EXTENDED ABSTRACTS - International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 -
INDEX
PRESENTATION
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
CONFERENCES
6
POSTERS
85
WORKSHOPS AND DEMONSTRATIONS
105
SPEAKERS
115
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
124
© 2014 Instituto Gemológico Español
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Dear friends,
Welcome to the International Gemological Congress IGE 2014, the 16th Symposium of the FEEG and the
Awards of the IV Contest of jewelry and gemstone design Antonio Negueruela.
During these three days, Madrid is going to be the meeting place for gemologists and professionals from 12
schools and laboratories from 16 different countries, together with FEEG (Federation for European
Education in Gemology), to address the latest and more innovative topics of the world of gemology.
Throughout the congress you will be able to attend and enjoy more than 20 conferences and as many
workshops related to gemology and its world. Besides, you can get in touch with the leading personalities
of the sector in Europe.
In parallel, we have developed a cultural and entertainment program for all participants and accompanying
persons around this beautiful and historic city of Madrid focused on the gemological world.
I hope you will enjoy it and it will of great interest for you. Do not hesitate to consult any needs you have
along these days with me personally, or with any member of the Spanish Gemological Institute, we will be
happy to help and make your stay in Madrid very pleasant.
See you at the congress!
Sincerely,
Jesus Yanes
President
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
The Federation of European Education in Gemology (FEEG) is an association of the leading European
gemological institutes. Its first objective is to encourage the gemological academic training in Europe
through the experience exchange between the European gemological schools and the introduction of the
standard European Gemologist qualification. The FEEG was founded in 1995, and the Spanish Gemological
Institute (IGE) was one of its founding organizations.
The Diploma ceremony for European Gemologist qualifications is celebrated every year in one of the
schools which are part of the Federation, during the annual Symposium and of FEEG. This year the
Symposium is held in Madrid, between January 17th and 19th, together with the International Gemological
Congress organized by the IGE.
It is a pleasure for us to invite a 2013 FEEG graduates, as well as gemology and jewelry professionals, to this
event. It will be a perfect opportunity to attend interesting lectures and workshops, establish contacts with
colleagues and companies from other countries and enjoy the cultural program of the event.
Dr. Egor Gavrilenko
FEEG Vice-chairman
Director of Education of the Instituto Gemológico Español
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COFERENCES FRIDAY, JANUARY 17th 2014
09:40 –
10:20
10:20 –
11:00
Page:
GLASS-FILLED CORUNDUM
K. Schollenbruch. (Germany)
6
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE COLORIMETER
(SARIN’S COLIBRI) IN COLOR GRADING OF POLISHED DIAMONDS CIRCULATING IN
THE JEWELRY TRADING.
Juan S. Cózar and Anthony Cáceres (Madrid. Spain)
11:50 –
12:30
THE QUESTION OF GEM TRACKING: SEARCHING THE GEM ORIGIN AND
PROVENANCE
M. A. Pellicer García and Mª C. Osácar Soriano (Zaragoza, Spain)
12:30 –
13:10
BLUE PECTOLITE “LARIMAR” OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: STUDY OF FIBERS AND
COLORS
J. A. Espí (Madrid, Spain)
13:10 –
13:50
CONFLICT DIAMONDS AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE
M.P. Diago Diago (Zaragoza, Spain)
15:50 –
16:30
BEAUTY or THE BEAST – CUTTING CORNERS CUTTING GEMSTONES
G.Dominy (Canada)
16:30 –
17:10
ANALYSIS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND IMPURITY CENTERS IN STRUCTURE OF
DIAMONDS FROM ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF THE NORTH EAST OF THE SIBERIAN
PLATFORM BY IR SPECTROSCOPY, EPR and PL
I.V. Klepikov and Y.V. Nefedov (Russia)
17:40 –
18:20
DOMINICAN AMBER: ORIGINS, COLOR AND TEXTURES
José A. Espí (Madrid, Spain)
18:20 –
19:00
FEATURES OF THE SCULPTED SURFACES FACETS OF DIAMOND CRYSTALS OF
DIFFERENT MORPHOLOGY FROM ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF THE NORTHEAST OF
SIBERIAN PLATFORM
N.V. Erysheva (Russia)
COFERENCES SATURDAY, JANUARY 18th 2014
10
17
21
26
29
31
38
43
Page:
10:00 –
10:40
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS INTO DIGITAL COLOR ANALYSIS AND COMMUNICATION
OF COLOR IN GEMS
M. Sevdermish (Israel)
10:40 –
11:20
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS IN GEMMOLOGY: WHAT, WHEN, HOW?
