? There is no end to your iniquities. For you have exacted
pledges of your brothers for nothing, and stripped the naked of their clothing. You have
given no water to the weary to drink, and you have withheld bread from the hungry. The
man with power possessed the land, and the favored man dwelt in it. You have sent
widows away empty, and the arms of the fatherless were crushed (Jb 22:5-9).
When the ear heard, it called me blessed, and when the eye saw, it approved; because I
delivered the poor who cried, and the fatherless who had none to help him. The blessing
of him who was about to perish came upon me, and I caused the widow's heart to sing for
joy (Jb 29:11-13).
I was eyes to the blind, and feet to the lame. I was a father to the poor, and I searched out
the cause of him whom I did not know (Jb 29: 15- 16).
29
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
262
The righteous is generous and gives … He is ever giving liberally and lending (Ps 37:21
and 26).
Blessed is he who considers the poor! The Lord delivers him in the day of trouble (Ps
41:1).
Father of the fatherless and protector of widows is God in his holy habitation (Ps 68:5).
It is well with the man who deals generously and lends (Ps 112:5).
[Happy is he] who executes justice for the oppressed; who gives food to the hungry (Ps
146:7).
[The Lord] gives food to the hungry. The Lord sets the prisoners free; the Lord opens the
eyes of the blind. The Lord lifts up those who are bowed down; the Lord loves the
righteous. The Lord watches over the sojourners, he upholds the widow and the
fatherless (Ps 146:7-9).
He who closes his ear to the cry of the poor will himself cry out and not be heard (Prv
21:13).
He who gives to the poor will not want, but he who hides his eyes will get many a curse
(Prv 28:27).
Reject not the petition of the afflicted: and turn not away thy face from the needy (Sir 4:
4).
Is not this the fast that I choose: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the thongs of
the yoke, to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke? Is it not to share your
bread with the hungry, and bring the homeless poor into your house; when you see the
naked, to cover him, and not to hide yourself from your own flesh? (Is 58:6-7).
If a man is righteous and does what is lawful and right– … does not oppress any one, but
restores to the debtor his pledge, commits no robbery, gives his bread to the hungry and
covers the naked with a garment, does not lend at interest or take any increase, withholds
his hand from iniquity, executes true justice between man and man, walks in my statutes,
and is careful to observe my ordinances–he is righteous, he shall surely live, says the
Lord God (Ezk 15:5-9).
Behold, this was the guilt of your sister Sodom: she and her daughters had pride, surfeit
of food, and prosperous ease, but did not aid the poor and needy (Ezk 16:49).
If a man is righteous and does what is lawful and right— [if he] gives his bread to the
hungry and covers the naked with a garment, … he is righteous, he shall surely live, says
the Lord God (Ezk 18: 6-9).
Therefore, O king, let my counsel be acceptable to you; break off your sins by practicing
righteousness, and your iniquities by showing mercy to the oppressed, that there may
perhaps be a lengthening of your tranquillity (Dan 4:27).
263
Thus says the Lord of hosts, Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy each to his
brother, do not oppress the widow, the fatherless, the sojourner, or the poor; and let none
of you devise evil against his brother in your heart. But they refused to hearken, and
turned a stubborn shoulder, and stopped their ears that they might not hear…. Therefore
great wrath came from the Lord of hosts. As I called, and they would not hear, so they
called, and I would not hear," says the Lord of hosts, and I scattered them with a
whirlwind among all the nations which they had not known. Thus the land they left was
desolate, so that no one went to and fro, and the pleasant land was made desolate (Zc
7:9-14).
If thou have much, give abundantly (Tobias 4:93).
And whoever gives to one of these little ones even a cup of cold water because he is a
disciple, truly, I say to you, he shall not lose his reward (Mt 10:42 ).
Jesus said to him, "If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the
poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me" (Mt 19:21).
And [John the Baptist] answered them, "He who has two coats, let him share with him
who has none; and he who has food, let him do likewise" (Lk 3:11).
Give, and it will be given to you; good measure, pressed down, shaken together, running
over, will be put into your lap (Lk 6:38).
Sell your possessions, and give alms; provide yourselves with purses that do not grow
old, with a treasure in the heavens that does not fail, where no thief approaches and no
moth destroys (Lk 12:33).
And he stared at him in terror, and said, "What is it, Lord?" And he said to him, "Your
prayers and your alms have ascended as a memorial before God” (Acts 10:4).
As it is written, "He who gathered much had nothing over, and he who gathered little had
no lack" (2 Cor 8:15).
They [the rich] are to do good, to be rich in good deeds, liberal and generous, thus
laying up for themselves a good foundation for the future, so that they may take hold of
the life which is life indeed (1 Tm 6:18-19).
Religion pure and undefiled before God the Father is this: to give aid to orphans and
widows in their tribulation, and to keep oneself unspotted from this world (Jas 1:27).
If a brother or sister is ill-clad and in lack of daily food, and one of you says to them, "Go
in peace, be warmed and filled," without giving them the things needed for the body, what
does it profit? (Jas 2: 15-16).
By this we know love, that he laid down his life for us; and we ought to lay down our lives
for the brethren. But if any one has the world's goods and sees his brother in need, yet
closes his heart against him, how does God's love abide in him? Little children, let us not
love in word or speech but in deed and in truth (1 Jn 3: 16-18).
264
Didache (80-90) – To all who ask you give, and do not ask back, for from their own gifts
the father wishes to give to all.30
Saint Clement of Rome (bishop of Rome 92-101) – Let the rich man provide for the wants
of the poor; and let the poor man bless God, because He hath given him one by whom his
need may be supplied.31
Saint Clement of Rome (bishop of Rome 92-101) – We know many among ourselves who
have given themselves up to bonds, in order that they might ransom others. Many, too,
have surrendered themselves to slavery, that with the price which they received for
themselves, they might provide food for others.32
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Thou shalt not hesitate to give, nor murmur when thou
givest.33
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – [In the way of darkness are those who] pity not the needy…
who turn away him that is in want.34
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Thou shalt share all things with thy neighbour and shall not
say that they are thy own property; for if you are sharers in that which is incorruptible,
how much more in that which is corruptible?35
Saint Ignatius of Antioch (died 107-110) – Take care that widows are not neglected. Next
to the Lord, you must be their protector … 36
Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Give in simplicity to all who need.37
Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – I wish before anything else that everybody be saved
from indigence. Many, who do not manage to bear the terrible sufferings of lacking
necessaries, kill themselves. Anybody who knows another’s misfortune and does not help
him to come out of his misery, is guilty of his death.
Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Do good, and from the fruit of your labors, which is
God’s gift to you, give to all those in need without distinction, not debating to whom you
will and to whom you will not give. Give to all, since it is God’s will that we give to all
from his bounties.38
Saint Justin (died c. 165) – And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always
keep together.39
30
Didache, 1.5.
The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, ch. 38.
32
The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, ch. 55.
33
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
34
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 20.
35
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.8.
36
St. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to Polycarp, 4.1.
37
Shepherd of Hermas, 2.4.
38
Shepherd of Hermas, 2.4.
39
St. Justin, First Apology, ch. 67.
31
265
Saint Justin (died c. 165) – And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each
thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans
and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those
who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all
who are in need.40
Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258) – Thus in the Gospel, the Lord, the Teacher of our life and
Master of eternal salvation, who bestows life on those who believe in him and provides
for them forever, among his divine commands and heavenly precepts, orders and
prescribes nothing more frequently than that we continue in almsgiving and not cling
avariciously to our earthly possessions but rather store up heavenly treasures.41
The Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – When any Christian becomes an orphan, whether
it be a young man or a maid, it is good that some one of the brethren who is without a
child should take the young man, and esteem him in the place of a son.42
Saint Basil (329-379) – As a great river flows by a thousand channels through fertile
country, so let you wealth run through many conduits to he homes of the poor.43
Saint Basil (329-379) – We must be careful and solicitous regarding the needs of the
brethren in accordance with the will of God.44
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – God wants that what is deficient may be
equalized with what is abundant, and what is lacking be provided by that in which there
is excess, and for that has given men as a law compassion towards the needy.45
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – God himself is the prime author of beneficence,
the rich and generous provider of all that we need. But we, who are taught in Scripture’s
every syllable to copy our Lord and Maker in so far as the mortal may imitate the divine
and immortal – we snatch everything to our own enjoyment, assigning some things to
ourselves to live upon, hoarding the rest for our heirs.46
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – A harsh jusgement awaits you, oh rich! The people are
hungry and you close your granaries. The people cry and you show your jewels. Woe to
one who can save so many lives from death, and does not.47
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Do you really wish to pay homage to Christ’s body?
Then do not neglect him when he is naked. At the same time that you honor him here with
hangings made of silk, do not ignore him outside when he perishes from cold and
nakedness.48
40
St. Justin, First Apology, ch. 67.
St. Cyprian, On Works and Almsgiving, 7.
42
The Apostolic Constitutions, IV, 1.
43
St. Basil, Homily on “I will pull down my barns,” 5.
44
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 48, ch.. 5.
45
St. Gregory of Nyssa, Hom. V on the Beatitudes.
46
St. Gregory of Nyssa, Love of the Poor.
47
St. Ambrose, On Naboth. 56.
48
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, 50, 4.
41
266
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Now charity is not bare words, or mere ways of
speaking to men, but a taking care of them, and a putting forth of itself by works, as, for
instance, by relieving poverty, lending one’s aid to the sick, rescuing from dangers, to
stand by them that be in difficulties…49
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Would that you had known that my little ones were in need
when I placed them on earth for you and appointed them your stewards to bring your
good works into my treasury. But you have placed nothing in their hands; therefore you
have found nothing in my presence.50
Saint Leo the Great (pope 440-461) – Perhaps there are some rich men who without
assisting the Church’s poor by alms nevertheless keep other commandments of God;
having merits of faith and uprightness they think they will be pardoned for the lack of this
one virtue. But this virtue is such that without it their other virtues—if indeed they have
them—can be of no avail.51
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – Accordingly we are bound to give alms of our
surplus, as also to give alms to one whose need is extreme.52
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – The seventh requisite for mercy is that while one
should take care to examine the persons to whom he gives alms so that he will not
deprive the poor of help while giving to deceivers, he should nevertheless not be like
those who hide their avarice and parsimony under the guise of investigation.53
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – The pastor, therefore, should encourage the
faithful to be willing and anxious to assist those who have to depend on charity, and
should make them realize the great necessity of giving alms and of being really and
practically liberal to the poor.54
John Calvin (1509-1564) – We must, therefore, administer them [i.e. earthly blessings]
as if we constantly heard the words sounding in our ears, ‘Give an account of your
stewardship.’ At the same time, let us remember by whom the account is to be taken –
viz.: by him who…approves of no administration but that which is combined with
charity.55
Vitoria (1483-1546) – He who has riches in the world is under an obligation to put a
remedy to the need of the one suffering.56
John Wesley (1703-1791) – In the evening (not knowing how it might please God to
dispose of me), to prevent vile panegyric, I wrote as follows: Here lieth the Body of John
Wesley, a brand plucked out of the burning who died of a consumption in the fifty-first
49
St. John Chrysostom, Homily VII on the Epistle to the Romans.
St. Augustine, Sermon 18, 4.
51
St. Leo the Great, Sermon 10.
52
St. Thoman Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 32, a. 5.
53
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. IV, ch. 16.
54
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
55
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, III, 10.
56
Vitoria, Comentaries to the II-II of Saint Thomas, q. 32 a. 5.
50
267
year of his age, not leaving, after his debts are paid, ten pounds behind him: praying,
God be merciful to me, an unprofitable servant!57
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Monday, 15--I walked up to Knowle, a mile from Bristol, to
see the French prisoners. About eleven hundred of them, we are informed, were confined
in that little place, without anything to lie on but a little dirty straw, or anything to cover
them but a few foul thin rags, either by day or night, so that they died like rotten sheep. I
was much affected and preached in the evening on (Exodus 23:9), "Thou shalt not
oppress a stranger: for ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in the
land of Egypt." Eighteen pounds were contributed immediately, which were made up
four-and-twenty the next day. With this we bought linen and woolen cloth, which were
made up into shirts, waistcoats, and breeches. Some dozen of stockings were added; all
which were carefully distributed where there was the greatest want. Soon after, the
Corporation of Bristol sent a large quantity of mattresses and blankets. And it was not
long before contributions were set on foot at London and in various parts of the kingdom;
so that I believe from this time they were pretty well provided with all the necessaries of
life.
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – Wherever men are to be found who are in want of food
and drink, of clothing, housing, medicine, work, education, the means necessary for
leading a truly human life, wherever there are men racked by misfortune or illness, men
suffering exile or imprisonment, Christian charity should go in search of them and find
them out, comfort them with devoted care and give them the helps that will relieve their
needs. This obligation binds first and foremost the more affluent individuals and
nations.58
Lutheran Church in America (1980) – Life under God is also meant to be life in
community. There is no humanity but co-humanity; for one cannot be human alone. It is
only together that persons can realize their creation in God's image. This image is
reflected as persons respond in love and justice to one another's needs… It is in the basic
human relationships of domestic, political, and economic life that persons share in their
common humanity. God's love encompasses all people, and God intends that stewardship
be practiced for the benefit of the entire human family.59
United States Catholic Conference (1995) – …The fundamental moral measure of these
policy choices is how they touch the poor in our midst.60
Synod of Russian Orthodox Church (1996) – In all times the church has been on the side
of the weak and the disinherited. Christ himself identified himself precisely with these
people.61
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – [The churches] understand that their mission and their competence
in the field of social and economic policy lay above all in presenting and giving their
57
The Journal of John Wesley, ch. 9.
Apostolicam Actuositatem, 8.
59
Economic Justice: Stewardship of Creation in Human Community, Statement adopted by the Tenth
Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Seattle, Washington, 1980.
60
United States Catholic Conference, A Decade After Economic Justice for All, 1995.
61
Statement by Synod of Russian Orthodox Church, 1996.
58
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backing to a value orientation towards the service of the common good. They understand
it is their particular responsibility to pay attention to the demands of those who, because
of their inability to make themselves effectively heard, are easily forgotten in economic
and political calculations: the demands of the poor, the disadvantaged and the powerless,
but also of future generations and of the creation which has no voice.62
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference
(Catholic) (1997) – The Christian love for neighbour is addressed first of all to the poor
and the disadvantaged. In this way the option for the poor becomes a binding principle of
action. 63
United States Catholic Conference (1999) – Integral to [Israel’s great legal codes] is the
special concern charged to the community for the widows, orphans and strangers who
comprised God’s beloved poor.64
The Christian concept of property
Perhaps the greatest obstacle that nowadays blocks an understanding of the
responsibilities of business firms towards the communities in which they operate and
towards the needy people in them is the widespread acceptance of a concept of ownership
which is radically at variance with the idea of ownership taught in the Christian sources.
For most people ownership is an entitlement: if I own this car, I am entitled to do as I
please with it. However, as we will see, in the Christian tradition ownership is above all a
responsibility: if I own this car, this means that I am the person whose responsibility it is
to care well for it and to make sure that it is used in the most appropriate way, which may
well not be for my own immediate benefit. In other words, in the view common
nowadays an owner is an absolute owner; in the traditional Christian view an owner is an
administrator.
The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is mine; for you are strangers and
sojourners with me (Lv 25:23).
Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the
majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine (1 Chr 29:11).
The heavens are thine, the earth also is thine; the world and all that is in it, thou hast
founded them (Ps 89:11).
As these quotations make clear, God is the only absolute owner. Scripture repeats
insistently the idea that ultimately everything belongs to him. Notice, for instance, that
Leviticus does not say that those pieces of land which are unallocated to any human
62
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 4.
63
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 105.
64
United States Catholic Conference, In All Things Charity: A Pastoral Challenge for the New Millennium
(1999).
269
being by default belong to God, but that all land, also those parcels to which somebody
has an unimpeachable title, belong to him. Of course, the logic of the conception of
absolute ownership does not leave room for two absolute owners. Therefore, if God
claims ownership, the human “owner” cannot be also an owner in the same sense as God.
As we have indicated, he is more in the position of administrator or steward than in that
of absolute owner.
The Bible places very clear limits to the powers that a human “owner” can claim over his
property. First, and very importantly, the owner is not allowed to exclude from his
property those who are in a situation of urgent need. Deuteronomy prescribes that the
hungry person must be allowed to enter into the land of another, and there and then
satisfy his hunger with the landowner’s grapes or his grain. That this is intended only to
satisfy cases of immediate grave need is shown by the fact that the permission does not
extend to carrying away the fruits.
When you go into your neighbor's vineyard, you may eat your fill of grapes, as many as
you wish, but you shall not put any in your vessel. When you go into your neighbor's
standing grain, you may pluck the ears with your hand, but you shall not put a sickle to
your neighbor's standing grain (Dt 23:24-25).
It is also very significant that the Bible does not speak of alms as being something
supererogatory, but as a strict duty. The poor has a right to be assisted by the rich, and if
the rich fails to do so he is defrauding the poor.
Son, defraud not the poor of alms, and turn not away thy eyes from the poor (Sir 4:1).
Finally, Saint Peter says explicitly that we should consider ourselves to be stewards of the
gifts we have received from God. Accordingly, we must not use these gifts just for our
own benefit, forgetting the needs of others; instead, we must live our stewardship by
using those gifts “for one another.”
As each has received a gift, employ it for one another, as good stewards of God's varied
grace (1 Pt 4:10).
The Fathers of the Church speak very often in these terms. They emphasize once and
again that in the eyes of God my property is not mine to do as I please with it. I am only
an administrator for the purpose of caring for it and making sure that it is used for
satisfying the needs of everyone. They do not shy away from the logical conclusion that
the owner who fails to share with the needy is committing an injustice, not just failing to
practice charity.
When I discussed in Chapter 1 the teachings of the Christian tradition on the value of
material goods, I mentioned that Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) was the first
Father to discuss extensively this issue and that he was unequivocal in stating that in
themselves material goods were good, that they could be used well, and that therefore
being rich was not something bad in itself. However, he emphasized equally strongly the
270
idea that God intends his gifts for everybody and that riches are to be used as common.
Many later teachers would repeat this idea.
God made all things for everybody. Therefore, all things are common property and let the
rich not claim more for themselves than the others… God gave us the power to use his
wealth, but only insofar as it is necessary, and he wishes us to use it in common. It is
therefore unjust for one to feast and revel while many live in poverty.65
Mainstream Christian teachers never rejected the idea of private property in the sense of
the goods of the earth being assigned to different owners who have specific responsibility
for them and make decisions for their care and employment. A good example, among
many others tht could be mentioned is provided by the following words of Saint Ambrose
(c. 339-397):
Private property need not be relinquished, but its benefits must be shared…the proper use
makes private property compatible with justice in man’s present state.66
However, these same teachers stressed, as Saint Ambrose himself does in the words I
have just quoted, that owners should not believe that they are the exclusive beneficiaries
of the goods they control. On the contrary, as Clement says “[God] wishes us to use
[wealth] in common.” Lactantius (Fourth Century) also makes the same point:
In fact, God has given the land for the common use of all men, so that all may enjoy the
goods its produces in common, and not in order that someone with grasping and raging
greed may claim everything for himself, while another may be deprived of the things the
earth produces for all.67
We find in Saint Basil (329-379), and in others before and after him, the idea that—the
owner being in justice an administrator, as Sirach had said—if he fails to share his goods,
he is actually defrauding the needy.
And are not you covetous, are not you a defrauder, when you keep for private use what
you were given for distribution? When someone strips a man of his clothes we call him a
thief. And one who might clothe the naked and does not – should not he be given the
same name? The bread in your board belongs to the hungry: the cloak in your wardrobe
belongs to the naked, the shoes you let rot belong to the barefoot; the money in your
vaults belongs to the destitute. All you might help and do not – to all these you are doing
wrong.68
By the time of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) these old ideas have already been
organized into a system. He argues, as I discussed in the first chapter, that each man’s
responsibilities are ordered in a hierarchy, so that he must take care first of all of those
closer to him. He also holds, in conformity with the Bible and the patristic tradition, that
material goods must be used to satisfy the needs of all, and he concludes that any owner
65
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, II, 12.
St. Ambrose, Commentary on Psalm 118.8.22.
67
Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, 5.5.
68
St. Basil, Homily on “I will pull down my barns”, 7.
66
271
can legitimately give priority to his and his dependents needs, but that after this he has to
use the surplus to satisfy the needs of others:
The temporal goods, which God grants us, are ours as to the ownership, but as to the use
of them, they belong not to us alone but also to such others, as we are able to succor out
of what we have over and above our needs.69
He does not shy away from the conclusion that if things stand like that, it follows that if a
person finds himself in a situation of need, he will not be stealing if he takes the property
of another.
In cases of need all things are common property, so that there would seem to be no sin in
taking another's property, for need has made it common.70
Of course, much depends in these cases on how broadly one is ready to construe the term
“need.” Should it encompass “I really need a new dress to attend this party; none of the
fifteen I have is really appropriate for the occasion”? It seems clear that it should not.
Saint Thomas Aquinas was also aware that it would be wrong to take from somebody
who is desperately hungry his last biscuit, even if I myself am also desperately hungry.
The specific implications of the basic doctrine were already outlined by Saint Thomas
Aquinas and would be delineated in great detail by the scholastics who followed him.
However, the most important point for our own purposes is that mainstream Christian
teachers never retreated from Saint Thomas Aquinas’ bold statement that “in cases of
need all things are common property.”
Five centuries after Saint Thomas Aquinas we still find in John Wesley (1703-1791) the
same basic ideas: the owner is a steward and the real owner (God) has entrusted us with
his riches for the purpose of “reliev[ing] the wants of all mankind”. And then, two
centuries later, both Vatican II (1962-1965) and the Lutheran Church in America (1978)
reiterate still the same ideas:
Perhaps you say you can now afford the expense. This is the quintessence of nonsense.
Who gave you this addition to your fortune; or (to speak properly) lent it to you? To
speak more properly still, who lodged it for a time in your hands as his stewards;
informing you at the same time for what purposes he entrusted you with it? … Do not
you know that God entrusted you with that money (all above what buys necessaries for
your families) to feed the hungry, to clothe the naked, to help the stranger, the widow, the
fatherless; and indeed, as far as it will go, to relieve the wants of all mankind?71
God intended the earth with everything contained in it for the use of all human beings and
peoples. Thus, under the leadership of justice and in the company of charity, created
goods should be in abundance for all in like manner… attention must always be paid to
this universal destination of earthly goods. In using them, therefore, man should regard
the external things that he legitimately possesses not only as his own but also as common
69
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 32, a. 5.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 66, a. 7
71
John Wesley, Sermon On the Danger of Increasing Riches.
70
272
in the sense that they should be able to benefit not only him but also others… If one is in
extreme necessity, he has the right to procure for himself what he needs out of the riches
of others.72
A Social Statement on Human Rights: Doing Justice in God's World. Adopted by the
Ninth Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America. Chicago, Illinois, July
12-19, 1978: No person, business enterprise, government, or other human agency holds
ultimate title to the resources it controls. Private property is not an absolute right. Goods
and abilities are held in trust from God and are to be allocated and used for justice in
community.73
Additional material on the Christian concept of property
At the end of every seven years you shall grant a release. And this is the manner of the
release: every creditor shall release what he has lent to his neighbor; he shall not exact it
of his neighbor, his brother, because the Lord's release has been proclaimed (Dt 15:1-2).
When you reap your harvest in your field, and have forgotten a sheaf in the field, you
shall not go back to get it; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow;
that the Lord your God may bless you in all the work of your hands. When you beat your
olive trees, you shall not go over the boughs again; it shall be for the sojourner, the
fatherless, and the widow. When you gather the grapes of your vineyard, you shall not
glean it afterward; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 24:1921).
The earth is the Lord’s and the fullness thereof, the world and those who dwell therein
(Ps 24:1).
For every beast of the forest is mine, the cattle on a thousand hills. I know all the birds of
the air, and all that moves in the field is mine. "If I were hungry, I would not tell you; for
the world and all that is in it is mine” (Ps 50:10-12).
O Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast thou made them all; the earth is full
of thy creatures (Ps 104:24).
The prince shall not take any of the inheritance of the people, thrusting them out of their
property; he shall give his sons their inheritance out of his own property, so that none of
my people shall be dispossessed of his property (Ezk 46:18).
And the multitudes asked him [John the Baptist], "What then shall we do?" And he
answered them, "He who has two coats, let him share with him who has none; and he
who has food, let him do likewise" (Lk 3:10-11).
72
Gaudium et Spes, n. 69.
A Social Statement on Human Rights: Doing Justice in God's World. Adopted by the Ninth Biennial
Convention of the Lutheran Church in America. Chicago, Illinois, July 12-19, 1978.