H. Calvo del Castillo (Belgium)
11:50 –
12:30
LUMINESCENT TECHNOLOGIES APPLICATION (PL & DIAMONDVIEW) IN THE
CHARACTERIZATION OF TREATED, SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL DIAMONDS
J. S. Cózar, A. Andrada and V. García (Madrid, Spain)
3
47
54
55
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
12:30 –
13:10
THE HANDBOOK OF GEMMOLOGY
G. Dominy (Canada)
64
13:10 –
13:50
THE SYMBOLISM OF GEMSTONE CUTTING
V. Tuzlukov (Russia)
69
15:30 –
16:15
SCIENTIFIC GRADE RAMAN & PHOTOLUMINESCENCE SPECTROMETER IN
GEMOLOGICAL LABORATORY
M. Åström and A. Scarani (Finland and Italy)
72
16:15 –
17:00
GEMOLOGICAL TRAINING: VIRTUAL LABORATORY
G. Moreno Díaz-Calderón (Madrid, Spain)
POSTERS
79
Page:
FTIR & RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY APPLICATION IN THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL-PHYSICS
PROCESSES IN THE FORMATION OF FOSSILS RESINS AND THEIR
CHARACTERIZATION. COMMUNIC ACID.
Oscar R. Montoro, Juan S. Cózar, Mercedes Taravillo, Valentín G. Baonza, (Madrid,
Spain)
GEMOLOGY AND LAW: AN EXAMPLE OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND
INTERDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION
Mª Pilar Diago Diago1 and Mª Cinta Osácar Soriano (Zaragoza, Spain)
TYPOMORPHIC FEATURES OF DIAMONDS FROM ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF THE
NORTHEASTERN SIBERIAN PLATFORM
Anastasenko G.F., Bataeva A.A., Klepikov I.V., Zenchenko E.O.
COLLECTION OF DIAMONDS IN THE MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM OF SAINT
PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY.
G.V.Barjudarova, S.Y.Yanson and G.F.Anastasenko
WORKSHOPS AND DEMONSTRATIONS
85
91
95
100
Page:
SCIENTIFIC GRADE RAMAN & PHOTOLUMINESCENCE SPECTROMETER IN
GEMOLOGICAL LABORATORY
Mikko Angstrom and Alberto Scarany, M&A Gemological Instruments,
GemmoRaman.com
105
GEMRAM™, RAMAN GEMSTONE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Ignacio Sánchez-Ferrer Robles, Microbeam S.A.
106
DIGITAL GRADING AND PRICING OF GEMS AND FANCY COLORED DIAMONDS WITH
GEMEWIZARD SYSTEM
Menahem Sevdermish, FGA D. Litt., Gemewizard.com, Ramat Gan, Israel
4
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DETECTION OF SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS USING DIAMONDVIEW EQUIPMENT
Juan Cózar and Anthony Cáceres, Laboratorio de Análisis y Certificación de Gemas,
IGE&Minas.
INCLUSIONS PHOTOMICROGRAPHY USING MACRORAIL SETUP AND STACKING OF
IMAGES
Óscar Fernández Arcís, MacroRail.com
DEVICES FOR THE DIGITAL ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF DIAMOND CUTTING:
OGI SCANOX PLANNER HD
Juan Cózar and Anthony Cáceres, Laboratorio de Análisis y Certificación de Gemas,
IGE&Minas.
AUTOMATED 3D/360º PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO GEMS AND JEWELRY
Óscar Fernández Arcís, MacroRail.com
ADVANCED METHODS FOR THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF NEW GEMS CUTS:
GEMCAD, GEMRAY, DIAMCALC
Egor Gavrilenko, IGE&Minas
ANALYSIS OF JEWELRY AND PRECIOUS METALS THROUGH THE TECHNIQUE OF
X-RAY FLUORESCENCE
Joan Pujol, Fischer Instruments S.A.
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110
112
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GLASS-FILLED CORUNDUM
Dr. Klaus Schollenbruch
Deutsche Gemmologische Gesellschaft e.V., Idar Oberstein, Germany
ABSTRACT: Glass fillings in corundum are known since over 30 years. In the beginning, this treatment was
focused on larger cavities at the surface of the stones. This changed in 2004, when the first lead-glass filled
rubies from East Africa appeared in the trade. In only a few years this material flooded the market. In most
cases the identification of the lead-glass treatment is not very complicated. Dark bubbles and the blue or
orange flash-effect are unambiguous signs for lead glass treated rubies. More recently also other corundum
varieties have been observed, among those cobalt-bearing lead glass treated sapphires. The identification is
similar to the lead glass filled rubies. In Addition to flash-effect and bubble-like inclusions, colour
concentrations on fractures can be seen, indicating the use of coloured glass. Apart from this latest
development the market is concerned about the terminology and the stability of the lead glass. The latter
refers to ultrasonic bath, heat and different chemicals used during cleaning and jewelry processes.
Experiments show that the different methods and chemicals may have a dramatic effect on the stability of
the lead glass.
CORINDÓN CON RELLENOS VÍTREOS
RESUMEN: Los rellenos vítreos en corindones se conocen desde hace más de 30 años. Al principio, este
tratamiento estaba enfocado en las cavidades grandes en la superficie de las piedras. A partir del año 2004
aparecen en el mercado los primeros rubíes con relleno de vidrio de plomo, procedentes de África Oriental.
En pocos años este material inunda el mercado. En la mayoría de los casos la identificación del tratamiento
con vidrio de plomo no es complicado. Burbujas oscuras y el efecto flash azul o naranja son signos
inequívocos de este tratamiento en rubíes. Más recientemente, fueron detectadas otras variedades del
corindón con este tratamiento, entre ellas los zafiros tratados con vidrio de plomo coloreado por cobalto. La
identificación es similar a los rubíes con vidrio de plomo. Adicionalmente a las burbujas y efecto flash, se
observa la concentración de color azul en las fracturas, indicando el uso de vidrio coloreado. Además de
estos desarrollos modernos, el mercado tiene preocupación por la correcta nomenclatura y la estabilidad de
este tratamiento, respecto a su resistencia al lavado con ultrasonidos, calor y el uso de diferentes reactivos
químicos utilizados para la limpieza en procesos de joyería. Los experimentos demuestran que diferentes
agentes químicos pueden tener un efecto dramático sobre la estabilidad del vidrio de plomo.
As one of the most expensive gemstones corundum is subjected to various kinds of treatments to improve
colour and transparency. Apart from heat-treatment, diffusion treatment, dying and some other enhanced
methods, fracture fillings with glass are adapted to corundum and have become more and more important
during the last three decades. Ruby was the first variety and is still today the most important variety
subjected to this treatment. Due to their great rareness a lot of lower qualities are improved in their
appearance. During the formation of a mineral, which may take millions of years, movements in the
surrounding rocks (e.g. earthquakes) may lead to fractures. If the fractures do not heal during the growth of
the mineral they may reduce the stability and the transparency of a gemstone and if numerous enough,
they may also reduce the intensity of the colour. Several techniques are available to close these cracks
physically and optically. One method involves the presence of an artificial flux melt (often containing borax)
which causes a reduction of the melting temperature of corundum and an artificial healing of the cracks
(e.g. EMMETT, 1999; HÄNNI, 2001). The artificially healed cracks have a similar stability and transparency as
naturally healed cracks, but can be identified by the different appearance of the glassy melt residues
Up to the 80s small cavities especially on the pavilion of rubies and sapphires were accepted to find a
compromise between size and perfect cut of these most valuable gemstones. In the beginning of the 80s
the first Si-glass-filled corundum appeared on the market. The fillings involve fractures and cavities on the
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
surface and influence both the face-up appearance and weight of the faceted stone. The treatment aims
only at surface-near defects and does not penetrate deep into the gemstone. The glass can be detected
under reflected light by the different luster of corundum and glass (Fig. 1). Also the difference in hardness is
visible by deeper polishing lines in the glass. Additionally, the glass often contains bubbles and sometimes a
recrystallization can be detected (HÄNNI, 1986). The refractive index of the Si-based glasses has been
determined to about 1.51 – 1.52 which is significantly lower than the refractive index of corundum.