73
273
Didache (80-90) - Thou shalt communicate in all things with thy neighbour; thou shalt
not call things thine own; for if ye are partakers in common of things which are
incorruptible, how much more [should you be] of those things which are corruptible! 74
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - c. 215) - The expression, then, “I own something, and
have more than enough: why shouldn’t I enjoy it?” is neither worthy of man nor proper
to the sharing of goods. It is more conformable to charity to say: “I have something; why
shouldn’t I share it with those in need?” 75
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – If thou hast by the work of thy hands, give, that thou
mayest labour for the redemption of thy sins… Thou shall communicate in all things to
thy brother, and shall not say thy goods are thine own; for the common participation of
the necessaries of life is appointed to all men by God.76
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Let nothing be exclusive for somebody, but we all got, as a
gift of the single father, not only the very beginning of life, but also riches to make use of
them. For us to be good in everything let us consider all things as common to all.77
Saint Jerome (349?-420) – Your possessions are no longer your own but a stewardship is
entrusted to you. . . . be careful for your part not rashly to squander what is Christ’s. Do
not, that is, by an error of judgment give the property of the poor to those who are not
poor.78
Saint Basil (329-379) – Whatever a man may possess over and above what is necessary
for life, he is obliged to do good with, according to the command of the Lord who has
bestowed on us the things we possess.79
Saint Basil (329-379) – One who can remedy this [hunger] and out of greed refuses to do
so, can justly be considered a murderer.80
Saint Basil (329-379) – Remember yourself – who you are, what you are steward of, from
whom you had it, why you have been favored above most. You have been made the
minister of a gracious God, steward for your fellow-servants. Do not suppose that all
these things were provided for your belly. The wealth you handle belongs to others; think
of it accordingly.81
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – When giving to the poor you are not giving him what is
yours, rather you are paying back to him what is his. Indeed what is common to all and
he has given to all to make use of, you have usurped for yourself alone. The earth belongs
to all, and not only to the rich; yet those who do not enjoy it are far fewer than those who
74
Didache, ch. 4.8.
Clement of Alexandria, The Tutor, 2.12.
76
Apostolic Constitutions, VII, 12.
77
St. Ambrose, Commentaries on the Gospel of St. Matthew, ch. IV, n.2.
78
St. Jerome, Letter 58, to Paulinus.
79
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 48.
80
St. Basil, Homily in Times of Famine, 7.
81
St. Basil, Homily on “I will pull down my barns”, 2.
75
274
do. You are paying back, therefore, your debt; you are not giving gratuitously what you
do not owe.82
Saint Augustine (354-430) – From those things which God gave you, take that which you
need, but the rest, which to you are superfluous, are necessary to others. The superfluous
goods of the rich are necessary to the poor, and when you possess the superfluous you
posses what is not yours.83
Saint Augustine (354-430) – The superfluities of the rich are the necessities of the poor.
When you possess superfluities, you possess the goods of others.84
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Not to enable the poor to share in our goods is to
steal from them and deprive them of life. The goods we possess are not ours, but theirs.85
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For you are steward of your own possessions, not
less than he who dispenses the alms of the church. As then he has not a right to squander
at random and at hazard the things given by you for the poor, since they were given for
the maintenance of the poor; even so neither may you squander your own. For even
though you have received an inheritance from your father, and have in this way all you
possess: even thus, all are God’s.86
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – Your soul is not yours, much less are your riches you
own. How is it then that you spend on what is unnecessary the things that are not yours?
Do you not know that we will soon be on trial if we use them badly? But since they are
not ours but our Master’s, we should spend them for our fellow-servants…87
Saint Gregory the Great (pope 590-604) – The land is common to all men, and therefore
brings forth nourishment for all men. Those people, then, are wrong to think themselves
guiltless when they claim what God has given to men in common as their private
property; who because they do not distribute what they have received, proceed to the
slaughter of their neighbours, since they kill each day as many of the dying poor as could
have been saved by what they keep to themselves. For when we give necessities to people
in need, we are returning to them what is theirs, not being generous with what is ours; we
are rather paying a debt of justice than performing a work of charity.88
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – [As regards the use of things] man ought to possess
external things, not as his own, but as common, so that, to wit, he is ready to
communicate them to others in their need.89
Saint Thomas More (1477-1535) – For they account it a very just cause of war for a
nation to hinder others from possessing a part of that soil of which they make no use, but
which is suffered to lie idle and uncultivated, since every man has, by the law of nature, a
82
St. Ambrose, On Naboth, 12, 53.
St. Augustine, Commentary on Psalm 147.12.
84
St. Augustine, Commentary on Psalm 147, 12.
85
St. John Chrysostom, Homily II On Lazarus.
86
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew 74, 4.
87
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Letter to the Corinthians X, 3.
88
St. Gregory the Great, Book of Pastoral Rule, II, 21.
89
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 66, a. 2.
83
275
right to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his subsistence.90
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – They also sin against [the seventh] Commandment
who do not aid their neighbor in time of need, for in cases of grave necessity the neighbor
has a claim on the goods of those who are able to assist him. Thus, the rich man is
considered a thief if he deliberately refuses to help those in need.91
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – In concluding his explanation of this Petition
the pastor should exhort the rich to remember that they are to look upon their wealth and
riches as gifts of God, and to reflect that those goods are bestowed on them in order that
they may share them with the indigent.92
John Calvin (1509-1564) –- We must, therefore, administer them [i.e. earthly blessings]
as if we constantly heard the words sounding in our ears, ‘Give an account of your
stewardship.’ At the same time, let us remember by whom the account is to be taken –
viz.: by him who…approves of no administration but that which is combined with
charity.93
Vitoria (1483-1546) – He who has riches in the world is under an obligation to put a
remedy to the need of the one suffering.94
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – Whatsoever is superfluous in thy estate is to be dispensed
in alms. He that hath two coats must give to him that hath none; O that is, he that hath
beyond his need must give that which is beyond it. Only among needs, we are to reckon
not only what will support our life, but also what will maintain the decency of our estate
and person, not only in present needs, but in all future necessities, and very probable
contingencies.95
John Wesley (1703-1791) – Permit me to speak as freely of myself as I would of another
man. I gain all I can (namely, by writing) without hurting either my soul or body. I save
all I can, not willingly wasting anything, not a sheet of paper, not a cup of water. I do not
lay out anything, not a shilling, unless as a sacrifice to God. Yet by giving all I can, I am
effectually secured from “laying up treasures upon earth.” Yea, and I am secured from
either desiring or endeavouring it, as long as I give all I can. And that I do this, I call all
that know me, both friends and foes to testify.96
John Wesley (1703-1791) – In order to see the ground and reason of this, consider, when
the Possessor of heaven and earth brought you into being, and placed you in this world,
be placed you here, not as a proprietor, but a steward: As such he entrusted you, for a
season, goods of various kinds; but the sole property of these still rests in him, nor can
ever be alienated from him.97
90
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
92
Catechism of the Council of Trent, On The Lord’s Prayer.
93
John Calvin, Institutes, III, 10.
94
Vitoria, Commentaries to the II-II of Saint Thomas, q. 32, a. 5.
95
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. IV, sect. VIII.
96
John Wesley, The Danger of Riches.
97
John Wesley, On the Use of Money.
91
276
John Wesley (1703-1791) – It is not so with a steward; he is not at liberty to use what is
lodged in his hands as he pleases, but as his Master pleases. He has no right to dispose of
anything which is in his hands, but according to the will of his Lord. For he is not the
proprietor of any of these things, but barely entrusted with them by another; and
entrusted on this express condition, ....that he shall dispose of all as his Master orders.98
John Wesley (1703-1791) – May not this be another reason why rich men shall so hardly
enter into the kingdom of heaven? A vast majority of them are under a curse, under the
peculiar curse of God; inasmuch as, in the general tenor of their lives, they are not only
robbing God, continually embezzling and wasting their Lord’s goods, and, by that very
means, corrupting their own souls, but also robbing the poor, the hungry, the naked;
wronging the widow and the fatherless; and making themselves accountable for all the
want, affliction, and distress which they may but do not remove. Yea, doth not the blood
of all those who perish for want of what they either lay up, or lay out needlessly, cry
against them from the earth?99
John Paul II (pope 1979 -) – The characteristic principle of Christian social doctrine: the
goods of this world are originally meant for all. The right of private property is valid and
necessary, but it does not nullify the value of this principle. Private property, in fact, is
under a ‘social mortgage’, which means that it has an intrinsically social function based
upon and justified precisely by the principle of the universal destination of goods.100
Lutheran Church in America (1978) – God has given the wealth of creation as a trust for
the benefit of the whole human family in an interdependent world …101
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – In his use of things man should regard the
external goods he legitimately owns not merely as exclusive to himself but common to
others also, in the sense that they can benefit others as well as himself. The ownership of
any property makes its holder a steward of Providence, with the task of making it fruitful
and communicating its benefits to others, first of all his family.102
John Paul II (pope 1979-) – If in his providence God had given the earth to humanity,
that meant that he had given it to everyone. Therefore the riches of creation were to be
considered as a common good of the whole of humanity. Those who possessed these
goods as personal property were really only stewards, ministers charged with working in
the name of God, who remains the sole owner in the full sense, since it is God’s will that
created goods should serve everyone in a just way.103
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria (1998) – You have blessed our country, Nigeria,
with rich human and natural resources to be used to your honour and glory for the wellbeing of every Nigerian.104
98
John Wesley, The Good Steward.
John Wesley, On the Sermon on the Mount, VIII.
100
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 42.
101
A Social Statement on Human Rights: Doing Justice in God's World. Adopted by the Ninth Biennial
Convention of the Lutheran Church in America. Chicago, Illinois, July 12-19, 1978.
102
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2404.
103
John Paul II, Tertio Millennio Adveniente, n. 13.
104
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria, Prayer Against Bribery and Corruption (1998).
99
277
CHAPTER 8 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – II
CHAPTER 8 – OTHER STAKEHOLDERS – II ...................................................... 278
The firm and the community ................................................................................... 278
Additional material on the firm and the community ............................................... 282
Stewardship for the earth......................................................................................... 285
Additional material on stewardship for the earth .................................................... 290
Compliance with the law .......................................................................................... 296
Additional material on compliance with the law .................................................... 301
Giving bribes ............................................................................................................. 305
Additional material on giving bribes ...................................................................... 306
Competitors ............................................................................................................... 307
Additional material on competitors ........................................................................ 309
The firm and the community
Some firms try to contribute to the well-being of the communities in which they operate
in ways that go beyond providing returns to their shareholders, jobs to their employees,
and products and services to their customers. This contribution to the community can take
different forms such as giving economic help to non-profit organizations; making an
effort—sacrificing short term profits if necessary—to avoid plant closures which could
have a negative effect on the local community; personal service by managers in the
boards of important public service organizations such as hospitals, museums, charities, or
universities; and secondment of company employees to work in public interest projects.
Firms which do these things see themselves as acting as a “good neighbour” who is
concerned with the common good of his community, even in aspects which may have
little relation, or no relation at all, to his main area of activity.
Until some years ago it used to be taken for granted, at least in the academic literature
and in the public pronouncements of CEOs, that business firms have a responsibility to
render that type of “good neighbour help” to the communities in which they operate.
Nowadays, however, the intellectual fashions of the day stress much more the importance
of creating value for shareholders. As voluntary contributions to community needs may
reduce what is available for shareholders, they are less popular. There is even a strong
current of opinion that argues that commercial organizations have no business spending
their resources—over and above the obligations imposed on them by the law—in solving
the problems of their communities.
Can we draw any guidance in this question from the teachings of Scripture and the
Christian tradition? I have been able to find very few pronouncements on this issue. For
this reason it is possible to find serious and reflective Christians on all sides of this
controversy, from those who argue for an expansive conception of the social
responsibility of business firms to those who stress that business organizations are
special-purpose social entities which will contribute better to the communities in which
278
they operate if they focus their efforts on their own special area of expertise and
responsibility.
However, the Christian tradition is definite in affirming that social groups must have an
active concern with the common good of their societies. Christians are taught to have a
commitment to the common good of the society in which they live, not just to the good of
their own family, village, professional association, or business firm.
A frequent teaching of the Bible is that men need each other and must strive to build
bonds with each other. This teaching also applies to social groups. An early example is
the pointed emphasis with which the Book of Judges describes how the people of Laish,
who in their prosperity believed that they did not need other people, were unable to get
help from anybody in times of trouble:
Then the five men departed, and came to La'ish, and saw the people who were there, how
they dwelt in security, after the manner of the Sido'nians, quiet and unsuspecting, lacking
nothing that is in the earth, and possessing wealth, and how they were far from the
Sido'nians and had no dealings with any one. … the Danites came to La'ish, to a people
quiet and unsuspecting, and smote them with the edge of the sword, and burned the city
with fire. And there was no deliverer because it was far from Sidon, and they had no
dealings with any one (Jgs 18:7 & 27-28).
Another important teaching to be found in the Bible is that it is impossible to have a good
and flourishing life if one’s community is plagued with troubles. Therefore, we must
have an active concern for the society in which we live, and this even if it is not our own
country or our own community. This is expressed in different ways in Scripture, but
perhaps in the most striking manner when the exiles in Babylon are told that they must
seek the welfare of their host community, even though they were taken there very much
against their will. The reason offered is that “in its welfare [Babylon’s] you will find your
welfare.”
Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, to all the exiles whom I have sent into
exile from Jerusalem to Babylon: Build houses and live in them; plant gardens and eat
their produce. Take wives and have sons and daughters; take wives for your sons, and
give your daughters in marriage, that they may bear sons and daughters; multiply there,
and do not decrease. But seek the welfare of the city where I have sent you into exile, and
pray to the Lord on its behalf, for in its welfare you will find your welfare (Jer 29:4-7).
This emphasis on solidarity and on seeking of the common good is found everywhere in
the teachings of the Fathers of the Church. We can find in Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397)
and in Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) the same themes we found in the Bible.
The law of nature that obliges all of mankind is that we help each other as parts of the
same body.1
1
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. III, ch. III, n. 19.
279
This is the rule of the most perfect Christianity, its most exact definition, its highest point,
namely, the seeking of the common good. Paul himself states it when he says: “Even as I
also am of Christ” For nothing can so make a man an imitator of Christ as caring for his
neighbors.2
Given the issue that concerns us in this section, it is of special interest to note that
nowhere in the Fathers or in the Bible is any suggestion to be found that these basic
attitudes are appropriate only when a person acts in his individual capacity, but not when
he acts as the head of a family or a corporation or when he takes decisions as the head of
a village or as a religious leader. The Christian sources reject group selfishness just as
much as they reject personal egoism.
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) is definite in stressing the importance of promoting
the common good of the society in which one lives. He holds not only that the common
good is as good as the good of an individual, but that the common good is better and
more perfect than the good of an individual. This is especially important because,
according to Saint Thomas Aquinas’ own principles, it follows that the promotion of the
common good must be given preference.
They thought that man is not bound to seek other than his own good. But this opinion... is
contrary to right reason, which judges the common good to be better than the good of the
individual.3
We keep finding the same themes repeated by different voices down the centuries.
William Laud (1573-1645), a leading Anglican divine, reiterates the idea, that we have
already met in Scripture, that it is idle to try to find one’s own individual good while
neglecting the common good, as we are bound to live in society and to suffer for its
deficiencies.
If any man be so addicted to his private, that he neglect the common state, he is void of
the sense of piety, and wisheth peace and happiness to himself in vain. For, whoever he
be, he must live in the body of the Commonwealth and in the body of the Church.4
Already in our own times, Vatican II (1962-1965) is explicit in ascribing a duty to be
concerned with the common good not only to individuals but also to social groups.
Obviously, this teaching is immediately applicable to business organizations.
Every social group must take account of the needs and legitimate aspirations of other
groups, and even of the general welfare of the entire human family.5
We have met again and again, from Scripture down to present times, repeated calls to
have a real concern for the common good of the wider communities in which we are
inserted. There is need to be careful at this point, as that call to be concerned for the
2
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the First Letter to the Corinthians, XXV, 3.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 47, a. 10.
4
William Laud, Sermon before His Majesty, June 19, 1621.
5
Gaudium et Spes, n. 26.
3
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common good cannot be translated as a matter of course into, say, a duty to donate 10%
of the profits of every business firm to social causes. That may or (much more likely in
most cases) may not be an appropriate action to express that concern. There is need to
remember at this point the basic doctrine which I discussed in the first section of the first
chapter of this book (“Solidarity among all human beings and hierarchy of
responsibilities”) that while our love and concern must reach everyone, our concrete
responsibilities are ordered in a hierarchy: Christianity teaches us that we can take active
steps to attend to a responsibility in that hierarchy only in so far as doing so will not
prevent us from giving proper attention to more urgent responsibilities. In practice,
depending on the competitive conditions any given firm faces, there will be more or less
room to devote resources to other needs of the community without neglecting its prior
responsibilities to employees and shareholders
We will end this section with two even more recent calls to social responsibility, one by
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) and the other by the Council of the Evangelical Church
in Germany and the German Catholic Episcopal Conference (1997).
Each business has a responsibility to its community to be good steward of resources, to
be a good neighbor, and to work in ways that contribute to the total welfare of the
community. Business is a social institution.6
Solidarity and justice, by their very nature, cannot be limited within a single community,
but must be understood in a worldwide sense.7
The expression “good neighbour” in the first of these texts is very suggestive. Can one be
a good neighbour but not help at all in organizing car pools to take the children to school;
in cleaning the roads if, for any reason, public authorities fail to do so; and even fail to
attend community meetings to discuss common problems, just because the law does not
impose any such obligations? The point is that while even the best neighbour may have
valid reasons that prevent him, at least for a while, to contribute to community needs in
any of those ways, what being a good neighbour excludes is a blanket disclaim of interest
and responsibility.
The special interest of the statement from the German churches just quoted is that it
reminds us of a point that is coming more and more to the fore. As the physical limits
separating us from far-away people are progressively overcome ultimately our solidarity
must be open to the whole world community. For many business firms, of course, a sober
consideration of their priorities and capacities will result in their confining their attention
to more immediate communities. However, the basic point is that there is no reason of
principle why we can exclude from our concern any human being or human community.
Can we now try to answer the questions with which I opened this section? I believe that
both the texts we have considered and those in the “Additional material” section are open
6
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 pp, 207-08.
7
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal Conference, For a Future
of Solidarity and Justice (1997) para. 11.
281
and general enough to leave room for the position of those conscientious Christians
who—fully agreeing that they must have a full-hearted commitment to the common good
of the community—still believe that the best way in which a firm can contribute to that
common good is by focusing severely on its economic mission: provision of goods and
services to the customers, creation of employment for its workers, and provision of
returns to its shareholders. Still, my own impression is that the general drift of the texts I
have assembled can be squared better with the position of those who argue that business
firms have direct responsibilities to the community that typically demand that they devote
resources to help in solving social problems that the firm has not contributed to create.
Also remember that, as we have seen, Christians are called to create close communities
and establish social justice and that, as we will see, like the individual property owner,
also the collective property owner is God’s steward for the management of resources
which ultimately are meant to benefit the whole community. These lines of thought
reinforce even more the impression I get from the texts I have assembled. Limitations
will come from priority responsibilities, but, as is the case when we act individually, in so
far as a firm has room to widen the circle of its concerns without neglecting its primary
responsibilities, it will be excellent for it to do so.
Additional material on the firm and the community
And exhorted them, saying: You know what great battles I and my brethren, and the
house of my father, have fought for the laws, and the sanctuary, and the distresses that
we have seen: By reason whereof all my brethren have lost their lives for Israel's sake,
and I am left alone. And now far be it from me to spare my life in any time of trouble: for
I am not better than my brethren (1 Mc 13:3-5).
And the people seeing the acts of Simon, and to what glory he meant to bring his
nation, made him their prince, and high priest, because he had done all these things,
and for the justice, and faith, which he kept to his nation, and for that he sought by
all means to advance his people (1 Mc 14:35).
Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their toil. For if they
fall, one will lift up his fellow; but woe to him who is alone when he falls and has not
another to lift him up. Again, if two lie together, they are warm; but how can one be
warm alone? And though a man might prevail against one who is alone, two will
withstand him. A threefold cord is not quickly broken (Sir 4:9-12).
For the body does not consist of one member but of many. If the foot should say,
"Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body," that would not make it any
less a part of the body. The eye cannot say to the hand, "I have no need of you," nor
again the head to the feet, "I have no need of you." But God has so composed the
body, giving the greater honor to the inferior part, that there may be no discord in
the body, but that the members may have the same care for one another. If one
member suffers, all suffer together; if one member is honored, all rejoice together (1
Cor 12:14-26).
282
Saint Clement of Rome (bishop of Rome 92-101) – The strong are not to ignore the
weak, and the weak should respect the strong. The rich must provide for the poor,
and the poor should thank God for giving him someone to meet his needs.8
The Shepherd of Hermas (140-155) – Now, then, listen to me: Live in peace with one
another, care for one another, help one another. Do not enjoy God’s creatures
excessively and all by yourselves, but give a share also to those who are in need.9
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – We are bound by the law of nature to act for the good
of all.10
Saint Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329 – 390) – How can we enjoy pleasures amidst the
calamities of our brethren? May God preserve me from being rich while they are
indigent, from enjoying robust health if I do not try to cure their diseases, from eating
good food, clothing myself well and resting in my home if I do not share with them a
piece of my bread and give them, in the measure of my abilities, part of my clothes
and if I do not welcome them into my home…11
Saint John Chrysostom (344 – 407) – He who lives for himself only and overlooks all
others, is useless, he is not even a man, he does not belong to the human race.12
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – It is not enough that peace and concord reign
among the citizens: love also must prevail. Justice prevents them from injuring one
another; it does not require them to help one another. Yet it often happens that some
need aid which falls under no obligation of justice. Here charity steps in and
summons us to further service in the name of the love we owe to God.13
John Calvin (1509 – 1564) – No member [of the Christian body] holds his gifts to
himself, or for his private use, but shares them among his fellow members, nor does
he derive benefit save from those things which proceed from the common profit of the
body as a whole. Thus the pious man owes to his brethren all that it is in his power to
give.14
John Calvin (1509-1564) – Since the Lord has bound the whole human race by a kind
of unity, the safety of all ought to be considered as entrusted to each. … Accordingly,
we are required faithfully to do what in us lies to defend the life of our neighbour; to
promote whatever tends to his tranquility, to be vigilant in warding off harm, and,
when danger comes, to assist in removing it.15
8
St. Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corintians, 38.1.
The Shepherd of Hermas, 17.2.
10
St Ambrose , On the Duties of the Clergy, III, 4, 25.
11
St. Gregory of Nazianzus, On the Love for the Poor, XIV, 19.
12
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on St. Matthew, 77, 6.
13
St. Thomas Aquinas, Contra Gentes, III, 129.
14
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk.. iii, ch. 7, 5.
15
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. ii, ch. 8, 39.
9
283
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Guardians and trustees, and those who care
for the goods of others, can give small amounts of alms from the goods they
16
administer, similar to those that the owners of the goods should give.
John Paul II (pope 1978-) – [Solidarity] is not a feeling of vague compassion or
shallow distress at the misfortunes of so many people, both near and far. On the
contrary, it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common
good, that is to say, to the good of all and of each individual because we are all
really responsible for all.17
Oxford Declaration (1990) – God gives talents to individuals for the benefit of the
whole community. Human work should be a contribution to the common good
(Ephesians 4:28). The modern drift from concern for community to preoccupation
with self, supported by powerful structural and cultural forces, shapes the way we
work. Individual self-interest can legitimately be pursued, but only in a context
marked by the pursuit of the good of others.18
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Paul encouraged the believers in Corinth to give
so that there would be equity. He encouraged those with plenty to supply the needy so
that "… He that gathered much did not have too much, and he that gathered little did
not have too little" (2 Corinthians 8:15). Sharing wealth, whether it be between
family members, within a business entity, with future generations, within a nation, or
between nations, is at the core of God's definition of justice.19
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – It is necessary that all participate, each
according to his position and role, in promoting the common good. This obligation is
inherent in the dignity of the human person.20
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – It is the responsibility of
all persons to contribute to the well being of the community according to the gifts
that have been entrusted to them.21
Pontifical Council for Social Communications (1996) – The good of persons cannot
be realized apart from the common good of the communities to which they belong.
This common good should be understood in inclusive terms, as the sum total of
worthy shared purposes to whose pursuit community members jointly commit
themselves and which the community exists to serve.22
John Paul II (1978-) – A leadership role among nations can only be justified by the
possibility and willingness to contribute widely and generously to the common
good.23
16
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. II, Tract. III, Cap. II, Dub III, 33.
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, 38.
18
Oxford Declaration, (1990), n.. 22.
19
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 224.
20
Catechism of the Catholic Church , n. 1913.
21
What Does Our God Require of Us? A statement adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
22
Pontifical Council for Social Communications, Ethics in communications, (1996) n. 22
23
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 23.
17
284
Council of the evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal
Conference (1997) – The availability for solidary action must characterize, beyond
the directly perceptible interpersonal realm, also the social relations between groups
and social forces.24
United States Catholic Conference (1999) – As charities grapple with more complex
issues and with the need for productive employment, businesses and labor organizations
can supply additional resources — technical assistance, business skills and capital — to
support more creative responses such as domestic and overseas microenterprise loan
programs, cooperative development, and construction and rehabilitation of housing.25
Stewardship for the earth
What should be the attitude of a Christian businessman towards the natural world? How
far should he go, and what costs should he be ready to accept, in his effort to minimize
the possible negative effects of his business activities on the environment?
There is a wide range of possible attitudes on this issue. At one extreme there is the
person who will just concentrate on maximising his profits, without concerning himself
with environmental issues. This attitude is sometimes backed with the “Christian”
argument that God has granted human beings dominion over nature and that therefore all
the concern over the preservation of the environment just amounts to a pagan ideology
which fails to recognize man’s exalted role in creation.