Therefore these glass fillings are not very effective to close the fractures optically and are generally easy to
detect.
This changed in 2004, when the first rubies appeared on the market, filled with a high refractive glass. The
process was adopted from a technique, invented in 1982 to fill fractures in diamonds (KOIVULA, 1989).
Different glasses are used containing variable amounts of silica, lead, sodium, potassium, calcium and
metallic oxides. But they all have in common that their refractive index is close to the refractive index of
corundum. Most of the used glass is colourless to yellow, but also pink glass, coloured by copper, is existing
(PARDIEU, 2005). At temperatures between 900 °C and 1200 °C the lead glass penetrates deep into the
fractures and makes them nearly invisible for the human eye. This treatment is not mainly aiming at
“healing” surface damages like the glass fillings of the 80s and 90s, but on an overall clarity and colour
improvement. This improvement is so effective that material which had not even cabochon quality before
can now be facetted. Large amounts of material, mainly from East Africa (MILISENDA et al. 2005), and low
treatment costs let the carat prizes of the lead glass treated rubies fall down to a level comparable to
synthetic rubies. According to demands of cheap and “natural” rubies, the treated material flooded the
market in only a few years. As the quality of the starting material became lower and the percentage of lead
glass in a stone became larger, reaching more than 50 % in some cases, a discussion arose about the
terminology of this heavily treated corundum. Some laboratories use the term composite stone, as some of
the lead glass treated rubies are made of pieces of ruby, held together by lead-glass.
Fig. 1: Si-glass filled cavity with gas bubble. The glass is easily to detect by the different luster of glass and
corundum.
In most cases the identification of the lead-glass treatment is not very complicated. Dark bubbles and the
blue or orange flash-effect are unambiguous signs for lead glass treated rubies (Fig. 2). In rubies with larger
amounts of lead glass the flash effect is more difficult to detect, but the stone has a general swirly bluish
appearance. In reflecting light filled fractures and cavities can be identified by a slightly different luster of
glass and corundum. On larger surface-reaching fillings the low hardness of the lead glass becomes visible
by differences in the quality of the polish. Being impenetrable for X-rays the amount of lead glass can be
estimated by radiography.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 2: Lead glass filled ruby. The lead glass itself is not visible, but the presence of lead glass can be
determined by dark bubbles and a bluish flash effect.
Some cases of heavily damaged lead glass in rubies arose the question about the stability of the lead glass
(Fig. 3). Therefore several experiments with different cleaning agents and methods have been conducted.
Although locally strong forces and temperatures appear during ultrasonic cleaning, this method seems not
to alter the glass. Also alkaline detergents like drain cleaner do not harm the lead glass within one hour.
However, the lead glass reacts very sensitive on acid liquids. Within several minutes the lead glass partly
dissolves even in weak acids like citric acid or vinegar essence. Before the lead glass completely dissolves it
becomes white and therefore easily visible to the naked eye. Reported experiments on the stability of lead
glass treated rubies show a melting of the lead glass starting between 600 °C and 700 °C (MCCLURE 2006).
Fig. 3: After the treatment with an acid solution the lead glass partly dissolves and its surface becomes
white.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 4: Lead glass filled sapphire appeared on the market in 2007. The detection of the Co-bearing lead glass
by dark bubbles and flash effect (pink) is similar as for the lead glass filled rubies. Additionally, blue colour
concentrations may be seen, due to the blue colour of the glass.