At the other end of the spectrum we find what we could call “environmental
fundamentalists.” They sometimes speak of the need to protect nature (often capitalized to
read Nature) as if it were a quasi-religious cause; and of the ecosystem as if it constituted a
fitting object of veneration. They see any human intervention in nature which markedly
alters the world, changes any significant feature of the landscape, or runs the risk of
causing the extinction of a living species, as a sort of sacrilege. Along similar lines, animal
rights defenders argue that animals' interests deserve as much protection as those of
humans; accordingly, many of them condemn the performance of experiments on animals
even if this is done for important medical purposes.
The Christian position on these issues is not an “intermediate” or “moderate” one. In fact,
from the standpoint of those who hold any of the views I have alluded to, it looks extreme;
and, considered in itself, it is certainly radical.
The Christian position on the environment is also complex: it is the result of the
combination of several different ideas that balance and influence each other. Most
basically they are the following:
24
Council of the evangelical Church in Germany and German Catholic Episcopal Conference, For a Future
of Solidarity and Justice, (1997) para. 117.
25
United States Catholic Conference, In All Things Charity: A Pastoral Challenge for the New Millennium
(1999).
285
-
God has given to man dominion over the whole of material creation.
It is right for man to use material creation for the satisfaction of his needs.
The dominion of man over creation is not one of selfish exploitation. Its aim,
besides satisfying human needs, is to further the goodness, order and development
of the world, and help bring it towards the full achievement of its God-given
purpose.
The key to understand the Christian view of the right use of nature by man is to hold
these three ideas together in mutual balance, not allowing an undue emphasis on any of
them to lead to the exclusion of the others.
And God blessed them, and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth
and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and
over every living thing that moves upon the earth. And God said, "Behold, I have given
you every plant yielding seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with
seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food” (Gn 1:28-29).
This is an essential text, and in it the pre-eminence of man over nature is apparent from
expressions like “subdue [the earth]”, “have dominion,” “I have given you,” and “you
shall have them for food.”
For many centuries Christian thinkers have concentrated on this text. This is in large part
explained by the fact that there did not seem to be a problem in man exploiting the
potentialities of the earth to the full of his possibilities. In many places the effect of man’s
activities on the ecosystem was either negligible, or very slow to reveal itself. In the
experience of people living by the sea, for instance, the supply of fish seemed to be
inexhaustible, no matter how much they fished; the scale of man’s activity was obviously
puny compared with the vastness of the seas. Even though other resources were not as
vast as the oceans, by and large nature was seen in a similar light, as being always ready
to renew its gifts irrespective of the scale of man’s demands on it.
And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill
the earth. The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and
upon every bird of the air, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish of
the sea; into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for
you; and as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything” (Gn 9:1-3).
This text, in which God blesses Noah and his sons after the flood, is a clear expression of
the second idea I listed above; its main point is that men can legitimately use animals to
satisfy their own needs; this is expressed by saying that every beast “dreads” man. For
those who are not so good at understanding figurative language, the matter is put beyond
doubt by the presence of an explicit permission for Noah to eat the meat of animals.
Still reinforcing the same idea of the material creation being at the service of man, we see
throughout Scripture that animals are used for working the earth, for carrying human
beings and goods, and for other types of work, without the slightest hint of censure on the
286
part of any of the sacred writers. It is clear that creation was given to man for his benefit.
While wantonness is excluded, reasonable use to satisfy man’s needs is certainly
considered legitimate in the Bible.
These points should be emphasised nowadays in order to mark the clear line of separation
that undoubtedly exists between the traditional Christian view on these issues and the
positions of recent defenders of “animal rights.” As we saw when discussing the
Christian view of the dignity of man26, the Bible is very clear on the very special position
of man in creation and on his having a worth and dignity that simply cannot be compared
with that of other animals.
Because of the radical discontinuity in value that Christianity perceives between man and
animals there is no question within this view of speaking of “animal rights,” at least in a
strong sense of the word “right.” The ultimate point of rights-talk is that by asserting that
I have, say, a right to freedom from torture, I assert that there is no question of balancing
the interest I have in not being tortured with the benefits (perhaps very large) that could
accrue to others if I were to be put to the rack. I have a right not to be tortured and the
option of racking me is simply excluded. It is a matter of justice to respect that right.
Well, in this strong sense of the word “right,” traditional Christian thought denies that
there are “animal rights.” In the Christian understanding, if, to give a simple (even
simplistic) example, killing an animal is the only way to save a child, the child’s father is
not only entitled to kill the animal; in all likelihood it will be his moral duty to do so.
Clear statements of the traditional Christian view on this issue are given by Saint Thomas
Aquinas (1224-1274) and John Henry Newman (1801-1890):
Some have said that it is not permitted to kill even brute animals. But this is false,
because it is not a sin to use that which is subordinated to the power of man. It is in the
natural order that plants be the nourishment of animals, certain animals nourish others,
and all for the nourishment of man.27
You know, my Brethren, we, in our turn, have no duties toward the brute creation; there
is no relation of justice between them and us. Of course we are bound not to treat them
ill, for cruelty is an offence against that holy Law which our Maker has written on our
hearts, and is displeasing to Him. But they can claim nothing at our hands; into our hands
they are absolutely delivered. We may use them, we may destroy them at our pleasure,
not our wanton pleasure, but still for our own ends, for our own benefit or satisfaction,
provided we can give a rational account of what we do.28
However—and now we come to the third idea that characterizes the Christian position—
it is not just any kind of dominion over creation that God granted to man. Put most
simply, men were not given license to wantonly lay waste to the world.
26
See Chapter 5.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Ten Commandments (5th Commandment).
28
John Henry Newman, Sermons on Various Occasions, Sermon 6.
27
287
The Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it (Gn
2:15).
“Till it and keep it” covers both keeping the garden (i.e., the material creation over which
man has dominion) for man’s benefit, and keeping the garden’s own integrity, and
certainly excludes destroying it just “for kicks”. The dominion of man over the material
world demands to bring it to full achievement of the ends for which God created it. Several
ideas in Scripture reinforce this view.
For instance, God shows his interest in animals by instructing Noah to preserve two of
every animal (and seven pairs of the clean ones) “to keep them alive with you; they shall
be male and female” (Gn 6:19-7:4). This shows that God wanted to preserve not only the
human race, but the animal kingdom as well.
Also, God’s law for his people contained provisions prescribing rest for the land every
seven years.
Six years you shall sow your field, and six years you shall prune your vineyard, and
gather in its fruits; but in the seventh year there shall be a sabbath of solemn rest for the
land, a sabbath to the Lord; you shall not sow your field or prune your vineyard (Lv 25:17).
As the text expressly states, this is prompted by a desire to make sure that the land is not
exhausted. Other texts explain that the rule is also motivated by a concern to provide for
the sustenance of the needy.29
Scripture also condemns cruelty to animals as unworthy of man and explicitly requires
that man’s dominion over creation should be such that the world is properly ordered.
A righteous man has regard for the life of his beast, but the mercy of the wicked is cruel
(Prv 12:10).
And by thy wisdom hast appointed man, that he should have dominion over the creature
that was made by thee, that he should order the world according to equity and justice, and
execute justice with an upright heart (Wis 9:2-3).
The fact that the dominion given to man is not the dominion of a careless despot who
does not mind what happens to the property entrusted to him is reinforced by Scripture’s
frequent reminder that ultimately the earth belongs to the Lord. Man cannot claim
absolute dominion over creation: he is only a steward.
Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the
majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine (1 Chr 29:11).
In the Christian view of things taking good and responsible care of creation is made even
more important by God’s revelation that he has high plans for it. We are taught that
29
See Ex 23:10-11 in the “Additional material” section
288
material creation is not just a “disposable resource.” Ultimately, it is destined to share in
“the glorious liberty of the children of God”:
For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God; for the
creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of him who subjected
it in hope; because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain
the glorious liberty of the children of God (Rom 8:19-22).
Even though the Church fathers were not timid in proclaiming man’s dominion over
creation, they did not neglect making reference to the responsible way in which this
dominion should be exercised. Lactantius (Fourth Century), for instance, in a passage in
which his main purpose is to state that the universe was created for man, still mentions
that he must use it “fitly”:
Great and admirable are the reason and the power of man for whom God created the
universe and all things contained therein and on whom he conferred so much honor that
he placed him in charge of all, because he alone could admire his works … The Most
High God has constituted all things, then, not on account of himself, since he lacks
nothing, but on account of man who might use them fitly.30
It should be clear from all of this that, even if the arguments of some defenders of the
environment and the policies they advocate may jar the sensibilities of many Christians,
nature itself very much deserves to be respected. Not as if it were a quasi-divine ultimate
reality, but, on the contrary, because it is God's creation which has been entrusted by Him
to our care and should be used in accordance with his plans.
I pointed out above that in former times the scale of man’s activities in relation to the
natural environment was such that it was relatively rare for the latter to be damaged in a
serious way. However, nowadays the scale of human activities has changed drastically
and it is very possible, indeed most likely, that if men do not follow a conscious policy of
restraint, creation may be damaged in irreparable ways. The following extract from the
“Oxford Declaration” (1990) states some of the practical consequences that arise from
that fact within a Christian vision of creation:
When we abuse and pollute creation, as we are doing in many instances, we are poor
stewards and invite disaster in both local and global ecosystems.
…
… Since human beings are created in the image of God for community and not simply as
isolated individuals (Gn 1:28), they are to exercise dominion in a way that is responsible to
the needs of the total human family, including future generations.
…
We urge individuals, private institutions, and governments everywhere to consider both the
local, immediate, and the global, long term ecological consequences of their actions. We
encourage corporate action to make products which are more "environmentally friendly."31
30
31
Lactantius, The Divine Institutes, 7.4.
Oxford Declaration (1990) nos. 3, 6, and 11.
289
An important point in this statement is that it brings into play the rights of future
generations. The basic idea that God entrusts creation to man’s stewardship for the benefit
of the whole human family, logically includes the needs of existing and future human
beings as an object of concern in making decisions about how to exploit natural resources.
This is an important underpinning from a Christian perspective of the concept of
“sustainability,” that is to say, of exploiting natural resources in a way that does not
preclude their availability for future generations.
The evangelical Christians who drafted this declaration urge an attitude of restraint in using
resources that are known to be non-renewable and reluctance to bring about irreversible
changes in nature, and in doing so they are very much within the mainstream of
contemporary Christian views. Our responsibility as God’s stewards for the whole
creation must impose limits in our choices. However, if this idea is not to remain at the
level of pious exhortations, with little or no impact on practical realities, it is essential to
state explicitly that there is no reason to believe that those limits should be painless. It is
rather to be expected that, as a joint statement of the German Evangelical Church and the
Catholic Church in Germany (1997) argues, changes in lifestyles will be necessary:
Changes in lifestyles which entail renunciations are also necessary in many other areas. It
is necessary to move away from a greedy enjoyment and from a mentality of abundance
to lifestyles and economic models which are sustainable over the long term. In many
well-to-do people of Western societies a mentality of consumption and enjoyment is
predominant. This attitude is in ever greater conflict with the limits of ecological
sustainability and with the opportunities of future generations and of the people of
developing countries. Certainly, the objective of sustainability will be jeopardized if the
average level of consumption in developed countries continues growing. There is
therefore need for a greater awareness that nowadays a better quality of life is possible
not through “more” and “faster” but always more through “less,” “more slowly,” and
“with greater awareness.” Still, such lifestyles will probably spread only if it is made
evident that a life which preserves other creatures and the environment has a quality of its
own.32
Additional material on stewardship for the earth
But the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; in it you shall not do any
work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your manservant, or your maidservant,
or your cattle, or the sojourner who is within your gates (Ex 20:10).
For six years you shall sow your land and gather in its yield; but the seventh year
you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what
they leave the wild beasts may eat. You shall do likewise with your vineyard, and
with your olive orchard (Ex 23:10-11).
When you besiege a city for a long time, making war against it in order to take it,
you shall not destroy its trees by wielding an axe against them; for you may eat
32
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic) For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 231.
290
of them, but you shall not cut them down. Are the trees in the field men that they
should be besieged by you? Only the trees which you know are not trees for food
you may destroy and cut down that you may build siegeworks against the city
that makes war with you, until it falls (Dt 20:19-20).
You shall not muzzle an ox when it treads out the grain (Dt 25:45).
And if the peoples of the land bring in wares or any grain on the sabbath day to
sell, we will not buy from them on the sabbath or on a holy day; and we will
forego the crops of the seventh year and the exaction of every debt (Neh 10:31).
And he made peace with them that were in Bethsura: and they came forth out of
the city, because they had no victuals, being shut up there, for it was the year of
rest to the land (1 Mc 6:49 49).
In his hand is the life of every living thing and the breath of all mankind (Jb
12:10).
If he should take back his spirit to himself, and gather to himself his breath, all
flesh would perish together, and man would return to dust (Jb 34:14-15).
What is man that you art mindful of him? Yet thou hast made him little less than
God, and crowned him with glory and honor. Thou hast given him dominion over
the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet, all sheep and oxen,
and also the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea,
whatever passes along the paths of the sea (Ps. 8:4-8).
The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof, the world and those who dwell
therein (Ps 24:1).
For every beast of the forest is mine, the cattle on a thousand hills. I know all the
birds of the air, and all that moves in the field is mine. If I were hungry, I would
not tell you; for the world and all that is in it is mine (Ps 50:10-12).
The heavens are thine, the earth also is thine; the world and all that is in it, thou
hast founded them (Ps 89:11).
[The Lord] gave man power over all things that are upon the earth. He put the
fear of him upon all flesh, and he had dominion over beasts and fowls (Sir 17:34).
It is I who by my great power and my outstretched arm have made the earth, with
the men and animals that are on the earth, and I give it to whomever it seems
right to me (Jer. 27.5).
And should not I pity Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than a
hundred and twenty thousand persons who do not know their right hand from
their left, and also much cattle? (Jon 4:11).
For thus says the Lord of hosts: Once again, in a little while, I will shake the
heavens and the earth and the sea and the dry land; and I will shake all nations,
291
so that the treasures of all nations shall come in, and I will fill this house with
splendor, says the Lord of hosts. The silver is mine, and the gold is mine, says the
Lord of hosts (Hg 2:6-8).
The world, life and death, the present and the future, are all your servants; but
you belong to Christ and Christ belongs to God (1 Cor 2:22-23).
For the earth is the Lord's, and everything in it (1 Cor 10:26).
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – What is it that is about to be created, that
enjoys such honour? It is man—that great and wonderful living creature, more
precious in the eyes of God than all other creatures! For him the heavens and the
earth, the sea and all the rest of creation exist.33
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – All animals are by nature subjected to
man... It is because of this that the Philosopher said that hunting wild animals is
just and natural, because by hunting man appropriates what is naturally his
own.34
Pius XI (pope 1922-1939) – Therefore, it is in conformity with the demands of
human reason that all things should be for man’s use and so, through him, be
referred back to the Creator. What the Apostle of the Gentiles wrote to the
Corinthians concerning the Christian economy of salvation is much to the point:
‘The world, life and death, the present and the future, are all your servants; but
you belong to Christ and Christ belongs to God’(I Cor 2:22-23).35
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – For Sacred Scripture teaches that man was
created "to the image of God," is capable of knowing and loving his Creator, and
was appointed by Him as master of all earthly creatures that he might subdue
them and use them to God's glory.36
Synod of Bishops of the Catholic Church (1971) – [Men] perceive that their
resources, as well as the precious treasures of air and water—without which
there cannot be life—and the small delicate biosphere of the whole complex of all
life on earth, are not infinite, but on the contrary must be saved and preserved as
a unique patrimony belonging to all mankind.37
Synod of Bishops of the Catholic Church (1971) – It is impossible to see what
right the richer nations have to keep up their claim to increase their own
material demands, if the consequence is either that others remain in misery or
that the danger of destroying the very physical foundations of life on earth is
precipitated. Those who are already rich are bound to accept a less material way
of life, with less waste, in order to avoid the destruction of the heritage which
33
St. John Chrysostom, In Gen. Sermo, II, 1.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 96, a. 1.
35
Pius XI, Divini Redemptoris, n. 30.
36
Gaudium et Spes, n. 12.
37
Synod of Bishops of the Catholic Church, Justice in the World (1971), Part I.
34
292
they are obliged by absolute justice to share with all other members of the human
race.38
John Paul II (pope 1979- ) – Exploitation of the earth, not only for industrial but
also for military purposes and the uncontrolled development of technology
outside the framework of a long-range authentically humanistic plan often bring
with them a threat to man's natural environment, alienate him in his relations
with nature and remove him from nature. Man often seems to see no other
meaning in his natural environment than what serves for immediate use and
consumption. Yet it was the Creator's will that man should communicate with
nature as an intelligent and noble "master" and “guardian", not as a heedless
"exploiter" and "destroyer".39
John Paul II (pope 1979- ) – Nor can the moral character of development
exclude respect for the beings which constitute the natural world, which the
ancient Greeks - alluding precisely to the order which distinguishes it - called the
"cosmos." Such realities also demand respect, by virtue of a threefold
consideration which it is useful to reflect upon carefully.
The first consideration is the appropriateness of acquiring a growing awareness
of the fact that one cannot use with impunity the different categories of beings,
whether living or inanimate - animals, plants, the natural elements - simply as
one wishes, according to one’s own economic needs. On the contrary, one must
take into account the nature of each being and of its mutual connection in an
ordered system, which is precisely the cosmos.
The second consideration is based on the realization - which is perhaps more
urgent - that natural resources are limited; some are not, as it is said, renewable.
Using them as if they were inexhaustible, with absolute dominion, seriously
endangers their availability not only for the present generation but above all for
generations to come.
The third consideration refers directly to the consequences of a certain type of
development on the quality of life in the industrialized zones. We all know that
the direct or indirect result of industrialization is, ever more frequently, the
pollution of the environment, with serious consequences for the health of the
population.40
John Paul II (pope 1979- ) – Certainly humanity has received from God himself
the task of "dominating" the created world and "cultivating the garden" of the
world. But this is a task that humanity must carry out in respect for the divine
image received, and therefore with intelligence and with love, assuming
responsibility for the gifts that God has bestowed and continues to bestow.
Humanity has in its possession a gift that must be passed on to future
generations, if possible, passed on in better condition.41
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal
Conference (Catholic) (1985) – Christians have come to recognize always more
how environmental problems involve also ideological, cultural and religious
38
Synod of Bishops of the Catholic Church, Justice in the World (1971), Part III.
John Paul II, Redemptor Hominis, n. 15.
40
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 34.
41
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 43.
39
293
aspects. By defending animals, plants and natural conditions of life we also
discharge our duty towards God the creator.42
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal
Conference (Catholic) (1985) – The world is “very good” in the eyes of God
(Gen 1:31) not only because it offers food and habitation to man, but also
because it transmits to him a very strong impression of beauty, which mirrors the
glory of God and the mysterious power of his Spirit.43
United States Catholic Conference (1986) – Business and finance have the duty
to be faithful trustees of the resources at their disposal. No one can ever own
capital resources absolutely or control their use without regard for others and
society as a whole. This applies first of all to land and natural resources. Shortterm profits reaped at the cost of depletion of natural resources or the pollution
of the environment violate this trust.44
Oxford Declaration (1990) – Biblical life and world view is not centred on
humanity. It is God-centred. Non-human creation was not made exclusively for
human beings. We are repeatedly told in the Scripture that all things—human
beings and the environment in which they live—were "for God" (Rom 11:36; 1
Cor 8:6; Col 1:16). Correspondingly, nature is not merely the raw material for
human activity. Though only human beings have been made in the image of God,
non-human creation too has a dignity of its own, so much so that after the flood
God established a covenant not only with Noah and his descendants, but also
“with every living creature that is with you” (Gn 9:9). Similarly, the Christian
hope for the future also includes creation… “The creation itself will be set free
from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God”
(Rom 8:21).
…
… God thus grants human beings dominion over the non-human creation (Gn
1:28-30). But dominion is not domination. According to Genesis 2:15, human
dominion over creation consists in the twofold task of "tilling and taking care" of
the garden. Therefore all work must have not only a productive but also a
protective aspect.45
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Unfortunately some Christians in business,
when criticized for their environmental abuse, have responded that they are free
to do what they want because God has given them dominion over the earth (Gn
1: 28-30). Their lack of concern is tragic; but it is even more tragic that they
invoke the name of God to justify irresponsible stewardship. Genesis speaks of
dominion not for exploitation, but for cultivation and caring for God's world (Gn
2:15).
Other biblical statements about the created world are also applicable to our
high-tech society. We can say with certainty that God is interested in how we
42
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), Assuming
Responsibility for the Creation (1985), Introduction.
43
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), Assuming
Responsibility for the Creation (1985), 59.
44
United States Catholic Conference, Economic Justice for All, Washington, 1986.
45
Oxford Declaration (1990), nos. 5, 7.
294
manage depletable resources. When the people of God were in an agrarian
culture, God explained in considerable detail how they should let the land lie
fallow and rest. …
God is also concerned with our respect for animal life. Proverbs informs us that
"a righteous man cares for the needs of his animals …" (12:10). Everything God
created has a purpose. Every bird, every fish, and every mammal should be
treated with awe. When we destroy animal habitats and provide no other
alternatives, we have not respected God's creation.46
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Part of not abusing God's trust is being
aware of our responsibility towards future generations to preserve natural
resources. God demonstrated that land conservation is important by prescribing
that the land was to lie fallow every seventh year, allowing it to be rejuvenated
(Ex 23: 10,11; Lv 25 :1-7).47
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – The seventh commandment enjoins
respect for the integrity of creation. Animals, like plants and inanimate beings,
are by nature destined for the common good of past, present, and future
humanity. Use of the mineral, vegetable, and animal resources of the universe
cannot be divorced from respect for moral imperatives. Man's dominion over
inanimate and other living beings granted by the Creator is not absolute; it is
limited by concern for the quality of life of his neighbor, including generations to
come; it requires a religious respect for the integrity of creation.48
Working Group on Public Policy and Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran
Church in Canada (ELCIC) (1996) – It is the obligation of the community to
practice responsible stewardship of the earth and environment so that creation
might be preserved for future generations.49
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal
Conference (Catholic) (1997) – The rule must therefore be: right and fairness
must be respected both among the present world population and also among
successive generations. In order not to go beyond the sustainability of the
ecological systems raw materials must not be extracted indefinitely from nature
and only that quantity of refuse and harmful matter can be introduced in the
environment as it can receive without harm.50
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal
Conference (Catholic) (1997) – The objective of sustainability includes above all
responsibility for creation. In the biblical reflection this aspect of responsibility
is based above all on the fact that man is a creature among other creatures (Gn
46
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, pp. 217-18.
47
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 228.
48
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994), n. 2415.
49
What Does Our God Require of Us? A statement adopted by the Working Group on Public Policy and
Church and Society, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), February 1996.
50
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 32.
295
1-2, Ps 8, 104). He is bound in a community of destiny with the other creatures.
He has a special responsibility in relation to the rest of creation. He must make
the earth productive and keep it (Gn 2:15), that is cultivate it, turn it into an
inhabitable environment and keep it so. The special position of man does not
found any right to deal arbitrarily and destructively with non-human creation.
Rather, as steward of God his position obliges him to defend creation, look upon
it with deep respect, administer it responsibly and preserve it.51
The United Methodist Church (2000) – All creation is the Lord's, and we are
responsible for the ways we use and abuse it. Water, air, soil, minerals, energy
resources, plants, animal life, and space are to be valued and conserved because
they are God's creation and not solely because they are useful to human beings.52
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) – The Assemblies of God
believes everyone needs to be good a steward of all God’s creation–including the
earth. As clearly indicated in Scripture, we believe the earth was created by God
(Gn 1:1-31; Is 37:16). We also believe it serves as the temporary home for all
members of the human race (God’s highest life form, made in His own image; Gn
1:27) until eternity.
…
We feel Christians must act responsibly in their use of God’s earth as we rightly
harvest its resources. As stated in Genesis 1:27-30, we believe God has given
mankind alone complete dominion (authority) over the earth’s resources. These
resources include the land, the water, the vegetation, and the earth’s minerals;
as well as the animals, fish, and fowl. Like the earth, we acknowledge these to be
gifts from God to mankind; and as gifts they are to be appreciated and cherished.
As Christians we believe dominion requires good stewardship of our temporary
home–earth. .53
Compliance with the law
In carrying out his professional activity a businessman is hemmed in on all sides by laws.
Laws police the products he can sell; regulate his relations with shareholders, employees,
customers, and many other parties; prescribe the taxes he has to pay; and in many other
ways define the way in which he is supposed to act. Any businessman can testify that the
number and complexity of the laws which impinge on his activities keep growing
exponentially. It is therefore an essential question of business ethics to define what the
attitude of a businessman should be towards this ever-growing body of laws.
As in many other issues in business ethics, the position recommended by the Christian
sources is distinctive. It cannot be identified either with standard lax attitudes or with
their rigourist opposites. And as it happens in many other areas, the Christian position is
51
Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany and German Episcopal Conference (Catholic), For a
Future of Solidarity and Justice (1997), para. 123.