In 2007 the first lead glass filled sapphires were observed on the market. They are in many cases similar to
the lead glass filled rubies. They also contain dark bubble and show a flash effect. Additionally these stones
display colour concentrations along filled fractures, indicating the use of a dyed glass (Fig. 4). Chemical
analysis show significant amounts of lead and cobalt. Cobalt is frequently used as a blue dye and it is
assumed that it is also responsible for the blue colour of the glass. The lead glass filled sapphires are a
relatively new product and it is still uncertain how this material will influence the market in future.
References:
Emmett, J.L. (1999): Fluxes and the heat treatment of ruby and sapphire. Gems & Gemology 35. 3. 90 - 92.
HÄNNI, H.A. (1986): Behandelte Korunde mit glasartigen Füllungen. - Zt. Dt. Gemmol. Ges. 35. 3/4. 87-96.
HÄNNI, H.A. (2001): Beobachtungen an hitzebehandelten Rubinen mit künstlicher Rissheilung. - Zt. Dt.
Gemmol. Ges. 50. 3. 123-136.
KOIVULA, J.I., KAMMERLING, R.C., FRITSCH, E., FRYER, C., HARGETT, D. and KANE, R.E. (1989): The
characteristics and identification of filled diamonds. Gems & Gemology 25. 2. 68-83.
MCCLURE, S.F., SMITH, C.P.S., WANG, W. and HALL, M. (2006): Identification and durability of lead glassfilled rubies. – Gems & Gemology 42. 1. 22-34.
MILISENDA, C.C., HORIKAWA, Y. and HENN, U. (2005): Rubine mit bleihaltigen Gläsern gefüllt. - Zt. Dt.
Gemmol. Ges. 54. 1. 35-41.
PARDIEU, V. (2005): Lead glass filled/repaired rubies. – AIGS, Bangkog.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE COLORIMETER (SARIN’S COLIBRI) IN
COLOR GRADING OF POLISHED DIAMONDS CIRCULATING IN THE JEWELRY TRADING.
Juan S. Cózar, Anthony Cáceres
Instituto Gemológico Español. Laboratorio de Investigación y Certificación de IGE&Minas juancozar@ige.org
ABSTRACT: The use of “colorimeters”, from many diamond trading professionals and some gemological
laboratories for color grading, often brings disappointments compared with the report result received from
laboratories using the color grading method by comparison with diamond color grading master set that, in
the end, is currently the only accepted by international regulators.
The Spanish Gemological Institute (IGE) acquired the past year a Sarin Colibri Colorimeter. One objective of
this acquisition is research its behavior in a broad overview of diamonds moving in the current trade, taking
into account fundamentally parameters, such as; carat, shape and cut, secondary colors and fluorescence, in
comparison with the results obtained in the IGE Gemological Laboratory with diamond color grading master
set. The conclusions in relation with reliability and limitations are shown.
EVALUACIÓN Y DISCUSIÓN DE LOS RESULTADOS OBTENIDOS CON EL COLORÍMETRO (COLIBRÍ DE SARIN)
EN LA GRADUACIÓN DEL COLOR DE DIAMANTES TALLADOS DE CIRCULACIÓN EN EL COMERCIO DE
JOYERÍA
RESUMEN: La utilización de los “colorímetros”, por muchos profesionales del comercio de diamantes y
algunos laboratorios gemológicos para la graduación del color, implica la decepción en muchas ocasiones al
recibir el certificado de un laboratorio que utiliza el método de comparación con una escala patrón de
diamantes que, al fin y al cabo, es el único aceptado actualmente por los organismos reguladores
internacionales.
En el pasado año el IGE adquirió un colorímetro (Colibrí) de la empresa Sarin. Uno de los objetivos de esta
adquisición es investigar su comportamiento ante un amplio panorama de los diamantes que se mueven en
el comercio actual, teniendo en cuenta distintos parámetros como son: peso, forma y talla, colores
secundarios y fluorescencia, fundamentalmente, en contraste con los resultados obtenidos con la escala
patrón del laboratorio de certificación del IGE. Se muestran las conclusiones en relación con su fiabilidad y
limitaciones.