52
The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church - 2000.
53
The General Council of the Assemblies of God, 2001 (website).
296
not the result of a compromise between two extremes, but the consequence of following
distinctive Christian principles to their logical conclusion.
Many people do not have any special respect for the law; they just want to avoid going to
jail. Accordingly, they will disregard the law whenever doing so seems convenient and
free from danger.
There are also many people who believe they have a strict duty to comply with the law:
they will never knowingly breach a law no matter what.
There are still other people, perhaps a majority, who follow a “moderate view.” They
keep the law most of the time, but feel entitled to grant themselves a dispensation in
occasions in which complying strictly with the law seems too onerous. They consider that
a 95% percent compliance is good enough and better than what most other people do and
do not see any reason to be “fanatic” about the whole issue.
The teaching of the Christian tradition is different from all the above positions. From a
point of view it may seem excessively rigorist, as it demands total respect and
compliance with all just laws, not simply “by and large compliance”. From another
standpoint, however, it seems unbelievably lax, as it holds that any law that is “unjust”
does not oblige in conscience and, as if this were not enough, it gives to each individual
person the duty to decide whether the law is just or unjust.
We will understand better this complex position if we consider in turn each of its main
elements. The point of departure is a firm and unhesitating insistence on the fact that all
men have a clear moral duty to obey the law, and this not merely because of
considerations of personal advantage, but because any proper law deserves respect and
obedience. A theme that will be found throughout the Christian tradition is that obedience
to the law and obedience to God are intimately linked. This idea can already be found in
the Book of Proverbs:
My son, fear the Lord and the king, and do not disobey either of them (Prv 24:21).
The Epistle to the Romans repeats the same idea that obedience to the authorities is
obedience to God:
Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except
from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore he who resists the
authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment
(Rom 13:1-2).
This and similar passages would be misunderstood if they were to be construed literally
as stating that every single ruler (even usurpers who have reached power by
unconstitutional means) has been appointed directly by God, and every single command a
ruler utters (even evidently unjust or sinful ones) has to be obeyed without demur. As we
will see below there are clear passages in Scripture which exclude this interpretation. The
teaching is clear, however, that outside those debased exercises of authority, a Christian
297
cannot afford to look at the issue of compliance from a purely pragmatic point of view in
which he weighs the inconvenience of obeying the law against the seriousness of the
penalties for not doing so and the risks of being caught. Beyond such narrow
considerations, a Christian has to obey the law because that is what God expects him to
do. Two examples of authors in the later tradition who articulate this position clearly are
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) and the Anglican bishop Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667):
Laws framed by man are either just or unjust. If they be just, they have the power of
binding in conscience.54
Obedience to human laws must be for conscience sake; that is, because in such obedience
public order, and charity, and benefit, are concerned, and because the law of God
commands us: therefore we must make a conscience in keeping the just laws of
superiors.55
These ideas have been quite common among Christian authors for many centuries, so
there seems little need to multiply quotations, though more can be found in the
“Additional material” section. Here I will just add a reference to the Catechism of the
Catholic Church (1994), in part because it is a recent source and in part because it
mentions explicitly the reason that, in the view of many Christian authors, explains why
legitimate authorities have to be respected as being in God’s place: it is their mission to
protect and promote the common good of the community and in so far as they do so they
are very much acting in the place of God, who created men for a life in community:
[Man] rightly owes loyalty to the communities of which he is part and respect to those in
authority who have charge of the common good.56
Still, it is another main element of the Christian teaching on this matter that there are laws
that are so wicked or unfair that they do not deserve respect. An interesting early example
of this attitude can be found in Exodus:
Then the king of Egypt said to the Hebrew midwives, one of whom was named Shiph'rah
and the other Pu'ah, "When you serve as midwife to the Hebrew women, and see them
upon the birthstool, if it is a son, you shall kill him; but if it is a daughter, she shall live."
But the midwives feared God, and did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them, but
let the male children live. … So God dealt well with the midwives; and the people
multiplied and grew very strong. And because the midwives feared God he gave them
families (Ex 1:15-21).
Pharaoh is determined to halt the growth of the Hebrews and to achieve his purpose he
has ordered the midwives to kill all Hebrew boys—as clear an example of an unjust piece
of legislation as one might wish. We have just seen that the Epistle to the Romans says
that “he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and … will incur
judgment.” It seems, however, that there are qualifications that must be taken into
54
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 96, a. 4.
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. I .
56
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1880.
55
298
account before rushing to conclusions. The fact is that Exodus informs us, not only that
the midwives disobeyed Pharaoh, but that they did so because they feared God. To put it
beyond doubt that God approved the actions of the midwives we are told that he “dealt
well with [them]” and rewarded them with families of their own.
Two similar examples relate to attempts by the authorities to prevent people from serving
God. The first occurred during the captivity in Babylon, when king Nebuchadnezzar set
up a golden image and issued an edict compelling all of his subjects to worship it. When
he tried to force three Jews to comply with his edict, their reply was unequivocal:
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed'nego answered the king … “be it known to you, O king,
that we will not serve your gods or worship the golden image which you have set up"
(Dan 3:16-18).
The episode is well-known: the king ordered Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego to be
thrown into a fiery furnace, but God saved them miraculously, thus clearly expressing his
approval for the course of action they had followed.
Still a similar example is the occasion in which the rulers of the Jews formally order the
apostles to stop teaching in Jesus’ name. The apostles’ reply is terse and to the point:
But Peter and the apostles answered, "We must obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29).
From the beginning of systematic Christian reflection we find an effort to try to explain
these clear examples of disobedience to constituted rulers in the face of the other texts we
have seen which order obedience to them. Origen (185-254) explains the matter using
concepts that will be familiar to any lawyer: there is a conflict of laws and the law of
superior rank must prevail:
In the beginning, there are two laws: one, that of nature, fixed by God, the other, that
written for the states; when the written law does not conflict with that of God, it is well
for the citizens not to desert from it to follow after foreign laws; but when the law of
nature, that is, of God, ordains things contrary to the written law, see if reason does not
demand that we bid a glad farewell to the written laws and the intentions of the
lawmakers, and obey the only lawmaker, God, and regulate our conduct by his
ordinances…57
Origen’s explanation is correct, as far as it goes. However, Saint Augustine (354-430)
goes more directly to the root of the matter by saying that, from the point of view of the
conscience of an upright person who is trying to contribute fairly to the common good of
his community, there is all the difference in the world between a law that represents an
effort to promote that common good and a law that is arbitrary, unfair or even positively
wicked.
A law that is unjust is considered to be no law at all.58
57
58
Origen, Stromata, I, 25 and 26.
St. Augustine, On Free Choice, I, 5.
299
Elaborating on the tradition of Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274)
argues more carefully the issue.
Man is bound to obey secular princes in so far as this is required by the order of justice.
Wherefore if the prince's authority is not just but usurped, or if he commands what is
unjust, his subjects are not bound to obey him, except perhaps accidentally, in order to
avoid scandal or danger.59
The root of the argument is that man is obliged in conscience to obey a legitimate
exercise of authority. An exercise of authority can be illegitimate either because the
authority itself has been usurped60, because it exceeds the authority of the person
purporting to enact it, or because the law itself is unjust or unfair, the reason for this
being that all authority is authority to promote the common good, not to undermine it.
It is also interesting that the passage of Saint Thomas Aquinas concludes with a warning
that sometimes a subject could “accidentally” come under a duty to obey an unjust law in
order to avoid giving bad example to others, or to avoid putting himself at risk when he
has a responsibility to avoid doing so. It would take too long to discuss this issue in
greater detail. It will be enough to observe that in the mind of Saint Thomas Aquinas
there is an essential difference between the duty to obey a just law, which is based on the
respect and allegiance that such law deserves, and the duty that sometimes (by no means
always) may arise to obey an unjust law to some extent (not necessarily fully) in order to
avoid other collateral harm, such as bad example to others or harm to oneself, that could
follow from that. A very important difference is that no collateral harm, no matter how
serious, could ever justify a man in obeying a law that orders him to do something that is
positively against God’s law. This point appears also clearly in the following text of
Calvin (1509-1564):
Let the people pay all due honour to their rulers, submit patiently to their authority, obey
their laws and orders, and decline nothing which they can bear without sacrificing the
favour of God.61
It is my experience in discussing this issue that many Christians nowadays are surprised
by the thesis that a Christian should make a sharp distinction between just and unjust
laws. However, this is an issue in which there has been continuity of teaching for almost
two thousand years, and, as we have seen, this teaching has very strong roots in the Bible.
A contemporary formulation of the same doctrine can be seen in the following
pronouncement of the Lutheran Church in America (1978):
When temporal authority performs its legitimate function of securing human rights, we
can thankfully support it (Rom. 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13f); when it does not, we can just as
59
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 104, a. 6, ad 3.
Of course, even the authority of a usurper may eventually become legitimate, but this is a different
matter.
61
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. 2, ch. 8.
60
300
freely work for its reform or replacement and, if need be, disobey or resist it (Rv. 13),
accepting the consequences of such action.62
Additional material on compliance with the law
Then Mathathias answered, and said with a loud voice: Although all nations obey king
Antiochus, so as to depart every man from the service of the law of his fathers, and
consent to his commandments: I and my sons, and my brethren will obey the law of our
fathers (1 Mc 2:19-20).
“All the presidents of the kingdom, the prefects and the satraps, the counselors and the
governors are agreed that the king should establish an ordinance and enforce an
interdict, that whoever makes petition to any god or man for thirty days, except to you, O
king, shall be cast into the den of lions. Now, O king, establish the interdict and sign the
document, so that it cannot be changed, according to the law of the Medes and the
Persians, which cannot be revoked." Therefore King Darius signed the document and
interdict. When Daniel knew that the document had been signed, he went to his house
where he had windows in his upper chamber open toward Jerusalem; and he got down
upon his knees three times a day and prayed and gave thanks before his God, as he had
done previously (Dan 6:7-10).
But when the Pharisees saw it, they said to him, "Look, your disciples are doing what is
not lawful to do on the sabbath." He said to them, "Have you not read what David did,
when he was hungry, and those who were with him: how he entered the house of God and
ate the bread of the Presence, which it was not lawful for him to eat nor for those who
were with him, but only for the priests?” (Mt. 12: 2-4).
And behold, there was a man with a withered hand. And they asked him, "Is it lawful to
heal on the sabbath?" so that they might accuse him. He said to them, "What man of you,
if he has one sheep and it falls into a pit on the sabbath, will not lay hold of it and lift it
out? Of how much more value is a man than a sheep! So it is lawful to do good on the
sabbath" (Mt 12:10-12).
Why do your disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? For they do not wash their
hands when they eat (Mt 15:2).
Tell us, then, what you think. Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not?" … Then he said
to them, "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things
that are God's" (Mt 22:17-21).
Pay all of them their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, revenue to whom revenue is due,
respect to whom respect is due, honor to whom honor is due (Rom 13:7).
62
A Social Statement on Human Rights: Doing Justice in God's World. Adopted by the Ninth Biennial
Convention of the Lutheran Church in America. Chicago, Illinois, July 12-19, 1978.
301
Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for
any honest work (Ti 3:1).
By faith Moses, when he was born, was hid for three months by his parents, because they
saw that the child was beautiful; and they were not afraid of the king's edict (Heb 11:23).
Be subject for the Lord's sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as
supreme, or to governors as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise
those who do right (1 Pt 2:13-14).
Saint Clement of Rome (bishop of Rome 92-101) – It is you, O Lord, who gave them
imperial power through your majestic and ineffable might, so that we, acknowledging the
glory and honor you have bestowed upon them, should submit ourselves to them. 63
Saint Justin (died c. 165) – And everywhere we, more readily than all men, endeavour to
pay to those appointed by you the taxes both ordinary and extraordinary as we have been
taught by Him.64
Letter to Diognetus (Second Century) – [Christians] obey the prescribed laws, but in
their private lives they go beyond what the laws require.65
Saint Basil (329-379) – It is right to submit to higher authority wherever a command of
God would not be violated.66
Saint Ambrose (339-397) – There was a decree that forbade the captives to bury the
dead; but he was not restrained by that prohibition.67
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Thou [the Church] counsellest peoples to be subject to their
kings.68
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – [Paul] requires that slaves be subjected to their
masters as well as that subjects submit themselves to their rulers. … It is the will of God’s
wisdom that there should be authority, that some govern and others obey…69
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – For since equality of power and honor leads many
times to fighting, God has established different degrees and forms of subjection, as that,
for instance, of husband and wife, of son and father, of old and young, of free and slaves,
of ruler and ruled, of master and disciple … Anarchy, wherever it may be, is an evil and
a cause of confusion.70
63
St. Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corinthians, 61.1.
St. Justin, First Apology, ch. XVII.
65
Letter to Diognetus, 5. 10.
66
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 79.
67
St. Ambrose, On Tobit, 1.3.
68
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 30.
69
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans, XXIII, 1.
70
Id.
64
302
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – And this he [St. Paul] is in all cases at pains to show,
that it is not by way of favour that we obey them {the authorities], but by way of debt.71
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – [Unjust laws] are acts of violence rather than
laws... Wherefore such laws do not bind in conscience.72
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – A subject is not bound to obey his superior if the
latter command him to do something wherein he is not subject to him.73
Catechism of the Council of Trent – Fourth Commandment, For whatever honor we show
[those in authority] is given to God, since exalted human dignity deserves respect
because it is an image of the divine power, and in it we reverse the providence of God
who has entrusted to men the care of public affairs and who uses them as the instruments
of His power.
If we sometimes have wicked and unworthy officials it is not their faults that we revere,
but the authority from God which they possess.74
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – However, should [the civil rulers’] commands
be wicked or unjust, they should not be obeyed, since in such a case they rule not
according to their rightful authority, but according to injustice and perversity
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – He who is obedient, willing, ready to serve, and cheerfully
gives honor where it is due, knows that he pleases God and receives joy and happiness
for his reward. On the other hand, if he will not do so in love, but despises or rebelliously
resists authority, let him know that he shall have no favor or blessing from God.75
John Calvin (1509-1564) – Therefore the submission yielded to them should be a step in
our ascent to the Supreme Parent, and hence, if they instigate us to transgress the law,
they deserve not to be regarded as parents, but as strangers attempting to seduce us from
obedience to our true Father. The same holds in the case of rulers, masters, and
superiors of every description.76
John Wesley (1703-1791) – We may not engage or continue in any sinful trade, any that
is contrary to the law of God, or of our country.77
John Wesley (1703-1791) – On Wednesday, 25 the stewards met at St. Ives, from the
western part of Cornwall. The next day I began examining the society, but I was soon
obliged to stop short. I found an accursed thing among them; well-night one and all
bought or sold uncustomed goods. I therefore delayed speaking to any more till I had met
them all together. This I did in the evening and told them plainly either they must put this
abomination away or they would see my face no more. Friday, 27 they severally
promised so to do. So I trust this plague is stayed.
…
71
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans, XXIII, 1.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 96, a. 4.
73
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 104, a. 5.
74
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Fourth Commandment.
75
Martin Luther, Large Catechism 1, 152.
76
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. 2, ch. 8, 38.
77
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
72
303
Chapter 12 Wednesday, 15.-- … That detestable practice of cheating the King
(smuggling) is no more found in our societies. And since that accursed thing has been put
away, the work of God has everywhere increased.78
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The merchant sins if he defrauds in paying just
taxes.79
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – When the law is unfair and against reason, it does
not oblige because it lacks rectitude. If its justice is doubtful, you are bound by the law.80
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – If a law is promulgated in a province but it is not
accepted nor observed by most of the people, then, if the legislator knows that and remains
silent about it, it is judged that the law is revoked by himself. But if he knows it and urges its
observation, everyone is bound to keep the law, for one must rather follow the head than the
other members.81
Vatican Council II (1962-1965) – [State authority] must be exercised within the limits of
the moral order and directed toward the common good (understood in the dynamic sense
of the term) according to the juridical order legitimately established or due to be
established. Citizens, then, are bound in conscience to obey (cf. Rom 13:5). Accordingly,
the responsibility, the dignity, and the importance of State rulers is clear.
When citizens are under the oppression of a public authority which oversteps its
competence, they should still not refuse to give or to do whatever is objectively demanded
of them by the common good; but it is legitimate for them to defend their own rights and
those of their fellow citizens against abuses of this authority within the limits of the
natural law and the law of the Gospel.82
Lutheran Church in America (1966) – "Civil authority," according to the New Testament,
is divinely ordained. This does not imply that every particular government or governor
enjoys God's approval; it means rather that "civil authority" which is manifested in the
state is to be respected and obeyed as an expression of the sovereign will of the
Creator.83
Lutheran Church in America (1970) – The classical Christian tradition views civil
authority as a sign of God's loving activity of advancing human justice and well-being
and of preserving humanity from its tendency to violence and self-destruction. Just
government performs the double function of promoting the welfare of humanity and
restraining wickedness.84
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Authority is exercised legitimately only when
it seeks the common good of the group concerned and if it employs morally licit means to
78
The Journal of John Wesley, Chs. 9 and 12.
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub X, 292.
80
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. I, Cap. I, Tract. II, Dub I, 92-93.
81
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. I, Cap. I, Tract. II, Dub III, 136.
82
Gaudium et Spes, 74.
83
A Social Statement on Church and State: A Lutheran Perspective, Adopted by the Third Biennial
Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Kansas City, Missouri, June 21-29, 1966.
84
A Social Statement on World Community: Ethical Imperatives in an Age of Interdependence; Adopted by
the Fifth Biennial Convention of the Lutheran Church in America, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 25-July 2,
1970.
79
304
attain it. If rulers were to enact unjust laws or take measures contrary to the moral order,
such arrangements would not be binding in conscience. In such a case, "authority breaks
down completely and results in shameful abuse."85
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – “Those subject to authority should regard
those in authority as representatives of God, who has made them stewards of his gifts”
[Cf. Rom 13:1-2 .] “Be subject for the Lord's sake to every human institution.... Live as
free men, yet without using your freedom as a pretext for evil; but live as servants of
God.” [1 Pet 2:13, 16 .] Their loyal collaboration includes the right, and at times the
duty, to voice their just criticisms of that which seems harmful to the dignity of persons
and to the good of the community.86
Giving bribes
The issue of bribery arises in Christian writings most frequently in relation to the issue of
receiving bribes. Because of this we will treat it at greater length in Chapter 9, when we
discuss the fiduciary duties of managers and employees. However, something should be
also said about paying bribes, and this is the appropriate place to treat the topic, as the
practice of bribing is directly subversive of the common good of the society in which a
businessman operates.
The Book of Lamentations goes straight to the heart of the matter by condemning bribegiving, precisely because it aims at subverting the right judgement of another:
To subvert a man in his cause, the Lord does not approve (Lam 3:36).
A recent statement along the same lines can be found in the Catechism of the Catholic
Church (1994):
…The following are also morally illicit: corruption in which one influences the judgment
of those who must make decisions according to law…87
There is a line that should be drawn between paying a bribe and being the victim of
extortion. In the first case the payer is trying to obtain something to which he is not
entitled (and almost always depriving another party of something to which he is entitled)
and in order to achieve this result money or other gift is given to the person in charge of
making the decision so that he will reach a different decision from that which it is his
duty to reach. In the case of the victim of extortion, the payer is trying to protect his just
entitlements, without depriving anybody of anything, and he is not trying to induce the
other party to reach a wrong decision.
85
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1903.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2238.
87
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2409
86
305
The common moral view on the matter is that while paying a bribe is inherently wrong,
giving in to extortion may be justified, depending on various factors such as the
alternatives available to the victim of the extortion, the harm he will suffer if he does not
agree to pay, and the impact that his decision to pay may have on other parties and
society at large. At the limit, very few people are prepared to argue that the person who is
told by an armed-robber “Your money or your life!” has a moral duty to refuse to hand
over his money.
This distinction between bribery and extortion has an ancient pedigree in the Christian
tradition. Thus, for instance, in his Ecclesiastical History Eusebius tells us how among
the early Christians it was a duty, especially for deacons, to visit and care for those who
were imprisoned for their faith and work for their liberation. Apparently, the jail
authorities often took advantage of the situation to demand money from visitors, and
according to Eusebius, no one hesitated to effect the necessary payments to that end.88
Still, while the legitimacy of giving in to extortion in some occasions is recognized, the
Christian tradition does not contain any indiscriminate warrant to do so. There is also a
countervailing duty to struggle against corruption even at personal cost. It is not for this
book to try to delineate the criteria that may help a person to decide when it is appropriate
to give in to extortion and when one should resist it, but the fact is that there are in the
Christian tradition clear examples of the second attitude. A good instance of this is
provided by Saint Paul. In the Acts of the Apostles we are told how Governor Felix, who
had Saint Paul in prison even though he was sympathetic to Paul’s case, “hoped that
money would be given him by Saint Paul.” (Acts 24:26). Presumably some of Saint
Paul’s disciples would have been ready to raise the necessary money to come to his help,
as they did in other occasions. However, Saint Paul did not give money to Felix and
because of this he had to pay a heavy price: he remained in prison for two years and
ultimately, after many other incidents and trials, had to undergo a trial in Rome.
Additional material on giving bribes
Moreover choose able men from all the people, such as fear God, men who are
trustworthy and who hate a bribe; and place such men over the people as rulers of
thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens (Ex 18:21).
For a bribe blinds the officials, and subverts the cause of those who are in the right (Ex
23:8).
Fire consumes the tents of bribery (Jb 15:34).
Sweep me not away with sinners, nor my life with bloodthirsty men, men in whose hands
are evil devices, and whose right hands are full of bribes (Ps 26:9-10).
He who hates bribes will live (Prv 15:27).
88
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 6.61.
306
Surely … a bribe corrupts the mind (Eccl 7:7).
All bribery, and injustice shall be blotted out (Eccl 40:12).
Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria (1998) - We beg you, touch our lives and the
lives of our leaders and people so that we may all realise the evil of bribery and
corruption and work hard to eliminate it.89
Competitors
It is very common nowadays to see business life as jungle or a war, and to consider as
legitimate the use of any means to overcome one’s competitors, provided that the law is
not breached. A Christian, however, has solid reasons to view his relations with his
competitors in a different light. Perhaps the most important of those reasons is that, as we
have already seen, a Christian is enjoined to love his neighbours, and there is no warrant
in the Christian sources to except one’s business competitors from the scope of this
injunction.
Of course, it is important to identify with precision what loving one’s business
competitors demands. This issue can perhaps be seen more clearly if one considers the
analogy of sports competition. In that realm it is clear that while one should love, say,
one’s opponent in a game of tennis, being a Christian tennis player does not demand that
one make sure that one loses every tennis game one plays. As a matter of fact loving
one’s opponent demands that one make an effort to give him a good game, and this is
unlikely to be the case if he realizes that one is playing to lose. Of course, another
possibility is to play to lose while pretending that one is doing one’s best, but this is
precluded by the duty not to mislead. The key to the issue is that doing one’s best to win
the game is actually a way to co-operate with one’s opponent (in having the best possible
game for the two), and therefore is compatible with loving him.
Similarly, within the framework of a modern competitive market economy, vigorous
competition among participants in a market can very well be a way to cooperate in the
common endeavour to satisfy the needs of the customers. Of course, a lot will depend on
the actual intentions and motives of those competitors and on the ways in which they
compete, but what matters here is to realize that from a Christian viewpoint the
mechanism of market competition is legitimised precisely because experience shows that
competition leads to better service to customers, not because competition makes a higher
degree of selfishness respectable.
If this is the case, the proper attitude towards a competitor has to be one of basic goodwill
and of wishing him the best, even as one is trying to serve one’s customers better than he
does (and better than one is doing now). It is not compatible with that goodwill to aim
directly at harming the competitor, but it is compatible with it to accept that he may lose
business opportunities, and even perhaps ultimately be forced out of business, as a result
89
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria, Prayer Against Bribery and Corruption, 1998.
307
of one providing a much higher level of service than he is able to provide. If this happens
the harm he suffers is not one’s objective but an unavoidable side-effect of pursuing a
different objective: better service to one’s customers.
In the Christian tradition there is no lack of texts that reflect this basic outlook. Thus, for
instance, The Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) teaches:
With regard to the free who serve voluntarily either for wages, or out of affection or
respect, it is unlawful, by words, or hopes, or promises, or rewards to bribe or solicit
them, under any pretext whatever, to leave those to whose service they have freely
engaged themselves; nay more, if, before the period of their contract has expired, they
leave their employers, they are to be admonished, on the authority of this Commandment
to return to them by all means.90
It is important to read this text carefully. It does not condemn offering a job to somebody
else’s employee or, in contemporary parlance, “poaching” him. What it forbids is to
induce an employee to breach his commitments towards his present employer in so far as
those commitments are still extant (“before the period of his contract has expired”).
Besides the harm this would do the employee by “scandalizing” him, that is to say, by
encouraging him to do something wrong, it also would be incompatible with that basic
attitude of seeing oneself as ultimately being involved in a co-operative enterprise with
one’s competitors.
John Wesley (1703-1791) has a similar attitude.
We cannot, consistent with brotherly love, sell our goods below the market-price; we
cannot study to ruin our neighbour’s trade, in order to advance our own; much less can
we entice away, or receive, any of his servants or workmen whom he has need of.91
Wesley goes beyond what the Council of Trent said in respect of “poaching” employees.
While the Council restricted itself to the case of inducing employees to breach their
contracts or commitments, John Wesley urges people to refrain from hiring people while
one’s competitors still have need of them. Obviously, he gives very great importance to
the idea of keeping an attitude towards one’s competitors that is “consistent with
brotherly love.” I doubt whether he would still offer such advice under the very different
arrangements typical of present-day capitalism, but that is not the point that primarily
interests me here. What matters is the basic attitude that makes sense of Wesley’s
concrete advice, and that is obviously not one of “anything goes.” It is even more
interesting that Wesley excludes “study[ing] to ruin our neighbour’s trade.” As I pointed
out before, there is a great difference between aiming at doing one’s best for one’s
customers (even if this entails as a consequence the possible ruin of some of one’s
competitors) and aiming (“studying”) at ruining one’s competitors, in order to advance
one’s own interests. The first aim is compatible with an attitude of love towards them
while the second is not.
90
91
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Ninth and Tenth Commandments.
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
308
Slandering one’s competitors or spreading false rumours about the quality of their goods
is another form of intending directly something that is harmful (and, of course, seriously
unjust) to them. It is incompatible with basic Christian attitudes. Saint Jean Baptiste
Marie Vianney (1786-1859) makes the point eloquently.
There are some who, through envy, for that is what it amounts to, belittle and slander
others, especially those in the same business or profession as their own, in order to draw
business to themselves. They will say such evil things as “their merchandise is worthless”
or “they cheat”; that they have nothing at home and that it would be impossible to give
goods away at such a price; that there have been many complaints about these goods; that
they will give no value or wear or whatever it is, or even that it is short weight, or not the
right length, and so on.
….
It is my belief that the sin of scandalmongering includes all that is most evil and
wicked.92
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) neatly summarize the above basic points:
We cannot ignore competitors and relevant information about their products. But we use
such data to improve our own service to customers, not to intentionally hurt our rivals.
We owe our competitors respect and kindness: they too are created in the image of God;
positive effort towards improving our own service or product is more appropriate than
criticizing and downgrading our competitors.93
Additional material on competitors
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – To all conscientious persons is
addressed the divine command that in all their intercourse with society, in
every conversation, they should speak the truth at all times from the sincerity of
their hearts; that they should utter nothing injurious to the reputation of
another, not even of those by whom they know they have been injured and
persecuted. For they should always remember that between them and others
there exists such a close social bond that they are all members of the same
body.94
Vitoria (1483-1546) – I have known a man who used to buy a large quantity of wheat and
afterwards sold it more cheaply than usual with the intention of bringing down the
price…
.. If he were to do this with an evil intention to harm others whom he does not like so that
they may lose what they have to sell, then he would be acting wrongly and it would be a
sin. 95
92
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “The Evil Tongues” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars, Henry Regnery
Company, Chicago, 1960.
93
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 215.
94
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Eighth Commandment.
95
Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, q. 77, a. 4.
309
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Pleasure that comes solely from our companions’
loss and pain is certainly evil.96
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Most of the principles that should guide the
relationships of Christians businesspersons to their competitor grow from commitments
to integrity and honesty. It is clear that we should never undermine a competitor by using
derogatory hearsay to cast suspicion on their operations. 97
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Similarly, in business, our legal right to strategies
that undercut competitors may not always square with our Christian values. We must be
careful to distinguish rights that emanate from God’s justice from legal rights in society.
To be godly often requires going far beyond merely being legal.98
96
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.32.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 215.
98
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p, 106.
97
310
CHAPTER 9 – THE MANAGER’S WORK
CHAPTER 9 – THE MANAGER’S WORK .............................................................. 311
Authority as service ................................................................................................... 311
Additional material on authority as service ...................................................... 313
Loyalty and commitment .......................................................................................... 318
Additional material on loyalty and commitment .............................................. 321
The fiduciary principle .............................................................................................. 323
Additional material on the fiduciary principle ................................................. 329
Protecting and fostering unity in their organizations ............................................ 332
Additional material on fostering and protecting the unity of the organization 335
Diligence ..................................................................................................................... 338
Additional material on diligence ...................................................................... 342
Listening to advice ..................................................................................................... 346
Additional material on listening to advice........................................................ 348
Balance work/life ....................................................................................................... 349
Obedience ................................................................................................................... 349
Additional material on obedience ..................................................................... 352
In this chapter I will explore the guidance the Christian tradition has to offer on how
managers should approach their jobs. At first sight this could seem an unpromising
venture as in biblical times and during most of the Christian Era there were no business
organizations similar to those in which the majority of managers work today. Even when
there were business organizations, they were few and most of them were very small by
modern standards.
However, in all societies there are people who occupy leadership roles, if not in business,
then at least in government. As we will see there is an abundance of advice for such
people in the Bible and in the works of Christian writers and much of that material is
highly relevant for contemporary business managers
Authority as service
In our society it is taken for granted that a young man should aspire to have a successful
“career”, that is to say, to occupy progressively higher and more responsible positions
which will allow him to enjoy the higher income and other perks and privileges usually
attached to such positions. The Christian conception could not be more different.
Christian writers through the centuries, following the very clear teaching of Christ
himself, have taught that positions of authority should be seen primarily as opportunities
for service to others. As an aspect of this basic attitude there has often been an insistence
on the importance of de-emphasizing the privileges that attach to such positions, or at
least the attachment of the office holder to such privileges.
311
Only [the king] must not multiply horses for himself … And he shall not multiply wives
for himself … nor shall he greatly multiply for himself silver and gold. … that his heart
may not be lifted up above his brethren, and that he may not turn aside from the
commandment, either to the right hand or to the left; so that he may continue long in his
kingdom, he and his children, in Israel (Dt 17:16-20).
In this way the book of Deuteronomy insists on the king taking specific precautions to
avoid the dangers of office. The first such precaution is not to think of the office as an
opportunity for “making it”, which at that time consisted in multiplying horses, wives,
silver and gold (presumably, the order does not intend to convey a ranking of social
estimation of value). It is stated specifically that the main purpose of taking such
precautions was not to keep the king from plundering the common resources but, more
importantly, that his heart might not be “lifted up” so that he came to see himself as being
above his brethren. In the same line, the book of Sirach admonishes the ruler on the
importance of thinking of himself as one more member of the community, not as a higher
being entitled to special privileges:
Have they made thee ruler? be not lifted up: be among them as one of them. Have care of
them, and so sit down, and when thou hast acquitted thyself of all thy charge, take thy
place (Sir 32 1-2).
The point is stressed by Our Lord: among Christians, authority has to be primarily a
burden and an opportunity for service, not a privilege:
And Jesus called them to him and said to them, "You know that those who are supposed
to rule over the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great men exercise authority over
them. But it shall not be so among you; but whoever would be great among you must be
your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be slave of all” (Mk 10:4244).
Saint Paul applies this teaching to the relationship between husbands and wives. He
argues that the husband has authority in marriage; however, in his understanding this
does not result in the husband having special privileges but in a duty of service, and one
that should have as its model the love of Christ for the Church, which led to the extreme
of giving his life for her.
As the church is subject to Christ, so let wives also be subject in everything to their
husbands. Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for
her (Eph 5:24-25).
Saint Augustine (354-430) relates the same teaching to the office of bishop in the Church.
It is clear from his own words, however, that what he is saying has application to all
positions of authority:
In active life, it is not the honors or power of this life we should covet, since all things
under the sun are vanity, but we should aim at using our position and influence, if these
have been honorably attained, for the welfare of those who are under as, in the way we
have already explained. It is to this the apostle refers when he says, "He that desireth the
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episcopate desireth a good work." He wished to show that the episcopate is the title of a
work, not of an honor. It is a Greek word, and signifies that he who governs superintends
or takes care of those whom be governs: for epi means over, and skopein, to see;
therefore episkopein means "to oversee." So that he who loves to govern rather than to do
good is no bishop.1
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) considers that this principle of authority as service is
so important that he makes it the key to the distinction between a just and an unjust
government:
If the ruler rules for the common good of those governed we will have a just and right
government, as it is fitting for free men. But if government is ordered not to the common
good of those governed, but to the private good of the ruler, we have a perverse and
unjust government.2
It is especially interesting to note that Saint Thomas Aquinas is not speaking of
ecclesiastical offices; in this passage he addresses the duties of a ruler in general, and the
paradigm he has directly in mind is the office of king, rather than that of bishop. The
same is true of Saint Thomas More (1477-1535), himself a statesman with wide
experience of government:
A prince ought to take more care of his people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd
is to take more care of his flock than of himself.3
A final reference to the topic, in contemporary times, can be found in the Catechism of
the Catholic Church (1994). Once again, it is interesting to observe that there is no
exclusive reference to ecclesiastical office, but rather to all types of authority:
Those who exercise authority should do so as a service.4
Additional material on authority as service
And David said longingly, "O that some one would give me water to drink from the well
of Bethlehem which is by the gate!" Then the three mighty men broke through the camp of
the Philistines, and drew water out of the well of Bethlehem which was by the gate, and
took and brought it to David. But David would not drink of it; he poured it out to the
Lord, and said, "Far be it from me before my God that I should do this. Shall I drink the
lifeblood of these men? For at the risk of their lives they brought it." Therefore he would
not drink it (1 Chr 11:17-19).
Moreover from the time that I was appointed to be their governor in the land of Judah,
from the twentieth year to the thirty-second year of Ar-ta-xerx'es the king, twelve years,
neither I nor my brethren ate the food allowance of the governor. The former governors
1
St. Augustine, The City of God, bk. XIX, ch. 19.
St. Thomas Aquinas, De regno, Cap. 1.
3
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
4
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2235.
2
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who were before me laid heavy burdens upon the people, and took from them food and
wine, besides forty shekels of silver. Even their servants lorded it over the people. But I
did not do so, because of the fear of God (Neh 5:14-15).
Give ear, you that rule the people, and that please yourselves in multitudes of nations:
For power is given you by the Lord, and strength by the most High, who will examine
your works, and search out your thoughts (Wis 6:3-4).
And I shall govern thy people justly, and shall be worthy of the throne of my father (Wis
9:12).
The Lord enters into judgment with the elders and princes of his people: "It is you who
have devoured the vineyard, the spoil of the poor is in your houses” (Is 3:14).
His watchmen are blind, they are all without knowledge; they are all dumb dogs, they
cannot bark; dreaming, lying down, loving to slumber. The dogs have a mighty appetite;
they never have enough. The shepherds also have no understanding; they have all turned
to their own way, each to his own gain, one and all (Is 56:10-11).
Do you think you are a king because you compete in cedar? Did not your father eat and
drink and do justice and righteousness? Then it was well with him. He judged the cause
of the poor and needy; then it was well. Is not this to know me? says the Lord. But you
have eyes and heart only for your dishonest gain, for shedding innocent blood, and for
practicing oppression and violence (Jer 22:15-17).
Thus says the Lord God: Ho, shepherds of Israel who have been feeding yourselves!
Should not shepherds feed the sheep? You eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the
wool, you slaughter the fatlings; but you do not feed the sheep. The weak you have not
strengthened, the sick you have not healed, the crippled you have not bound up, the
strayed you have not brought back, the lost you have not sought, and with force and
harshness you have ruled them (Ezk. 34:2-4).
And exhorted them, saying: You know what great battles I and my brethren, and the
house of my father, have fought for the laws, and the sanctuary, and the distresses that
we have seen: By reason whereof all my brethren have lost their lives for Israel's sake,
and I am left alone. And now far be it from me to spare my life in any time of trouble: for
I am not better than my brethren (1 Mc 13:3-5).
And the people seeing the acts of Simon, and to what glory he meant to bring his nation,
made him their prince, and high priest, because he had done all these things, and for the
justice, and faith, which he kept to his nation, and for that he sought by all means to
advance his people (1 Mc 14:35).
Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Lo, your
king comes to you; triumphant and victorious is he, humble and riding on an ass, on a
colt the foal of an ass (Zc 9:9).
For lo, I am raising up in the land a shepherd who does not care for the perishing, or
seek the wandering, or heal the maimed, or nourish the sound, but devours the flesh of
the fat ones, tearing off even their hoofs. Woe to my worthless shepherd, who deserts the
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flock! May the sword smite his arm and his right eye! Let his arm be wholly withered, his
right eye utterly blinded (Zc 11:16-17).
The Son of man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for
many (Mt 20:28).
And he sat down and called the twelve; and he said to them, "If any one would be first, he
must be last of all and servant of all" (Mk 9: 35).
And in his teaching he said, "Beware of the scribes, who like to go about in long robes,
and to have salutations in the market places and the best seats in the synagogues and the
places of honor at feasts (Mk 12: 38-39).
A dispute also arose among them, which of them was to be regarded as the greatest. And
he said to them, "The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; and those in
authority over them are called benefactors. But not so with you; rather let the greatest
among you become as the youngest, and the leader as one who serves. For which is the
greater, one who sits at table, or one who serves? Is it not the one who sits at table? But I
am among you as one who serves” (Lk 22:24-27).
I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. He who is a
hireling and not a shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, sees the wolf coming and
leaves the sheep and flees; and the wolf snatches them and scatters them. He flees
because he is a hireling and cares nothing for the sheep (Jn 10:11-13).
When he had washed their feet, and taken his garments, and resumed his place, he said to
them, "Do you know what I have done to you? You call me Teacher and Lord; and you
are right, for so I am. If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also
ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given you an example, that you also should
do as I have done to you. Truly, truly, I say to you, a servant is not greater than his
master; nor is he who is sent greater than he who sent him. If you know these things,
blessed are you if you do them” (Jn 13:12-17).
For [he who is in authority] is God's servant for your good (Rom 13: 4).
For what we preach is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, with ourselves as your
servants for Jesus' sake (2 Cor 4:5).
Tend the flock of God that is your charge, not by constraint but willingly, not for
shameful gain but eagerly, not as domineering over those in your charge but being
examples to the flock (1 Pt 5:2-3).
Epistle to Diognetus (second century) – For it is not by ruling over his neighbours, or by
seeking to hold the supremacy over those that are weaker, or by being rich, and showing
violence towards those that are inferior, that happiness is found; nor can any one by
these things become an imitator of God. For these things do not at all constitute His
majesty. On the contrary he who takes upon himself the burden of his neighbour; he who,
in whatsoever respect he may be superior, is ready to benefit another who is deficient; he
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who, whatsoever things he has received from God, by distributing these to the needy,
becomes a god to those who receive [his benefits]: he is an imitator of God.5
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – [to the bishop] Be gentle, gracious, mild, without guile,
without falsehood; not rigid, not insolent, not severe, not arrogant, not unmerciful, not
puffed up, not a man-pleaser, not timorous, not double-minded, not one that insults over
the people that are under thee, not one that conceals the divine laws and the promises to
repentance, not hasty in thrusting out and expelling, but steady, not one that delights in
severity, not heady.6
Saint Basil (329-379) – His rank should not arouse feelings of pride in the superior, lest
he himself lose the blessing promised to humility or least being puffed up with pride he
fall into the judgement of the devil. On the other hand, let him be assured that added
responsibility calls for greater service.7
Saint Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) – Those who are in charge must work harder
than others, must be humbler than those under them, must in their own lives give an
example of service, and must regard their subjects as a deposit which God has given
them in trust.8
Saint Augustine (354-430) – He who presides over a people must keep in mind before
anything else that he is a servant of many. And that must not be taken as a dishonour …
because not even the Lord of lords disdained serving us.9
Saint Augustine (354-430) – We have been placed at your head and we are your
servants; we preside, but only if we are useful.10
Saint Augustine (354-430) – But in the family of the just man… even those who rule serve
those whom they seem to command; for they rule not from a love of power, but from a
sense of the duty they owe to others—not because they are proud of authority, but
because they love mercy.11
Saint. Gregory the Great (540-604) – What Manner of Man Ought to Come to Rule [as
bishop]: That man … who disregards worldly prosperity; who is afraid of no adversity;
who desires only inward wealth … one who is not led to covet the things of others, but
gives freely of his own.12
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – We must be convinced that we have not been given a
lordship but a service.13
5
Epistle to Diognetus, ch. X.
Apostolic Constitutions, II, 21.
7
St. Basil, Long Rules, q. 30.
8
St. Gregory of Nyssa, De Instituto Christiano.
9
St. Augustin, Sermon 340 A.
10
Id.
11
St. Augustine, The City of God, XIX, 14.
12
St. Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule, part I, ch. X.
13
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, VI, 9.
6
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Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) – Let those who are set up over others, glory as much
because of that office of superior, as if they had been appointed to the office of washing
the feet of the brothers.14
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – As subjects are not subordinated to the good of the
ruler, but on the contrary, government is ordered to the good of the subjects, those who
rule are appropriately called servants of the subjects.15
Antoninus of Florence (1389-1459) – God has set up princes certainly not for them to
seek their own benefit but so that they may work for the common good of the people.16
John Paul II (1978- ) – Jesus Christ [is] the humble servant who gives himself without
reserve for the salvation of all.17
John Paul II (1978- ) – A leadership role among nations can only be justified by the
possibility and willingness to contribute widely and generously to the common good.18
John Paul II (1978) – What distinguishes persons is not an increase in dignity, but a
special and complementary capacity for service.19
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – The Scriptures talk a lot about servanthood. It is not
natural to approach management theory from the perspective of servanthood, yet that is
exactly what we are called to do. It is a very different approach from the power based
views of many secular managers.20
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – We have emphasized the importance of using power
to serve. Yet the appropriate use of power can also include directing and giving orders as
well as serving. We should willingly take the responsibility to give directions—deciding
standards for cleanliness or firing people because of unacceptable behavior. We take the
responsibility to make decisions and to take initiative. But we do so in order to serve the
purposes of the organization, not to increase our power base or status.
God in Christ gives us a perfect model of a servant leader and the servant use of power.
He took a whip to drive the moneychangers from the temple. But he also washed his
disciples’ feet to show them that even the Lord of the universe came to serve. He modeled
for them how he wanted them to grow as his followers and as leaders in his church. He is
our perfect model of a servant leader using power to assist, encourage, build up
followers in stewardship responsibilities.21
14
St. Francis of Assisi, The Admonitions, ch. IV.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Sentences, lib. 2, dist. 24, q. 1, a. 1.
16
Antoninus of Florence, Summa of Moral Theology, Part 2, Tit. 1, Cap. 13.
17
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 21.
18
John Paul II, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, n. 23.
19
John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, n. 20.
20
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 91.
21
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 151.
15
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Amsterdam Declaration (2000) – We pledge ourselves to seek and uphold this model of
biblical servant-leadership in our churches. We who are leaders commit ourselves afresh
to this pattern of leadership.22
Loyalty and commitment
If one explores the Bible searching for the traits of character that it enjoins, it is
impossible not to be struck by the very many references to be found to loyalty and
faithfulness. Even from a cursory reading one gets the impression that God is very much
pleased with the faithful man, who is loyal to his commitments even in situations of
adversity, and that he abhors faithlessness.
The Bible teaches that this is rooted in the very character of God. He loves faithfulness
because he himself is faithful:
The Lord passed before him, and proclaimed, "The Lord, the Lord, a God merciful and
gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6).
By contrast, man is very often faithless to his commitments. A main theme of the Bible is
that the Jewish nation was repeatedly unfaithful to the covenant; another is the contrast
between God’s faithfulness to his promises and the unfaithfulness of men. Unfaithfulness
is so characteristic of men that God can explain to men his own faithfulness by making it
clear that he is not like them:
God is not man, that he should lie, or a son of man, that he should repent. Has he said,
and will he not do it? Or has he spoken, and will he not fulfil it? (Nm 23:19).
Still, even if men are frequently disloyal, this is not a universal trait; when men are found
to be faithful even in the face of adversity, they are greatly praised. An example is David,
who is shown to have been consistently loyal to Saul even if the latter did not keep faith
with him and repeatedly tried to kill him. After Saul’s death, David appreciates the
loyalty of the men of Ja’besh-gil’ead who kept their allegiance to the dead king and
buried him, even when they had to expect that by doing so they could be alienating
David, the new strong man. David was great enough to appreciate this loyalty in others,
even when it was not directed to him, and intelligent enough to realize that men who had
been so loyal to the dead king could be expected to become equally loyal to the new king:
When they told David, "It was the men of Ja'besh-gil'ead who buried Saul," David sent
messengers to the men of Ja'besh-gil'ead, and said to them, "May you be blessed by the
Lord, because you showed this loyalty to Saul your lord, and buried him! Now may the
Lord show steadfast love and faithfulness to you! And I will do good to you because you
have done this thing” (2 Sam 2:4-6).
22
Amsterdam Declaration, n. 2.
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Beyond the fundamental reason that by being loyal men behave in a God-like way and
acquire a God-like character trait, one can also appreciate how enjoining faithfulness fits
in with some other main ideas of the Bible. The basic principle that God prescribes to
regulate the relations among men is that of love, as we have already seen. And the love
which God enjoins to his people is one which goes beyond nice feelings and beautiful
words and is expressed in effective deeds of service and help. Obviously, the faithful
man, the one who can be relied upon to be loyal to his commitments, even when it would
not seem to be any longer in his interests to do so, is a man who will be able to render a
much more effective service to others. As the Book of Sirach puts it:
Love thy neighbour, and be joined to him with fidelity. (Sir 27:17).
On the contrary, it is precisely selfishness and a concern which is limited to one’s own
interests, that typically move men to be disloyal to others.
Even more fundamentally, loyalty is rooted in the ultimate plan of God, as it can be
discerned in the Bible: to get human beings to form an everlasting community—the
kingdom of God—and to enter into the divine community of Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Loyalty is just an aspect of community and it is clear (as we saw in Chapter 3) that God is
very much concerned with encouraging human beings to form more extensive and deeper
communities, as a preparation and a contribution to the creation of the ultimate
community between the divine persons and the whole redeemed human family, which he
is aiming at creating.
As I mentioned above, the theme of faithfulness pervades the Bible. The faithfulness of
God is a topic that is celebrated very especially in the psalms:
Thy steadfast love, O Lord, extends to the heavens, thy faithfulness to the clouds (Ps
36:5)23.
23
The following are other examples of this in the psalms: “All the paths of the Lord are steadfast love and
faithfulness, for those who keep his covenant and his testimonies” (Ps 25:10); “Let thy face shine on thy
servant; save me in thy steadfast love!” (Ps 31:16); “To thee, O Lord, belongs steadfast love” (Ps 66:20)
“Blessed be God, because he has not rejected my prayer or removed his steadfast love from me!” (Ps
62:12); “I will also praise thee with the harp for thy faithfulness, O my God” (Ps 71:22); “For thou, O Lord,
art good and forgiving, abounding in steadfast love to all who call on thee” (Ps 86:5); “For thy steadfast
love was established for ever, thy faithfulness is firm as the heavens” (Ps 89:2); “Righteousness and justice
are the foundation of thy throne; steadfast love and faithfulness go before thee” (Ps 89:14); “I will not
remove from him my steadfast love, or be false to my faithfulness. I will not violate my covenant, or alter
the word that went forth from my lips” (Ps 89:33-34); “His faithfulness is a shield and buckler” (Ps 91:4);
“It is good to give thanks to the Lord, to sing praises to thy name, O Most High; to declare thy steadfast
love in the morning, and thy faithfulness by night” (Ps 92:1-2); “But the steadfast love of the Lord is from
everlasting to everlasting upon those who fear him” (Ps 103:17); He is mindful of his covenant for ever. (Ps
105:8 ) ; “Praise the Lord! O give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; for his steadfast love endures for
ever!” (Ps 106:1); “O give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; for his steadfast love endures for ever!” (Ps
107:1); “For thy steadfast love is great above the heavens, thy faithfulness reaches to the clouds” (Ps
108:4); “He is ever mindful of his covenant” (Ps 111:5); “O give thanks to the Lord, for he is good, for his
steadfast love endures for ever” (Ps 136:1); “I bow down toward thy holy temple and give thanks to thy
name for thy steadfast love and thy faithfulness” (Ps 138:2); “The Lord is faithful in all his words, and
gracious in all his deeds” (Ps 145:13); “Happy is he whose help is the God of Jacob, whose hope is in the
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In the wisdom literature we also find constant references to the faithfulness of God. In
these books we also find a special emphasis on the goodness of fidelity as a trait of
character in human beings:
A faithful friend is a strong defence: and he that hath found him, hath found a treasure.
Nothing can be compared to a faithful friend, and no weight of gold and silver is able to
countervail the goodness of his fidelity (Sir 6: 14-15)24.
We often find in the parables of Christ figures who represent the soul loyal to her
commitments: the prudent and faithful servant (Mt 24:45); the servant who is good and
loyal in small things (Mt. 25:21); the faithful steward (Lk 12:42). As a contrast, we also
find portrayals of the disloyal soul: the wicked servant who says to himself, “My master
is delayed,” and begins to beat his fellow servants, and eats and drinks with the drunken,
instead of attending to his duties (Mt 24:48-51); the tenants who not only do not keep
their commitments but who mistreat and even kill the messengers who ask for the
master’s share (Mt. 21:33-46). The idea of fidelity pervades so fully the Gospel’s
message, that “faithful” becomes synonymous with Christian, with follower of Christ.
It is clear therefore that loyalty is an essential element in the character that the Bible
outlines. It is not possible, however, to live it out in today’s business world just by taking
from the Bible some standard behaviours. It should be apparent that what loyalty
demands in a stable, agrarian society, cannot be identical to what it requires in a rapidly
changing, entrepreneurial society that is committed to a constant redeployment of
resources, including human resources, to their most productive uses.
However, at least some basic issues should be clear: in the face of the massive biblical
testimony we have just seen, it is just not possible for a Christian to pretend, as so many
of our contemporaries do, that there is no value in loyalty and in forming stable bonds for
mutual co-operation. At the very least, a Christian should be totally faithful to whatever
he has promised to do; a Christian should also be specially sensitive to the value of
forming stable communities, also in the professional sphere, and specially slow to accept
Lord his God, who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them; who keeps faith for ever” (Ps
146:5-6).
24
For other examples, see the following: “Let not loyalty and faithfulness forsake you; bind them about
your neck, write them on the tablet of your heart. So you will find favor and good repute in the sight of God
and man” (Prov 3:3-4); “Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, but those who act faithfully are his
delight” (Prov 12:22); “By loyalty and faithfulness iniquity is atoned for” (Prov 16:6); “A friend loves at all
times, and a brother is born for adversity” (Prov 17:17); “What is desired in a man is loyalty” (Prov 19:22);
“Loyalty and faithfulness preserve the king, and his throne is upheld by righteousness” (Prov 20:28); “Your
friend, and your father's friend, do not forsake” (Prov 27:10); “A faithful man will abound with blessings”
(Prov 28:20); “Keep fidelity with a friend in his poverty, that in his prosperity also thou mayst rejoice. In
the time of his trouble continue faithful to him, that thou mayst also be heir with him in his inheritance”
(Sir 22:25-26); “Keep faith with a friend when his purse is empty, thou shalt have joy of his good fortune"(Sir
22:28); "Never will I be ashamed to greet friend of mine, never deny myself to him; let harm befall me for his
sake, I care not" (Sir 22:31); “Forget not thy friend in thy mind, and be not unmindful of him in thy riches“
(Sir 37:6); “In temptation [Abraham] was found faithful. Therefore by an oath he gave him glory in his
posterity, that he should increase as the dust of the earth” (Sir 44:21-22).
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the facile conclusion that “in today’s world such stable communities are not possible.” In
the third place, it is impossible to square with the biblical testimonies we have reviewed a
basic attitude in the professional life in which the only stable commitment is to “my
career” and “my success.” In his most basic character, a Christian is a person who is
ready to enter into stable commitments and who is ready to be faithful to those
commitments he has assumed. As to the more concrete implications of this basic attitude,
we will spell them out in the following sections of this chapter.
Additional material on loyalty and commitment
He said to his men, "The Lord forbid that I should do this thing to my lord, the
Lord’s anointed, to put forth my hand against him, seeing he is the Lord’s anointed."
So David persuaded his men with these words, and did not permit them to attack
Saul. And Saul rose up and left the cave, and went upon his way. Afterward David
also arose, and went out of the cave, and called after Saul, "My lord the king!" And
when Saul looked behind him, David bowed with his face to the earth, and did
obeisance. May the Lord judge between me and you, may the Lord avenge me upon
you; but my hand shall not be against you (1 Sam 24:6-8 and 12).
And David made answer, "Here is the spear, O king! Let one of the young men come
over and fetch it. The Lord rewards every man for his righteousness and his
faithfulness; for the Lord gave you into my hand today, and I would not put forth my
hand against the Lord’s anointed (1 Sam 26:22-23).
So Saul died for his unfaithfulness; he was unfaithful to the Lord in that he did not
keep the command of the Lord (I Chr 10:13).
O Lord God of heaven, the great and terrible God who keeps covenant and steadfast
love with those who love him and keep his commandments (Neh 1:5).
He who informs against his friends to get a share of their property, the eyes of his
children will fail (Jb 17:5).
Righteousness shall be the girdle of his waist, and faithfulness the girdle of his loins
(Is 11:5).
Does a woman forget her baby at her breast, or fail to cherish the son of her womb?
Yet even if these forget, I will never forget you (Is 49:15).
For the mountains may depart and the hills be removed, but my steadfast love shall
not depart from you, and my covenant of peace shall not be removed, says the Lord,
who has compassion on you (Is 54:10).
I will recount the steadfast love of the Lord, the praises of the Lord, according to all
that the Lord has granted us, and the great goodness to the house of Israel which he
has granted them according to his mercy, according to the abundance of his
steadfast love (Is 63:7).
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I have loved you with an everlasting love, so I am constant in my affection for you
(Jer 31:3).
The steadfast love of the Lord never ceases, his mercies never come to an end; they
are new every morning; great is thy faithfulness (Lam 3:22-23).
O Lord, the great and terrible God, who keepest covenant and steadfast love with
those who love him and keep his commandments (Dan 9:4).
And I will betroth you to me for ever; I will betroth you to me in righteousness and in
justice, in steadfast love, and in mercy. I will betroth you to me in faithfulness; and
you shall know the Lord (Hos 2:19-20).
And I will betroth you to me for ever; I will betroth you to me in righteousness and in
justice, in steadfast love, and in mercy. I will betroth you to me in faithfulness; and
you shall know the Lord (Hos 2:19-20).
Thou wilt show faithfulness to Jacob and steadfast love to Abraham, as thou hast
sworn to our fathers from the days of old (Mi 7:20).
For I hate divorce, says the Lord the God of Israel, and covering one's garment with
violence, says the Lord of hosts. So take heed to yourselves and do not be faithless
(Mal 2:16).
For I the Lord do not change (Mal 3:6).
His master said to him, “Well done, good and faithful servant; you have been
faithful over a little, I will set you over much; enter into the joy of your master” (Mt
25:21).
Jesus said to him, "No one who puts his hand to the plow and looks back is fit for the
kingdom of God" (Lk 9:62).
They were filled with all manner of wickedness, evil, covetousness, malice. Full of
envy, murder, strife, deceit, malignity, they are gossips, slanderers, haters of God,
insolent, haughty, boastful, inventors of evil, disobedient to parents, foolish,
faithless, heartless, ruthless (Rom 1:29-31)25.
What if some were unfaithful? Does their faithlessness nullify the faithfulness of
God? By no means! Let God be true though every man be false, as it is written,
"That thou mayest be justified in thy words, and prevail when thou art judged" (Rom
3:3-4).
God is faithful, by whom you were called into the fellowship of his Son, Jesus Christ
our Lord (I Cor 1:9).
As surely as God is faithful, our word to you has not been Yes and No (2 Cor 1:18).
25
Emphasis added.
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May the Lord direct your hearts to the love of God and to the steadfastness of Christ
(2 Thes 3:5).
He who calls you is faithful, and he will do it (1 Thes 5:24).
He was faithful to him who appointed him, just as Moses also was faithful in God's
house (Heb 3:2).
Let us hold fast the confession of our hope without wavering, for he who promised is
faithful (Heb 10:23).
Then I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse! He who sat upon it is called
Faithful and True, and in righteousness he judges and makes war. … He is clad in a
robe dipped in blood, and the name by which he is called is The Word of God (Rv
19:11 & 13).
But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators,
sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire
and sulphur, which is the second death (Rv 21:8).
Saint Augustine (354-430) – How beautiful fidelity is! As gold shines before the eyes
of the body, so shines fidelity before the eyes of the heart.26
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – The virtue of fidelity consists in fulfilling what
one has promised.27
John Paul II (1978- ) – There is no doubt that in this simple but penetrating analogy
[the parable of the Prodigal Son] the figure of the father reveals to us God as
Father. The conduct of the father in the parable and his whole behaviour, which
manifests his internal attitude, enables us to rediscover the individual threads of the
Old Testament vision of mercy in a synthesis which is totally new, full of simplicity
and depth. The father of the prodigal son is faithful to his fatherhood, faithful to the
love that he had always lavished on this son.28
John Paul II (1978- ) –- God the Father [is] absolutely faithful to His eternal love
for man.29
The fiduciary principle
A fiduciary is somebody who has been entrusted with powers or assets, to be used not for
his own benefit, but for that of others. By accepting that commission a fiduciary accepts a
responsibility to use the powers or assets entrusted to his management for the purpose for
which they were entrusted to him, and not for his own benefit.
26
St. Augustine, Sermon 9, 16.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 110, a.3.
28
John Paul II, Dives in Misericordia, n. 6. Italics in the original.
29
John Paul II, Dives in Misericordia, n. 7.
27
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In contemporary treatments of business ethics the fiduciary principle usually is given
prominence. However, this principle is by no means a recent discovery. St. Paul
expressed well its basic foundation:
It is required of stewards that they be found trustworthy (I Cor 4:2).
This is to say, the proper virtue of the steward, of the person who is put in charge of the
property of another, is precisely trustworthiness, the steady commitment to pursue in
every way open to him the interests of his principal. How this trustworthiness fits in with
ideas like “authority as service” and loyalty should be apparent. The fact is that many of
the principles that we are trying to separate for purposes of analysis and exposition are
actually but different aspects of a single character.
Paradoxically, the importance of the commitment of the steward to pursue the interests of
his master is made clear precisely in the parable of the unfaithful steward. In that parable
Our Lord praises the steward who reduces the debts owed to his master in order to make
sure that the debtors will be grateful to him and will receive him in their houses in the
future. However, Our Lord says very clearly that this man is a dishonest steward; he
praises him for his shrewdness, not for his lack of honesty:
The master commended the dishonest steward for his shrewdness (Lk 16:8).
In relation to persons in positions of authority, Scripture explains that the effect of
observing the fiduciary principle, that is to say, of using the powers entrusted to one for
the purpose for which they were granted, not allowing oneself to be deflected by any
other personal interests, is precisely the strengthening of that authority on a surer
foundation:
If a king judges the poor with equity his throne will be established for ever (Prv 29:14).
This is a consideration that has great practical importance for managers. They should be
faithful in the use of the powers entrusted to them because that is a demand of justice; but
also because by being exemplary in doing so they make it evident that they are acting for
the common good of the organization rather than for their own personal benefit or as a
result of their personal caprice. By doing so they strengthen their leadership.
The most obvious way in which fiduciary powers can be misused is by selling decisions
to the highest bidder, that is, by accepting bribes in order to make not the decision that
advances the interests of the decision maker’s employer, but that which will attract a
pecuniary benefit to himself. Already when Moses had to appoint judges over the people
it was made clear that abhorring bribes was an essential qualification for being selected to
that position of authority:
Moreover choose able men from all the people, such as fear God, men who are
trustworthy and who hate a bribe; and place such men over the people as rulers of
thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens (Ex 18:21).
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Ecclesiastes makes it clear that bribes make it impossible to make the right decision, that
is to say, to behave like a faithful and loyal steward:
Surely … a bribe corrupts the mind (Eccl 7:7).
If we define a bribe as an offer of money or other favours in order to get a decision maker
to make a wrong decision, it would seem possible to argue—and many do so—that even
though bribes should be avoided, it is acceptable to accept presents or gifts from the
beneficiaries of certain decisions (e.g., people who have been awarded profitable
contracts), provided that one does not undertake in any way to make a wrong decision
and in fact is firmly determined to decide according to the interests of his principal.
Experience shows that there is much naivete in such argument, both because the habitual
acceptance of gifts very easily evolves into a pattern of outright bribery and because the
mere fact of accepting a gift by a party interested in one’s decisions creates a conflict of
interests that makes future impartial decisions highly unlikely. The point is made clearly
by the prophet Isaiah who explicitly links the practice of “running after gifts” (which, of
course, are usually offered by the rich and powerful, who are the ones better able to give
them) with neglecting to take into account the merits of those who are in no position to
offer such gifts:
Your princes are rebels and companions of thieves. Every one loves a bribe and runs after
gifts. They do not defend the fatherless, and the widow's cause does not come to them.
Therefore the Lord says, the Lord of hosts, the Mighty One of Israel: "Ah, I will vent my
wrath on my enemies, and avenge myself on my foes” (Is 1:23-24).
The Book of Proverbs also draws a contrast between justice and exacting of gifts, while
linking the latter to the ruin of the land governed by the person who engages in that
practice:
By justice a king gives stability to the land, but one who exacts gifts ruins it (Prv 29:4).
The positive counterpart of the negative injunction not to accept bribes and gifts
connected to the discharge of the steward’s duties is the positive responsibility to try and
preserve his impartiality; in fact bribery and accepting of gifts are to be rejected precisely
because they are incompatible with this impartiality. But, of course, this impartiality can
also be jeopardized by other causes, such as personal prejudice, undue deference to the
rich and powerful, or even pity for the poor:
You shall do no injustice in judgment; you shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the
great, but in righteousness shall you judge your neighbor ( Lv 19:15).
This quotation refers directly to the task of the judge, but as many of the references
provided later make it clear, anyone who has a position of stewardship, whether public or
private, has a duty to try to be impartial.
The partial administrator will perform acts of injustice against his master, if he is a
private steward, or against the community as a whole or some of its members, if he
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occupies a position of public trust. Because of this, the Book of Sirach gives a solemn
warning to those who are not strong enough to avoid the temptation to partiality, lest they
accept an office that they are not qualified to discharge honestly and end up
compromising their consciences with heavy burdens:
Seek not to be made a judge, unless thou have strength enough to extirpate iniquities: lest
thou fear the person of the powerful, and lay a stumbling block for thy integrity (Sir 7: 6).
Saint Ambrose (339-397) also speaks of the duties of the judge—seen as a paradigm of
those who occupy fiduciary positions—and warns against the danger of falling into
partiality or bias through favour for any of the parties; he specifically states that the right
standard is to decide the case on the merits, trying to remain uninfluenced by the
personalities involved, in so far as they are not relevant to the matter under decision:
In giving judgment let us have no respect of persons. Favour must be put out of sight, and
the case be decided on its merits.30
In matters relating to the right behaviour of a man of government, the teachings of Saint
Bernard (1090-1153) have very special interest and authority. He had wide experience of
government and was a frequent adviser of the public men of his time. When one of his
monks was elected pope, he wrote a long treatise to him advising him on how he should
carry out his exalted office.
I think it interesting to mention here the case of our dear Martin, who is so well
remembered. You learned of this, but I do not know whether you will remember it. Being
a cardinal he was sent to Dacia as a legate. When he came back he was so poor that he
was hardly able to reach Florence, because he had neither money nor horses. There the
bishop gave him a horse with which he was able to reach Pisa, where you and me were at
the time. The following day arrived that bishop, who had a court case, and he started to
approach his friends asking for endorsements. He then came up to Martin on whom he
had the greatest hopes. He expected he would not have forgotten the help he had given
him so recently, but Martin replied: “You have disappointed me: I did not know you had
a court case. Take back your horse; it is in the stable.” And he returned it immediately.
What do you say, dear Eugene? Does it not seem an anecdote of times past? A legate
returning from the country of gold without any money, who went through the land of
silver without getting any for himself and who, on top of everything else, rejects
immediately a present because of finding it suspicious. And in connection with this I can
also bring up the example of a man who gives out the sweetest fragrance: Bishop
Gaufredo of Chartres. For a long time he discharged most diligently the duties of legate
in Aquitaine at his own expense. I will tell you something I could witness with my own
eyes. I was accompanying him in these lands when a priest offered him a fish which is
usually called sturgeon. The legate asked what was the price and added: “I will not accept
it if you do not allow me to pay.” And he gave five coins to that man who was most
embarrassed by having to accept them from him. On another occasion, we were in a
certain castle, and the lady, out of devotion to him, wanted to give him a present of a
towel and two or three very trays which were very beautiful, though they were made of
30
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. II, ch. 24.
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wood. He looked at them slowly, praised them, but refused to accept them because of the
delicacy of his conscience.31
It is especially interesting that the standard that Saint Bernard advises is not merely not to
accept bribes (although he singles out for praise somebody who had discharged the office
of legate without thereby enriching himself) but, beyond that, to avoid any gifts that may
place in doubt the decision maker’s independence of mind. It is also to be remarked that
some of the gifts mentioned are of relatively low value: obviously Saint Bernard is
concerned not only with decision-makers keeping in fact their independence of mind, but
also with their being seen to do so.
Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) is well known for the energy and clarity with which
she advised the pope, not at all intimidated by his high office or by her own young age or
lack of formal education or ecclesiastical rank. A point on which she often insists—
because it was a well-known failing of this particular pope—is that he fails in his duties if
he allows his love for his relatives to influence his official decisions.
I think it would be well, if our dear Christ on earth [the Holy Father].. . would set himself free
from two things which cause the misery of the Bride of Christ’ [the Church].. . The first is his
far too tender clinging to his kinsfolk and his far too great care for them.32
The next quotation, from the official catechism of the Council of Trent (1566), makes
clear a point I have already mentioned: the administrator who for reasons of personal
advantage, or to satisfy his own biases or inclinations, makes the wrong decision,
commits an injustice, because he will be denying his just entitlements to somebody else.
Corrupt judges, whose decisions are venal, and who, bought over by money or other
bribes, decide against the just claims of the poor and needy, also commit robbery.33
A direct consequence of this is that a duty of restitution arises. This point is made very
clearly by the Anglican bishop Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667):
He that refuses to do any part of his duty (to which he is otherwise obliged) without a
bribe, is bound to restore that money, because he took it in his neighbour’s wrong, and
not as a salary for his labour, or a reward for his wisdom, (for his stipend hath paid all
that,) or he hath obliged himself to do it by his voluntary undertaking.34
In this quotation Taylor is addressing directly the case of the person who occupies a
position of public trust and uses it to enrich himself by extorting money from members of
the public. As Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) makes clear, the duty of restitution
also arises in respect of a private principal whenever an administrator uses his position to
enrich himself rather than to do his best for the benefit of that principal. He considers the
case of a master who instructs his employee to sell a thing for a given price and the
31
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, V.13.
St. Catherine of Siena, Letter to the Abbot of Marmoutier.
33
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
34
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. III.
32
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employee succeeds in selling that thing at a higher price. He concludes unambiguously
that, as the employee was acting on behalf of his principal, the profit belongs to the latter:
It is asked: whether, from a thing given to you for selling at a designated price, you can
keep for yourself more than you get for it? It is certain that nothing can be kept, if you are
a servant paid by the owner of the thing.35
I referred above with approval to Saint Bernard’s advice to avoid accepting not only
those gifts that are likely to unduly influence a decision maker, but also those which
might lead people to believe that he is being influenced. Of course, there has to be some
limit to this, for if it were to be carried to extremes it would become impossible to receive
the smallest favour from anybody. Francisco de Vitoria (1483-1546) makes clearly the
point, which corresponds to modern best practice, that it is acceptable for an
administrator to accept gifts or favours of so small value that it could not be reasonably
concluded that they are capable of influencing the judgement of the person concerned.
I understand that it is not lawful [for the judge] to receive before the trial anything which
has value, because other things, such as two partridges, neither natural nor divine law
forbid him to receive, for the judge will not change his decision because of them.36
Recently, much attention has been paid to the issue of conflicts of interest, that is to say,
to how people who occupy fiduciary positions should not only be fully loyal to their
charges, but also be proactive in doing so by avoiding as much as possible placing
themselves in positions in which their own private interests conflict with those of the
organizations for which they work.
Situations of conflict of interest arise, for example, when a person has to select among
candidates for hiring, one of whom is personally related to him; when somebody awards
in his corporate capacity a contract to a firm that he himself owns or in which he has a
substantial interest; when an employee is active, in his personal capacity, in a business or
professional activity which falls within the scope of activity of the firm that employs him;
or when the managing director of a firm accepts substantial presents from one of the
suppliers of his firm.
The idea, of course, is that human nature being what it is, it is a much safer policy to
avoid the temptation, rather than relying on one’s presumed strength to resist it. Another
important consideration, already alluded to above, is that by avoiding situations of
conflict of interest one does not give any ground for suspicion, and this in itself is very
important for those in positions of leadership. This issue is alluded to in the Catechism of
the Catholic Church (1994):
Those in authority … should take care that the regulations and measures they adopt are
not a source of temptation by setting personal interest against that of the community.37
35
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. III, Tract. V, Dub. VIII, 825.
Francisco de Vitoria, Commentary to the II-II of St. Thomas, q. 71, a. 4.
37
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2236.
36
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Additional material on the fiduciary principle
And you shall take no bribe, for a bribe blinds the officials, and subverts the cause of
those who are in the right (Ex 23:8).
And I charged your judges at that time, “Hear the cases between your brethren, and
judge righteously between a man and his brother or the alien that is with him. You shall
not be partial in judgment; you shall hear the small and the great alike; you shall not be
afraid of the face of man, for the judgment is God's; and the case that is too hard for you,
you shall bring to me, and I will hear it” (Dt 1:16-17).
For the Lord your God is God of gods and Lord of lords, the great, the mighty, and the
terrible God, who is not partial and takes no bribe (Dt 10:17).
You shall appoint judges and officers in all your towns which the Lord your God gives
you, according to your tribes; and they shall judge the people with righteous judgment.
You shall not pervert justice; you shall not show partiality; and you shall not take a
bribe, for a bribe blinds the eyes of the wise and subverts the cause of the righteous.
Justice, and only justice, you shall follow, that you may live and inherit the land which
the Lord your God gives you (Dt. 16: 18-20).
And now, behold, the king walks before you; and I am old and gray, and behold, my sons
are with you; and I have walked before you from my youth until this day. Here I am;
testify against me before the Lord and before his anointed. Whose ox have I taken? Or
whose ass have I taken? Or whom have I defrauded? Whom have I oppressed? Or from
whose hand have I taken a bribe to blind my eyes with it? Testify against me and I will
restore it to you." They said, "You have not defrauded us or oppressed us or taken
anything from any man's hand" (1 Sam 12:2-4).
Yet his sons did not walk in his ways, but turned aside after gain; they took bribes and
perverted justice (1 Sam 8:3).
Now then, let the fear of the Lord be upon you; take heed what you do, for there is no
perversion of justice with the Lord our God, or partiality, or taking bribes (2 Chr. 19:7).
Machabeus left Simon and Joseph, and Zacheus, and them that were with them in
sufficient number to besiege them, and departed to those expeditions which urged more.
Now they that were with Simon, being led with covetousness, were persuaded for the sake
of money by some that were in the towers: and taking seventy thousand didrachmas, let
some of them escape. But when it was told Machabeus what was done, he assembled the
rulers of the people, and accused those men that they had sold their brethren for money,
having let their adversaries escape. So he put these traitors to death, and forthwith took
the two towers (2 Mac 19:22).
He will surely rebuke you if in secret you show partiality (Jb 13:10).
Fire consumes the tents of bribery (Jb 15:34).
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O Lord, who shall sojourn in thy tent? Who shall dwell on thy holy hill? He who … does
not take a bribe against the innocent. (Ps 15: 1,5).
Sweep me not away with sinners, nor my life with bloodthirsty men, men in whose hands
are evil devices, and whose right hands are full of bribes (Ps 26:9-10).
He who hates bribes will live (Prv 15:27).
A wicked man accepts a bribe from the bosom to pervert the ways of justice (Prv 17:23).
Partiality in judging is not good (Prv 24:23).
He who guards his master will be honored (Prv 27:18).
The Lord is a judge who is not respecter of personages. He shows no respect of
personages to the detriment of a poor man (Sir 35:15-16).
Your princes are rebels and companions of thieves. Every one loves a bribe and runs
after gifts (Is 1:23).
Woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink,
who acquit the guilty for a bribe, and deprive the innocent of his right (Is 5:22-23).
Who among us can dwell with the devouring fire? Who among us can dwell with
everlasting burnings? He who walks righteously and speaks uprightly, who despises the
gain of oppressions, who shakes his hands, lest they hold a bribe (Is 33:14-15).
They have grown fat and sleek. They know no bounds in deeds of wickedness; they judge
not with justice the cause of the fatherless, to make it prosper, and they do not defend the
rights of the needy (Jer 5:28).
To subvert a man in his cause, the Lord does not approve (Lam 3:36).
For I know how many are your transgressions, and how great are your sins--you who
afflict the righteous, who take a bribe, and turn aside the needy in the gate (Am 5:12).
Its heads give judgment for a bribe, its priests teach for hire, its prophets divine for
money; yet they lean upon the Lord and say, "Is not the Lord in the midst of us? No evil
shall come upon us." Therefore because of you Zion shall be plowed as a field; Jerusalem
shall become a heap of ruins, and the mountain of the house a wooded height (Mi 3:1112).
The godly man has perished from the earth, and there is none upright among men; they
all lie in wait for blood, and each hunts his brother with a net. Their hands are upon
what is evil, to do it diligently; the prince and the judge ask for a bribe, and the great
man utters the evil desire of his soul; thus they weave it together (Mi 7:2-3).
Thus says the Lord of hosts, Render true judgments (Zc 7:9).
On that day I will punish every one who leaps over the threshold, and those who fill their
master's house with violence and fraud (Zep 1:9).
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Tax collectors also came to be baptized, and said to [John the Baptist], "Teacher, what
shall we do?" And he said to them, "Collect no more than is appointed you." Soldiers
also asked him, "And we, what shall we do?" And he said to them, "Rob no one by
violence or by false accusation, and be content with your wages" (Lk 3:12-14).
And the Lord said, "Who then is the faithful and wise steward, whom his master will set
over his household, to give them their portion of food at the proper time? Blessed is that
servant whom his master when he comes will find so doing. Truly, I say to you, he will set
him over all his possessions. But if that servant says to himself, 'My master is delayed in
coming,' and begins to beat the menservants and the maidservants, and to eat and drink
and get drunk, the master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him
and at an hour he does not know, and will punish him, and put him with the unfaithful”
(Lk 12:42-46).
In the presence of God and of Christ Jesus and of the elect angels I charge you to keep
these rules without favor, doing nothing from partiality (1 Tm 5:21).
Bid slaves to be submissive to their masters and to give satisfaction in every respect; they
are not to be refractory, nor to pilfer, but to show entire and true fidelity, so that in
everything they may adorn the doctrine of God our Savior (Ti 2:9-10).
For where jealousy and selfish ambition exist, there will be disorder and every vile
practice (Jas 3:16).
So I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of
Christ as well as a partaker in the glory that is to be revealed. Tend the flock of God that
is your charge, not by constraint but willingly, not for shameful gain but eagerly, not as
domineering over those in your charge but being examples to the flock. And when the
chief Shepherd is manifested you will obtain the unfading crown of glory (1 Pt 5:1-4).
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Thou shalt judge righteously.38
The Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – But if [the bishop] himself has not a good
conscience, and is a respecter of persons for the sake of filthy lucre, and receiving of
bribes, and spares the open offender, and permits him to continue in the Church, he
disregards the voice of God and of our Lord, which says, "Thou shalt exactly execute
right judgment."39
The Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – How will [the bishop] be able to reprove another,
either he or his deacons, if by accepting of persons, or receiving of bribes, they have not
all a clear conscience? For when the ruler asks, and the judge receives, judgment is not
brought to perfection… Let the bishop, therefore, with his deacons, dread to bear any
such thing; that is, let him give no occasion for it.40
38
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
The Apostolic Constitutions, II, 9.
40
The Apostolic Constitutions, II,17.
39
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Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – Therefore, my sons, good faith must be preserved in the
case of trust-money, and care, too, must be shown.41
Saint Gregory the Great (pope 590-604) – For often improvident rulers, fearing to lose
human favour, shrink timidly from speaking freely the things that are right; and,
according to the voice of the Truth (Joh. x. 12), serve unto the custody of the flock by no
means with the zeal of shepherds, but in the way of hirelings; since they fly when the wolf
cometh if they hide themselves under silence. For hence it is that the Lord through the
prophet upbraids them, saying, “Dumb dogs, that cannot bark.” (Isai. lvi. 10).42
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) – There is another danger which threatens judges not
infrequently and with great harm. I would not want you ever to be unaware of it. What is
it? Favouritism. Do not believe that it would be a small fault if, at the time to decide a
case, you were to give greater importance to the person of the criminal than to the merits
of the case.43
Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) – Everyone must know that, under penalty of being deprived
of the grace of God, he must not only refrain from harming his neighbour, taking
advantage of him, acting with disloyalty or bad will towards him in trade or in any
business whatever, but beyond this he must protect faithfully his good, and ensure and
further his profit, above all if he receives in exchange money, a salary and maintenance.44
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – Princes in judgment and their delegate judges must judge
the causes of all persons uprightly and impartially, without any personal consideration of
the power of the mighty, or the bribe of the rich, or the needs of the poor.45
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – Servants must look upon their masters
as taking the place of Jesus Christ on earth. Their duty is to serve them joyfully, obey
them with a good grace, without grumbling, and look after their well-being as carefully
as they would their own.46
Protecting and fostering unity in their organizations
The effectiveness of any group depends on its members being effectively united in
pursuing common ends. Also, a group becomes more a true community the more its
members are effectively committed to each other’s interests and to the group’s common
ends. It follows that anything that undermines the unity of a group tends to destroy the
group’s effectiveness and its standing as a community.
From the Bible, it is apparent that God values unity highly and that he tried to foster it
among his people in many different ways. It is instructive, for instance, to see the severity
41
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. II, ch. 29.
St. Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule, part II, ch. IV.
43
St. Bernard, Treatise on Consideration to Pope Eugene, XIV.23.
44
Martin Luther, The Large Catechism, 166.
45
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. III, sect. II.
46
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “Are Your Affairs Going Better?” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1960.
42
332
of his reaction when some acted in ways prejudicial to the unity of the people under
Moses:
And the people became impatient on the way. And the people spoke against God and
against Moses, "Why have you brought us out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? For
there is no food and no water, and we loathe this worthless food." Then the Lord sent
fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people, so that many people of Israel
died (Nm 21:4-6).
Criticism of the leaders of a group undermines unity. Unity also suffers if someone
creates dissension among the group members by engaging in gossip and slander. God
also gave severe warnings against this:
Him who slanders his neighbor secretly, I will destroy (Ps 101:5).
Christ also valued unity very highly and he very much wanted it to be one of the
attributes of his Church. He showed this in a clear way by praying especially for this
unity on the solemn occasion of his Last Supper:
That they may all be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may
be in us, so that the world may believe that thou hast sent me (Jn 17:21).
Obviously the early disciples took this to heart:
Now the company of those who believed were of one heart and soul (Acts 4:32).
This brief description of the early community of disciples in Jerusalem makes reference
to the basis of unity in a human group: unity of aims (“one heart”). In later years we find
that appeals to protect that unity are common in the New Testament literature:
I appeal to you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that all of you agree and
that there be no dissensions among you, but that you be united in the same mind and the
same judgment (1 Cor 1:10).
We find here still other aspects of effective group unity: unity around the same principles
and policies (“same mind and same judgement”) and avoidance of quarrelling and
contentions (“no dissensions”).
Some centuries later the Church had already had wide experience of the common threats
to unity, and of the importance of preserving it. Such an experienced and successful
organizer as Saint Benedict (480-547) stresses the special importance of this issue in his
instructions to the monks who followed his Rule; it is apparent that he fears lack of unity
as one of the most dangerous enemies to life in a Christian community:
333
Above all, let not the evil of murmuring appear in the least word or sign for any reason
whatever. If anyone be found guilty herein, let him be placed under very severe
discipline.47
Saint Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), another founder of religious communities, also
emphasizes the importance of promoting unity. Besides giving the usual admonitions
about quarrels and gossiping, he warns also about the tendency to set oneself up in
judgement over the actions and ideas of others as a fertile source of dissension.
Nor let [the friars] quarrel among themselves nor with others…And let them show from
their works (cf. Js 2:18) the love which they have for each other… let them not murmur,
let them not detract others…let them not judge, let them not condemn.48
John Wesley (1703-1791) also chimes in on unguarded criticism as the most common
threat to unity and adds the valuable warning that ultimately the basis of unity is not a
certain policy or the desire for efficiency, but the charity which should inform all the
actions of a Christian:
He [the Methodist] cannot “speak evil” of his neighbour ... He cannot utter an unkind
word of any one; for love keeps the door of his lips.49
Coming now to more modern times and to the specific concerns of business enterprises,
John XXIII (pope 1958-1963) draws attention to a factor that has been a very frequent
source of conflict in business organizations during the last two hundred years, the
tensions inherent to the relations between management and labour, especially organized
labour. Even in this sphere, though, he still stresses the importance of preserving unity in
the organization and makes the point that this should lead not just to a mere passive lack
of overt attacks against this unity but, more positively, to an active and loyal co-operation
for ends which are common for all the participants in the enterprise:
This demands that the relations between management and employees reflect
understanding, appreciation and good will on both sides. It demands, too, that all parties
co-operate actively and loyally in the common enterprise.50
Still on the issue of relations management-employees, the following passage from a paper
prepared by a committee of the United States Catholic Conference (1997) is instructive.
While the American bishops strongly defend the right of workers to freely decide
whether or not to become unionized, they also stress that even in the event of their
deciding to unionize, this must not lead them in any way to forget the importance of
preserving unity with the management in service to the common end of the organization:
service to the mission for which it was created:
47
St. Benedict, Rule, ch. 34.
St. Francis of Assisi, The Regula non-Bullata, ch. XI.
49
John Wesley, Character of a Methodist.
50
John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, n. 92.
48
334
Whether or not workers decide to organize, management and the union must
accommodate the decisions of the workers. Workers also have the responsibility,
whatever the decision, to continue the mission of the institution in partnership with
management.51
Of course, if workers have this responsibility, much more do managers.
Additional material on fostering and protecting the unity of the
organization
Keep yourselves therefore from murmuring, which profiteth nothing, and refrain
your tongue from detraction (Wis 1:11).
Every kingdom divided against itself is laid waste, and no city or house divided
against itself will stand (Mt 12:25).
They were filled with all manner of wickedness, evil, covetousness, malice. Full of
envy, murder, strife, deceit, malignity, they are gossips, slanderers, haters of God,
insolent, haughty, boastful, inventors of evil, disobedient to parents, foolish,
faithless, heartless, ruthless (Rom 1:29-31).
For you are still of the flesh. For while there is jealousy and strife among you, are
you not of the flesh, and behaving like ordinary men? (1 Cor 3:3).
[We must not] grumble, as some of them did and were destroyed by the Destroyer.
Now these things happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for
our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come (1 Cor 10:10-11).
But in the following instructions I do not commend you, because when you come
together it is not for the better but for the worse. For, in the first place, when you
assemble as a church, I hear that there are divisions among you; and I partly
believe it (1 Cor 11: 17-18).
For God is not a God of confusion but of peace (1 Cor 14:33).
Finally, brethren, farewell. Mend your ways, heed my appeal, agree with one
another, live in peace, and the God of love and peace will be with you (2 Cor
13:11).
Let no evil talk come out of your mouths, but only such as is good for edifying, as
fits the occasion, that it may impart grace to those who hear (Eph 4:29).
Complete my joy by being of the same mind, having the same love, being in full
accord and of one mind (Phil 2:2).
51
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care (1997), VI.
335
For I want you to know how greatly I strive for you, and for those at Laodicea, and
for all who have not seen my face, that their hearts may be encouraged as they are
knit together in love (Col 2:1-2).
Be at peace among yourselves (1 Thes 5:13).
For men will be lovers of self, lovers of money, proud, arrogant, abusive,
disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, inhuman, implacable, slanderers,
profligates, fierce, haters of good (2 Tm 3:2-3).
Remind them … to speak evil of no one, to avoid quarreling, to be gentle, and to
show perfect courtesy toward all men. For we ourselves were once foolish,
disobedient, led astray, slaves to various passions and pleasures, passing our days
in malice and envy, hated by men and hating one another (Ti 3:1-3).
As for a man who is factious, after admonishing him once or twice, have nothing
more to do with him (Ti 3:10).
Strive for peace with all men (Heb 12:14).
So put away all malice and all guile and insincerity and envy and all slander (1 Pt
2:1).
For where jealousy and selfish ambition exist, there will be disorder and every vile
practice. But the wisdom from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, open to
reason, full of mercy and good fruits, without uncertainty or insincerity. And the
harvest of righteousness is sown in peace by those who make peace (Jas 3:16-18).
Do not grumble, brethren, against one another, that you may not be judged;
behold, the Judge is standing at the doors (Jas 5:9).
Do not speak evil against one another, brethren (Jas 4:11).
Saint Cyprian (c. 200-258) – God does not accept the sacrifice of a sower of
disunion, but commands that he depart from the altar so that he may first be
reconciled with his brother. For God can be appeased only by prayers that make
peace. To God, the better offering is peace, brotherly concord and a people made
one in the unity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.52
Saint Benedict (480-547) – But where the poverty of the place will not permit the
aforesaid measure to be had, but much less, or none at all, let those who live there
bless God and murmur not. This we charge above all things, that they live without
murmuring.53
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – But if God is among us, we must sometimes give
up our own opinion for the sake of peace. 54
52
St. Cyprian, On the Lord’s Prayer, 23.
St. Benedict, Rule, 40.
54
Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, bk. I, ch. 9.
53
336
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – This miserable life is but the road to a
blessed life; do not let us fall out by the way one with another; let us go on with the
company of our brethren gently, peacefully, and kindly. Most emphatically I say it,
if possible, fall out with no one, and on no pretext whatever suffer your heart to
admit anger and passion.55
John Wesley (1703-1791) – For [the methodist] is “pure in heart.” The love of God
has purified his heart from all vengeful passions, from envy, malice and wrath,
from every unkind temper or malign affection. It hath cleansed him from pride and
haughtiness of spirit, whereof alone cometh contention.56
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – It is my belief that the sin of
scandalmongering includes all that is most evil and wicked. Yes, my dear brethren,
this sin includes the poison of all the vices – the meanness of vanity, the venom of
jealousy, the bitterness of anger, the malice of hatred, and the flightiness and
irresponsibility so unworthy of a Christian … Is it not, in fact, scandalmongering
which sows almost all discord and disunity, which breaks up friendships and
hinders enemies from reconciling their quarrels, which disturbs the peace of
homes, which turns brother against brother, husband against wife, daughter-in-law
against mother-in-law and son-in-law against father-in-law? How many united
households have been turned upside down by one evil tongue, so that their
members could not bear to see or to speak to one another? And one malicious
tongue, belonging to a neighbour, man o r woman, can be the cause of all this
misery …57
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be
called sons of God” (Matthew 5:9). Christian business leaders will grow in their
ability to become peacemakers who foster unity, cooperation, teamwork, and
reconciliation. During difficult disagreements they try to find solutions in which all
can gain. We do not seek peace at any price, at the expense of justice and
righteousness; rather we seek strategies of reconciliation, and cooperation
whenever possible.58
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – [Christian leaders] try to build organizational
structures that are characterized by openness and trust. They make decisions
through debate and rationality rather than through manipulation, secretiveness,
and political maneuvering.59
United States Catholic Conference, Domestic Policy Committee (1997) – Workers
have the right to a living wage, to health care coverage, to safe and healthful
working conditions, and to dignity and respect on the job. To secure these benefits
for themselves and their families, workers have the right to organize themselves for
55
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III, 8.
John Wesley, Character of a Methodist.
57
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “The Evil Tongues” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars, Henry Regnery
Company, Chicago, 1960.
58
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 137.
59
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 151.
56
337
collective bargaining and to be recognized by management for such purposes.
Management should respect their decision-making process; and if workers decide
to be represented by a union, management should negotiate in good faith toward a
contract with their chosen representatives. Workers also have the responsibility as
decision makers to use care in deciding how to participate, including selecting a
union that they believe can meet their needs if that is their choice.
In whatever choices the workers make, they should seek to ensure that the mission
of Catholic health care remains central to the workplace and is not compromised.
Working with management, their goal should be to build an economically
successful organization devoted to quality service and the advancement of the wellbeing of individuals and society. All workers should cooperate to foster a highperformance workplace: one focused on maximizing quality through efficient,
effective work practices; continuous skill development among staff; and a high
degree of work integration and teamwork.60
Assemblies of God (2001) – The Assemblies of God agrees with the Bible that gossip is
sinful. The Bible clearly and frequently condemns all talebearing and idle talk. "Do not
go about spreading slander among your people" (ev. 19:16). "If anyone considers himself
religious and yet does not keep a tight rein on his tongue, he deceives himself and his
religion is worthless" (Js 1:26). Jesus said "Men will have to give account on the day of
judgement for every careless word they have spoken. For by your words you will be
acquitted, and by your words you will be condemned" (Mt. 12:36,37). In every context,
gossip is related to words, ideas, and behaviors entirely incompatible with Christian,
Spirit-filled living. The horror of gossip turns language or words, our best gift and most
powerful tool, into a cruel weapon. Idle talk mangles truth and exchanges wisdom for
foolishness (Jas 3). Gossip is the opposite of love (1 Cor. 13:6; Gal. 5:14,15). Instead of
helpfulness it brings hurt. Instead of peace it brings anger and strife (Prv. 16:28; 2 Cor.
12:20). Where there should be trust it brings betrayal (Prv. 20:19).61
Diligence
A very basic responsibility of a truly committed member of a human group is to
contribute diligently to the achievement of the group’s ends.
Most people tend to judge more harshly the malicious person who sets out to cause harm
than the irresponsible person who, through his negligence, is the occasion of a similar
harm. However, the differences between the two persons are smaller than commonly
thought.
Compare, for instance, the following two cases:
A wants to rob B and in order to do so kills him.
C is a doctor. D, who has just suffered a serious motor accident, is brought to his hospital.
C, who does not feel too much like working, delays taking care of D and, as a
60
United States Catholic Conference. Domestic Policy Committee, A Fair and Just Workplace: Principles
and Practices for Catholic Health Care, III, A.
61
The General Council of the Assemblies of God (2001) (website).
338
consequence of this delay, D, whose life could easily have been saved if he had been
attended to in time, dies.
It is not so clear that the differences between these two cases are all that significant.
Certainly there is little difference from the point of view of B and D, both of whom end
up dying. The basic attitudes of C and D also share a significant feature: both of them
care little about the value of the life of a fellow human being and place a much higher
value on their own interests.
From the severity with which the Bible refers to lazy and irresponsible people who,
because of their negligence, are the occasion of grave harm, it would seem that it also
views irresponsibility and culpable indifference to one’s responsibilities as a very grave
fault:
But if the watchman sees the sword coming and does not blow the trumpet, so that the
people are not warned, and the sword comes, and takes any one of them; that man is
taken away in his iniquity, but his blood I will require at the watchman's hand (Ezk 33:6).
He who is slack in his work is a brother to him who destroys( Prv 18:9).
In positive terms, the attitude recommended is one of zealous engagement in whatever
task one is involved in.
Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with your might (Eccl 9:10).
In fact, so much importance is attributed to making an effective contribution to the
human family and to being actively engaged in one’s duties, that even those who do their
work within a framework of very basic injustice, as happens to slaves, are also
recommended to do their best in their work rather than adopt an attitude of doing the least
they can get away with:
Slaves, be obedient to those who are your earthly masters, with fear and trembling, in
singleness of heart, as to Christ; not in the way of eye-service, as men-pleasers, but as
servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart (Eph. 6:5-6).
An important reason for this standard appears clearly in the recommendations that the
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) address to the bishops of the Church. If the basic attitude
of a Christian towards all his fellow men has to be one of charity, this attitude will only
be real, rather than mere empty sentimentality and self-deception, if it results in an active
concern for the wellbeing of those neighbours.62 In the case of a bishop, for instance, his
love for the people entrusted to his care will have to result in “affectionate diligence.”
In like manner, let the bishop love the laity as his children, fostering and cherishing them
with affectionate diligence.63
62
As St. John says: “My children, our love is not to be just words or mere talk, but something real and
active.” (1 John 3:18).
63
Apostolic Constitutions, II, 20.
339
It is a very common occurrence that the person who slacks in his work will offer as his
excuse the lack of appreciation he finds in his superiors and the lack of co-operation of
his colleagues. Saint John Chrysostom (344-407), commenting on the Epistle to the
Ephesians, explains how the Christian has to be able to transcend considerations of how
his work will be received by other human beings: his ultimate reason for exerting himself
is that he knows that in working for others he is working for the Lord, and it is from him
that he expects his reward:
For inasmuch as it was probable that many masters, as being unbelievers, would have no
sense of shame, and would make no return to their slaves for their obedience, observe
how he [St. Paul] has given them encouragement, so that they may have no misgiving
about the remuneration, but may have full confidence respecting the recompense. For as
they who receive a benefit, when they make no return, make God a debtor to their
benefactors; so, I say, do masters also, if, when well-treated by thee, they fail to requite
thee, requite thee the more, by rendering God thy debtor.64
Such considerations should lead a Christian to have an approach to his work that will be
very different from that common around him. Ultimately, irrespective of external
conditions, a Christian, who can always see the Lord himself in his colleagues and
customers, whether or not they seem to be appreciating his efforts, should always work
with a diligence and consistency which are above the ups and downs typical of merely
human motivation.
There are many practical implications of this basic attitude, and a contemporary Christian
manager should reflect them in his behaviour, and, in so far as he does, is likely to act in
ways which are systematically different from many of the people who surround him. It is
common among business executives, for instance, to put a greater effort in ensuring the
next promotion than in doing well the job they already have. Saint Thomas More (14771535) already addressed this issue five centuries ago and made clear which he thought
was the right attitude:
They [most princes] are generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong,
than on governing well those they possess.65
It is also important that the typical employee or manager in a business organization has
entered into a contract with his employer in which, in exchange for a salary and other
benefits, he undertakes to work for the benefit of that employer. Because of the existence
of this contract, and of the benefits he is accepting, working diligently is now for the
employee a duty of justice: he will be defrauding his employer of his rights if he fails to
work as diligently as he agreed to. Calvin (1509-1564) makes this point forcibly:
If an agent or an indolent steward wastes the substance of his employer, or does not give
due heed to the management of his property; if he unjustly squanders or luxuriously
wastes the means entrusted to him, he is guilty of theft before God.66
64
65
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Ephesians., 22.
St. Thomas More, Utopia.
340
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787), who had a vast experience as a guide of souls,
refers to three different aspects of lack of due diligence that are as relevant today for
managers and professionals as they were when he wrote of them for the people seeking
his advice. He mentions lack of necessary competence, when a person accepts jobs for
which he has not the due experience and training and which, therefore, he is bound to
perform badly; behind this is a clear disregard for the interests of others and lack of
commitment to do a good job. He also refers to the carelessness that is caused by
accepting more jobs than one is able to give proper attention to; once again, it is obvious
that behind this there is a serious imbalance between one’s interest in getting the income
and reputation that derive from doing the job and the commitment to render a good
service to one’s client. Finally, he also refers to neglect in allowing problems to grow
until they result in serious harm to the interests of one’s client or employer.
The lawyer sins if, lacking the necessary skill, he exercises the office of lawyer and
defends someone.67
The lawyer sins and he is bound to make restitution if he defers or postpones the
expediting of cases with harm for his clients or if he accepts more cases than he can
handle; he is bound to make restitution, also for all damages that his client may suffer due
to his lack of skill, malice or negligence.68
Servants commit a grave sin:
- If they do not work or serve faithfully; they are obliged to pay compensation for the
harm caused
- If they cause, or allow to be caused, a grave harm, when they could have prevented it.69
John Wesley stresses another important aspect of a diligent disposition, and one which
has special relevance for the modern business person: the attitude of constantly seeking to
acquire new knowledge and improve one’s skills, so as to be able to keep improving in
the performance of one’s work:
You should be continually learning, from the experience of others, or from your own
reading, and reflection, to do everything you have to do better today than you did
yesterday. And see that you practise whatever you learn, that you may make the best of
all that is in your hands.70
I would like to close with two more references that emphasize how much this attitude of
diligence and responsibly discharging all of one’s duties belongs to the basic ethos of a
Christian. One is also from John Wesley and the other comes from Billy Graham (1918-),
a very well-known and influential contemporary Christian.
66
Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, bk. 2, ch. 8.
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub III, 226.
68
Ibid.
69
Id. Lib. III, Tract. III, Cap. II, 343.
70
John Wesley, Sermon On the Use of Money.
67
341
A giddy, careless temper is at the farthest remove from the whole religion of Jesus Christ.
Neither does he require us to be “slothful in business,” to be slack and dilatory therein. This,
likewise, is contrary to the whole spirit and genius of his religion. A Christian abhors sloth as
much as drunkenness; and flees from idleness as he does from adultery.71
The Bible teaches that all honest work is honorable, and the Christian should be the most
faithful, the most willing and efficient worker of all. 72
Additional material on diligence
Behold, as the eyes of servants look to the hand of their master, as the eyes of a maid to
the hand of her mistress, so our eyes look to the Lord our God, till he have mercy upon us
(Ps 123:2).
Go to the ant, O sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise (Prv 6:6).
A son who gathers in summer is prudent, but a son who sleeps in harvest brings shame
(Prv 10:5)
A slothful man will not catch his prey, but the diligent man will get precious wealth. (Prv
12:27).
Through sloth the roof sinks in, and through indolence the house leaks (Eccl 10:18).
Your princes … do not defend the fatherless, and the widow's cause does not come to
them. Therefore the Lord says, the Lord of hosts, the Mighty One of Israel: "Ah, I will
vent my wrath on my enemies, and avenge myself on my foes” (Is 1:23-24).
Thus says the Lord God: Ho, shepherds of Israel who have been feeding yourselves!
Should not shepherds feed the sheep? You eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the
wool, you slaughter the fatlings; but you do not feed the sheep. The weak you have not
strengthened, the sick you have not healed, the crippled you have not bound up, the
strayed you have not brought back, the lost you have not sought, and with force and
harshness you have ruled them.
… As I live, says the Lord God, because my sheep have become a prey, and my sheep
have become food for all the wild beasts, since there was no shepherd; and because my
shepherds have not searched for my sheep, but the shepherds have fed themselves, and
have not fed my sheep … Thus says the Lord God, Behold, I am against the shepherds
(Ezk 34: 2-10).
He also who had received the one talent came forward, saying, 'Master, I knew you to be
a hard man, reaping where you did not sow, and gathering where you did not winnow; so
I was afraid, and I went and hid your talent in the ground. Here you have what is yours.'
But his master answered him, 'You wicked and slothful servant! (Mt 25:24-26).
71
72
John Wesley, On the Sermon on the Mount, IX.
Billy Graham, Peace with God, Ch 17.
342
And the Lord said, "Who then is the faithful and wise steward, whom his master will set
over his household, to give them their portion of food at the proper time? Blessed is that
servant whom his master when he comes will find so doing. Truly, I say to you, he will set
him over all his possessions. But if that servant says to himself, 'My master is delayed in
coming,' and begins to beat the menservants and the maidservants, and to eat and drink
and get drunk, the master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him
and at an hour he does not know, and will punish him, and put him with the unfaithful”
(Lk 12:42-46).
Slaves, obey in everything those who are your earthly masters, not with eye service, as
men-pleasers, but in singleness of heart, fearing the Lord. Whatever your task, work
heartily, as serving the Lord and not men (Col 3: 22-23).
And we exhort you, brethren, admonish the idlers (1 Thes. 5:14).
Bid slaves to be submissive to their masters and to give satisfaction in every respect; they
are not to be refractory, nor to pilfer, but to show entire and true fidelity, so that in
everything they may adorn the doctrine of God our Savior (Ti 2:9-10).
Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for
any honest work (Ti 3:1).
Tend the flock of God that is your charge, not by constraint but willingly (1 Pt 5:2).
Saint Ignatius of Antioch (?-107) – [Slaves] must not grow insolent. It should be their
aim to be better slaves, for the glory of God, so that they may obtain from God a better
freedom.73
Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380) – But as to servants, what can we say more than that the
slave bring a good will to his master, with the fear of God, although he be impious and
wicked, but yet not to yield any compliance as to his worship? …And let him that has a
believing master love him both as his master, and as of the same faith, and as a father,
but still with the preservation of his authority as his master.74
Saint Augustine (354-430) – Thou [the Church] teachest servants to cleave to their
masters from delight in their task rather than from the necessity of their position.75
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – “From the heart," saith he [Saint Paul], "with goodwill doing service." For since it is possible to do service even with singleness of heart and
not wrongfully, and yet not with all one's might, but only so far as fulfilling one's
bounden duty, therefore he says, do it with alacrity, not of necessity, upon principle, not
upon constraint. If thus thou do service, thou art no slave; if thou do it upon principle, if
with good-will, if from the heart, and if for Christ's sake. For this is the servitude that
even Paul, the free man, serves, and exclaims, "For we preach not ourselves, but Christ
Jesus, as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus' sake." (2 Cor. iv. 5) Look how
he divests thy slavery of its meanness.”76
73
St. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to Polycarp, 4. 3.
Apostolic Constitutions, IV, 12.
75
St. Augustine, On the Morals of the Catholic Church, ch. 30.
76
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Ephesians, 22.
74
343
Saint Benedict (480-547) – Idleness is the enemy of the soul; and therefore the brethren
ought to be employed in manual labor at certain times, at others, in devout reading.77
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – Nature loves idleness and bodily rest, but grace cannot
be idle, and willingly embraces labor.78
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) –On the other hand, laborers should honestly
perform the work for which they expect payment. If they do less than that for which they
are hired or if they do their work slovenly and carelessly, they are as guilty as if they had
stolen their wages.79
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – They sin against the seventh Commandment
…who are themselves incompetent and yet remain in office.80
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – It is, also, a downright theft, when laborers
and artisans exact full wages from those to whom they have not given just and due
labor.81
Catechism of the Council of Trent (1566) – Persons charged with office of public or
private trust, who altogether neglect, or but indifferently perform their duties, while they
enjoy the salary and emoluments of such offices, are also to be reckoned in the number of
thieves.82
Richard Baxter (1615-1691) – Be wholly taken up in diligent business of your lawful
callings, when you are not exercised in the more immediate service of God.83
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – The lawyer sins if he doesn’t know the laws,
statutes and customs of the country (and if grave harm occurs to the client, he is bound to
make compensation), or if he doesn’t make the effort to understand them.84
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Doctors, pharmacists and surgeons, when they
seek or receive such employment, are under a grave obligation of having sufficient
knowledge or skill .85
John Wesley (1703-1791) – It is the will of God, that every man should labour to eat his
own bread ; yea, and that every man should provide for his own, for them of his own
household. It is likewise his will that we should “owe no man anything, but provide
things honest in the sight of all men.” But this cannot be done without taking some
thought, without having some care upon our minds; yea, often, not without long and
serious thought, not without much and earnest care. Consequently this care, to provide
77
Rule of St. Benedict, 48.
Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ, III, ch. 54.
79
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
80
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 4.
81
Catechism of the Council of Trent, Seventh Commandment.
82
Ibid.
83
Richard Baxter, Christian Directory.
84
St. Alphonsus Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub III, 226.
85
Id., Lib. IV, Cap. III, Dub IX, 291.
78
344
for ourselves and our household, this thought how to render to all their dues, our blessed
Lord does not condemn. Yea, it is good and acceptable in the sight of God our Saviour.86
John Wesley (1703-1791) – If you keep any account, you can easily know this [whether
he has more or less money than some years before]. Indeed, you ought to know;
otherwise you are not a good steward, even in this respect, of the mammon of
unrighteousness. And every man, whether engaged in trade or not, ought to know
whether his substance lessens or increases.87
Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) – Be careful and diligent in all your affairs; God,
Who commits them to you, wills you to give them your best attention.88
Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667) – Let every man that hath a calling be diligent in pursuance
of its employment, so as not lightly or without reasonable occasion to neglect it in any of
those times which are usually, and by the custom of prudent persons and good husbands,
employed in it.89
Saint Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney (1786-1859) – Servants must look upon their masters
as taking the place of Jesus Christ on earth. Their duty is to serve them joyfully, obey
them with a good grace, without grumbling, and look after their well-being as carefully
as they would their own.90
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – The parable of the talents clearly describes our
responsibility for the talents God provides. A master, going on a trip, gave three stewards
money to use until he returned. Two stewards were productive with it and were rewarded.
The third buried his money and wasted the opportunity to earn interest on it. He was cast
out of the kingdom (Matthew 25:14-30). Business organizations should not be equated
with God’s kingdom, but the parable’s truth is transferable. God is keenly interested in
our talents and ideas and does not want them to lie dormant and be wasted.91
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Luke 16 includes a fascinating story of a manager
who did not manage well. The manager sensed that his master was displeased and that he
would soon be fired. So he went to his master’s creditors and reduced their debts. He
wanted to have friends after he lost his job. The master commended the manager not for
his dishonesty; but for his cleverness. Jesus used this story to suggest that Christians
should be just as creative and clever in working for kingdom values as this manager was
in taking care of his own needs.92
Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) – Planning is important for Christians in business
because it helps us achieve justice. Justice does not happen automatically. It cannot exist
apart from very careful planning. Because there are many pressures that drag an
86
John Wesley, On the Sermon on the Mount, IX.
John Wesley, Sermon On the Danger of Increasing Riches.
88
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III, 10.
89
Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, ch. I, Sect. I.
90
St. Jean Baptiste Marie Vianney, “Are Your Affairs Going Better?” in The Sermons of the Curé of Ars,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, 1960.
91
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 87.
92
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 97.
87
345
organization towards unethical conduct, there must be constant effort to keep it on target.
We must work hard to plan to do what is right in products, services, prices, wages,
dividends, and all other areas of business. Thoughtful planning helps us to monitor our
motives and actions at every turn. Justice is not merely wanting to do what is right but
actually doing what is right. A good planning process can help this happen.93
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – The following are also morally illicit: …
work poorly done…94
Listening to advice
Readiness to listen to advice is not often listed among the traits of the good manager in
contemporary management books. The Bible, however, stresses frequently the
importance of that basic attitude:
He who heeds instruction is on the path to life, but he who rejects reproof goes astray
(Prv 10:17).
The way of a fool is right in his own eyes, but a wise man listens to advice (Prv 12:15).
Some reflection is enough to realize why is it that this is a very important attitude for a
man of action. The problems which typically confront such a person are not like
problems of arithmetic that have a single solution which can be found by following a
predetermined procedure or computational routine. On the contrary, the issues facing him
tend to be complex, in the sense that they have many aspects and must satisfy many
different requirements in order to work well. There is nothing less useful than a new sales
strategy that has brilliantly identified a marketing opportunity, takes advantage of the
main strengths of the managers who have to carry it out, is designed to comply fully with
the laws of the country … but unfortunately failed to anticipate that it would create
higher financing requirements, and because of this causes the bankruptcy of the
company! It is precisely in order to try and perceive all the important aspects of a
problem that openness to advice is especially important as, because of our different
backgrounds, temperaments and interests, all of us tend to be more alive to some aspects
of a problem than to others. Also everybody has blind spots, areas of reality that, if they
are not brought very clearly to our attention by others, we tend not to perceive at all. It is
because of this that the Book of Proverbs can conclude:
Without counsel plans go wrong, but with many advisers they succeed (Prv 15:22).
The implied point is that the main reason why it is important to be always open to
receiving advice from others is not to improve our capacity of analysis (for this a single
adviser, provided that he has great expertise, will suffice). Above all, it is to have our
attention directed to aspects of the problem which, left to ourselves, we might not
93
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990, p. 119.
94
Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 2409.
346
perceive at all, or to which we might give less importance than they deserve. It is for this
that a variety of advisers, each one bringing to the problem his own point of view, is
likely to be useful.
The First Epistle of Saint Clement to the Corinthians (95-98), one of the earliest extant
documents of Christian literature outside the New Testament, makes an important point:
Let us receive correction, beloved, on account of which no one should feel displeased.
Those exhortations by which we admonish one another are both good [in themselves] and
highly profitable, for they tend to unite us to the will of God.95
How is it that receiving correction from others will tend to unite us to the will of God?
Basically, because the more we take it to heart the more we are likely to move away from
our own subjective point of view and from the pressures, often unconscious, of our own
temperament, preferences and self-interest. It is precisely the ruler who encloses himself
in his own ivory tower and becomes inaccessible to the advice of others who eventually
ends up losing all contact with reality.
Of course, it should be obvious that the force of all the admonitions quoted is that one
should be ready to listen to advice, and to give to it a serious and impartial consideration,
not necessarily to accept it. The point is clearly made by Saint Benedict (480-547) in the
following quotation:
Whenever weighty matters are to be transacted in the monastery, let the Abbot call
together the whole community, and make known the matter which is to be considered.
Having heard the brethren's views, let him weigh the matter with himself and do what he
thinketh best.96
The reason for this is that if the decision-maker has the responsibility for making the
decision, he will have to make the best decision he can, after taking into account all the
information and advice open to him. If, all things considered, he is convinced that a
certain piece of advice is unsound and he still follows it, the end result would be “I am
making a decision that, all things considered, I think is unsound.” This is hardly a
recommendable strategy for making decisions.
Perhaps this point needs clarification. It may happen that my advisor is vastly more
experienced than me and that he advises me to follow a course of action that, as far as I
can see, makes no sense. However, I still could conclude that, because of my adviser’s
rich experience, his proposal, even if I cannot understand it, is likely to be better than my
own. In such a situation it could be perfectly rational to follow the suggestion of my
adviser, as I still would be following the course of action that, all things considered, I
(who had the responsibility for the decision) considered more likely to be right (which, in
this case, happens to be the one suggested by my adviser). It is simply that the basis for
my conclusion is not my own independent evaluation of the merits of the proposal (which
I recognize is far above my capacity to evaluate), but my evaluation of the expertise of
95
96
The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, ch. 56.
St. Benedict, Rule, ch. 3.
347
my advisor in comparison with my own. The important point, I insist, is that at the end of
the day I (the person who has responsibility for the decision) come to the conclusion that,
all things considered, the proposal of my adviser is more likely to be right.
Granted that asking for advice should never degenerate into an expedient for avoiding
responsibility for the decision by effectively transferring the decision and responsibility
for it to others, if a person were to always, or very frequently, reject the advice of prudent
and experienced people, one would have reason to suspect that something was wrong
with that decision maker. Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) is rather blunt in drawing
conclusions on this point:
Among all that goes to make up knowledge and wisdom in man, the principal wisdom is
that man should not depend solely upon his own opinion ... Those who put all their trust
in their own judgement so that they do not trust others, but only themselves, are always
found to be stupid and are so adjudged by others.97
Saint Thomas Aquinas’ verdict is rather strong, but it will be observed that it is very
much in line with the quotations from the Book of Proverbs to which I made reference at
the beginning of this section and with several others included among the “Additional
material.” As Saint Thomas Aquinas and Proverbs suggest, people who systematically
reject advice are likely to have an unrealistically high opinion of their own qualities. At
bottom the problem with such people is that the pull of pride leads them to a grossly
inaccurate view of their own wisdom and this, fittingly enough, results in stupidity. It is
appropriate, therefore, that the last quotation we will offer here relates the issue to the
spiritual condition of the manager. The final conclusion of all the preceding points, as
expressed by Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990) is that the man who has not succeeded in
becoming humble, is not likely to make consistently wise decisions.
Christian leaders are humble. They have a realistic understanding of their skills and
abilities and understand that these are given to them by God. Such leaders who are “poor
in spirit” are not defensive. They understand their own weakness. Because of that, they
can be open and vulnerable. They accept and welcome constructive counsel from
superiors, colleagues, and subordinates. They realize that they are strengthened by the
teamwork of others… They are open to criticism and learn from it. They recognize their
dependence on God, their superiors, their followers, and their peers.98
Additional material on listening to advice
Let a good man strike or rebuke me in kindness (Ps 141:5).
Do not reprove a scoffer, or he will hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love
you (Prv 9:8).
97
St. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on The Lord’s Prayer (3rd Petition).
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 134.
98
348
By insolence the heedless make strife, but with those who take advice is wisdom
(Prv 13:10).
He who trusts in his –own mind is a fool (Prv 28:26).
Better is a poor and wise youth than an old and foolish king, who will no longer
take advice (Eccl 4:13).
Let every man be quick to hear, slow to speak (Jas 1:19).
Saint Ambrose (c. 339-397) – For to disregard the judgment of good men is a sign
of conceitedness or of weakness. One of these arises from pride, the other from
carelessness.99
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – Thirdly, we should, when necessary, take
counsel with others, but these persons should be few and well selected.100
Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) – Who is so wise as to be able fully to know all
things? Therefore trust not too much in your own opinions; but be willing also to
hear that of others.101
Balance work/life
As I observed before, it is true that man was created to work, but it is an even more
important truth that he was not created only to work. However, there has always been a
temptation, which modern conditions exacerbate, for people who are entrusted with
important responsibilities to get carried away by the pressures of their tasks and neglect
other important aspects of their lives. In the specific case of contemporary managers, this
danger is actualized so often that it can be considered a veritable “occupational disease.”
As the importance of other aspects of the life of man, above all family and religious
responsibilities, has already been emphasized in the section “Time for rest and family” of
Chapter 6, we will not discuss the issue again. The only point I need to make now is that
if a manager has very good reasons to make sure that work conditions are such that
employees are capable of keeping a proper balance between their work duties and other
aspects of their lives, he has even better reasons to make sure that the same is achieved
first of all in respect of his own life.
Obedience
Obedience is not a very popular virtue, or one which is often recommended to managers
in a hurry to make a reputation for themselves. No matter. It is actually strongly
99
St. Ambrose, On the Duties of the Clergy, bk. I, ch. 47.
St. Louis of Granada, Summa of the Christian Life, bk. V, ch. 1.
101
Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, bk. I, ch. 9.
100
349
recommended in the Bible and that ought to count for something in the eyes of a
Christian. As a matter of fact, it is a virtue and an attitude that Our Lord himself not only
preached, but first of all practiced personally. I am not referring here to his obeying the
will of the Father, to which he referred as his “food” (Jn 4:34), but to his obeying
habitually Joseph and Mary.
And he went down with them and came to Nazareth, and was obedient to them (Lk
2:51).
Obviously, the reason why our Lord chose to live a live of obedience towards them
cannot be their superior knowledge or wisdom. What was that reason? We are in deep
theological waters here, but at least part of the explanation must be that he wanted to give
an example to us.
Saint Paul elaborates on our duty to obey the authorities:
Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except
from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore he who resists the
authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgement
(Rom 13:1-2).
Two points are worth noticing here. In the first place, the clear statement that the root of
our duty to obey our superiors is not that we like what they say, or even that we think it is
especially wise. Saint Paul instead points at a ground of obedience that is ultimately
religious in character: the authority of those in positions of responsibility derives from
God and he who resists them resists God. This is a characteristic Christian doctrine and it
has been repeated and elaborated by Christians down the centuries until our own days. I
have discussed this doctrine already in the section “Compliance with the law” of Chapter
8.
The second point is that even though Saint Paul in this passage is referring directly to
political authorities, he does not restrict what he is saying to them only. In fact he uses a
general expression that can cover all types of authorities. At any rate, in other places he
applies the same doctrine to the obedience that slaves and household servants owe their
masters. For instance:
Slaves, obey in everything those who are your earthly masters, not with eyeservice, as
men-pleasers, but in singleness of heart, fearing the Lord. Whatever your task, work
heartily, as serving the Lord and not men (Col 3: 22-23).
What is the meaning of Saint Paul’s statement that “there is no authority except from
God, and those that exist have been instituted by God”? Obviously, it cannot mean that
every single ruler has been appointed directly by God. Saint Paul’s world supplied a
wealth of examples of rulers at all levels who had acquired their positions through means
such as bribery or assassination. Even less could he mean that every ruler must be seen as
a mouthpiece of God, when so many of their orders are clear violations of God’s Law.
Still, in spite of the fact that so many rulers fall obviously short of God’s purposes, he
created us for living in community and wants us to co-operate in many different ways for
350
the building up of different communities and for the attainment of many common
objectives (See the section “Emphasis on community” in Chapter 5). It is precisely
because human beings cannot effectively live in community and work together without
respecting the directives of the constituted authorities in each of those communities, and
further, because this is not just a brute fact, but rather a reflection of the creative wisdom
of God who wants men to live in community, that it can be said that authority derives
from God. This point is well made by Saint John Chrysostom (344-407):
For since equality of power and honor leads many times to fighting, God has established
different degrees and forms of subjection, as that, for instance, of husband and wife, of
son and father, of old and young, of free and slaves, of ruler and ruled, of master and
disciple … Anarchy, wherever it may be, is an evil and a cause of confusion.102
However, as we saw in Chapter 8, it is also a characteristic Christian teaching that there
are limits to the obedience which is due to those who occupy positions of authority. An
example of these limits can be seen in the Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380):
But as to servants, what can we say more than that the slave bring a good will to his
master, with the fear of God, although he be impious and wicked, but yet not to yield any
compliance as to his worship?103
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) speaks in several places of the limits of due
obedience. For instance:
A subject is bound to obey his superior within the sphere of his authority; for instance a
soldier must obey his general in matters relating to war, a servant his master in matters
touching the execution of the duties of his service, a son his father in matters relating to
the conduct of his life and the care of the household; and so forth.104
It should be noted that Saint Thomas Aquinas stresses that a subject is (morally) bound to
obey his superior within the sphere of his authority. There are several ways in which a
superior can place himself outside his sphere of authority and so lose the right to the
obedience of his subjects. Clear cases, to which Christian writers have made frequent
reference, are that nobody has authority to order what is positively unjust, or to abuse
authority for selfish or partisan ends, or to go beyond his sphere of jurisdiction. When an
authority exceeds these limits, it may still be prudent to obey in order to avoid being
punished; or perhaps it may be wise to obey in order not to give a bad example to others
(Christian writers have always stressed that this will only be possible if what one is
ordered to do is not positively sinful), but in such cases authority is no longer “from
God,” and the fundamental religious reason which motivates Christians to obey no longer
exists.
On the other hand, provided that a person in authority exercises power “within the sphere
of his authority” then the Christian tradition states unanimously that in obeying him one
102
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans, XXIII, 1.
Apostolic Constitutions, bk. IV, 12.
104
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 104, a. 5.
103
351
is obeying God, and this obviously has consequences for the spirit in which such
obedience must be given. Thus, for instance, Saint Francis de Sales (1567-1622) teaches:
No one can free himself from the duty of obeying these superiors, God having appointed
them severally to bear rule over us. Therefore do you obey their commands as of right,
but if you would be perfect, follow their counsels, and even their wishes as far as charity
and prudence will allow.105
In other words, because we obey for essentially religious reasons, in obeying we should
not take refuge in reducing our obedience to the clear and unambiguous extent of the
explicit instruction received. The man who sees God in the instructions of his superiors
will, as Saint Francis de Sales says, go beyond explicit instructions to make a point of
being guided by the intent of the person in authority. In other words, he will try and give
wholehearted co-operation rather than limit himself to a minimalist interpretation of his
instructions. After all, this only reflects the standard set by Saint Paul that we saw above,
to obey “heartily, as serving the Lord” (Col 3:22). Chewning, Eby and Roels (1990)
make the same point by emphasizing that the good follower is the person who responds
creatively to the intentions of the leader:
Good followers are people who respond creatively to leadership and who are productive,
creative members of a team.”106
Additional material on obedience
By me kings reign, and rulers decree what is just (Prv 8:15).
Jesus answered [Pilate], "You would have no power over me unless it had been given you
from above (Jn 19:11).
Slaves, be obedient to those who are your earthly masters, with fear and trembling, in
singleness of heart, as to Christ; not in the way of eye-service, as men-pleasers, but as
servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart (Eph. 6:5-6).
Bid slaves to be submissive to their masters and to give satisfaction in every respect; they
are not to be refractory, nor to pilfer, but to show entire and true fidelity, so that in
everything they may adorn the doctrine of God our Savior (Ti 2:9-10).
Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for
any honest work (Ti 3:1).
Servants, be submissive to your masters with all respect (1 Pt 2:18).
105
St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, III.11.
R. C. Chewning, J. W. Eby and S. J. Roels, Business Through the Eyes of Faith, Inter-Varsity Press,
Leicester, 1990 p. 141 (Quoting from Williams Crockett).
106
352
Likewise you that are younger be subject to the elders. Clothe yourselves, all of you, with
humility toward one another, for "God opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble"
(1 Pt 5:5).
Didache (80-90) – But ye, servants, shall be subject unto your masters, as to a type of
God, in shame and fear.107
Letter of Barnabas (96-98) – Thou shalt be subject to the Lord, and to [other] masters as
the image of God, with modesty and fear.108
Saint Basil (329-379) – Bond-servants should obey their masters according to the flesh
with a right good will for the glory of God in whatever does not violate a commandment
of God.109
Saint Gregory the Great (pope 590-604) – Differently to be admonished are subjects and
prelates: the former that subjection crush them not, the latter that superior place elate
them not: the former that they fail not to fulfil what is commanded them, the latter that
they command not more to be fulfilled than is just: the former that they submit humbly,
the latter that they preside temperately.110
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – [Paul] requires that slaves be subjected to their
masters as well as that subjects submit themselves to their rulers. … It is the will of God’s
wisdom that there should be authority, that some govern and others obey… 111
Saint John Chrysostom (344-407) – And this he [St. Paul] is in all cases at pains to show,
that it is not by way of favour that we obey them {the authorities], but by way of debt.112
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – [Kings and princes] also we honour with our
obedience. And we do so not only out of fear but out of love; not only for reasons of
human convenience but because our conscience tells us to act in this way. The reason for
this is based on the fact, as the Apostle says in this passage [Rom 13:1], that all authority
comes from God.113
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) – In human affairs, in virtue of the order of natural
and divine law, inferiors are bound to obey their superiors.114
Martin Luther (1483-1546) – What your master or mistress commands, this God Himself
has commanded you to do. It is not a command of men, even though it is given through
men.115
107
Didache, 4:11.
Letter of Barnabas, ch. 19.
109
St. Basil, Moralia, Rule 75.
110
St. Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule, part III, ch. IV.
111
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans, XXIII, 1.
112
St. John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Letter to the Romans, XXIII, 1.
113
St. Thomas Aquinas, On the Two Commandments of Love and the Ten Commandments of the Law, IV
114
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 104, a. 1.
115
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works: The Catholic Epistles, J. Pelikan, ed., St. Louis: Concordia, 1967, p. 82.
108
353
Saint Louis of Granada (1505-1588) – One should obey his superior with the same
promptness that he would manifest if God Himself were issuing the command, for when
we obey our lawful superiors we are obeying God.116
John Calvin (1509-1564) – We ought to have no doubt that the Lord here lays down this
universal rule--viz. that knowing how every individual is set over us by his appointment,
we should pay him reverence, gratitude, obedience, and every duty in our power. And it
makes no difference whether those on whom the honour is conferred are deserving or
not.117
Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787) – Servants commit a grave sin – if they fail to obey
their master in important matters.118
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – On the other hand, [the Bible] is always insisting on
obedience (and outward marks of respect) from all of us to properly appointed
magistrates, from children to parents, and (I am afraid this is going to be very unpopular) from wives to husbands.119
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) – Authority exercised with humility and obedience accepted with
delight are the very lines along which our spirits live.120
Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) – Those subject to authority should regard
those in authority as representatives of God, who has made them stewards of his
gifts:[Cf. Rom 13:1-2 .] 'Be subject for the Lord's sake to every human institution.... Live
as free men, yet without using your freedom as a pretext for evil; but live as servants of
God.'[1 Pet 2:13, 16.] Their loyal collaboration includes the r