INTRODUCCIÓN
La colorimetría se basa en la detección y cuantificación de los fotones de luz visible, de un rango
determinado de longitudes de onda, que provienen de una fuente, en este caso de un diamante.
La utilización de muestras estándar, probetas de las mismas dimensiones, forma transparencia y rangos de
longitudes de onda del color, permite cuantificaciones muy precisas. Sin embargo las gemas no guardan
ninguna de las características de las muestras estándar, por lo que se puede esperar que las medidas estén
sometidas a errores más o menos graves debido a diferentes causas.
Los colorímetros para graduar el color en los diamantes de la serie incolora están calibrados para las
medidas en muestras de la serie Cape, con formas, tallas y tamaños similares a los de una escala patrón de
diamantes. Por lo tanto es lógico que las medidas en muestras que se alejen de esas condiciones
“estándar” sean erróneas.
Recientemente el IGE ha adquirido un colorímetro de la casa SARIN modelo COLIBRI con el principal
objetivo de hacer un seguimiento de su comportamiento ante muestras reales de las que circulan
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
diariamente por el comercio, contrastando sus resultados con los obtenidos por comparación con la escala
patrón utilizada para la graduación de diamantes en el laboratorio de IGE&Minas.
El protocolo que se ha establecido para ello es medir todos los diamantes incoloros que pasan por el
laboratorio, comparar los resultados con los obtenidos con la escala patrón para la certificación y asociar
estadísticamente los errores registrados con los siguientes parámetros: peso, forma y talla, fluorescencia y
presencia de colores secundarios.
Hay que tener en cuenta que los resultados mostrados en esta ponencia se basan en una población
estadística relativamente pequeña (269), por lo que hay que considerarlo de momento como una primera
aproximación que a pesar de todo no deja de revelar datos importantes.
Por otra parte se abre la puerta a un proyecto a más largo plazo en el que se invita a participar a otros
laboratorios de certificación que trabajen con escala patrón de diamantes contrastada con CIBJO y que
dispongan de un colorímetro de las mismas características. De este modo se podría disponer, en un tiempo
relativamente corto, de una población estadística suficientemente importante para confirmar los
resultados de esta primera etapa.
METODOLOGÍA
El primer paso ha sido contrastar las medidas del colorímetro con los grados de la escala patrón del IGE.
Esta colección está compuesta por nueve diamantes de talla redonda brillante de pesos comprendidos
entre 0,75 y 0,90 ct, fluorescencia nula y todas las características que debe reunir una escala patrón CIBJO
(Fig 1). Se ha registrado una coincidencia total del 80%. En el 20% restante se ha apreciado errores de un
grado o menor. Esto confirma que el aparato está calibrado para este tipo de diamantes.
Fig. 1.
RELACIÓN ESCALA PATRÓN IGE Y GRADUACIÓN DEL COLORÍMETRO
Escala IGE
Peso(ct)
Grado Colibrí
Cuantificación
D
0,82
D
1,50
E
0,72
E-
2,70
F
0,85
F
3,57
G
0,79
G+
4,27
H
0,82
G-
4,60
I
0,94
I
6,35
J
0,77
I-
6,60
L
0,87
L+
9,27
N
0,92
N-O
11,98
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Las medidas realizadas posteriormente en los diamantes certificados en este laboratorio siguiendo el
protocolo indicado anteriormente y con el equipamiento mencionado ha aportado los siguientes
RESULTADOS
En las piedras talladas en brillante redonda, derivadas y fantasía excepto las talladas en esmeralda y
teniendo en cuenta el tamaño, el rango de 0 a 0,99 ct ofrece el mayor número de coincidencias (51%) o
diferencias de un grado (32%). El resto muestra diferencias entre dos y tres grados.
En el rango de 1,00 a 4,99 ct las coincidencias se reducen entre el 0 y el 24%, sin embargo las diferencias
entre uno y dos grados oscilan entre el 71% y el 100%.
En el rango de 5,00 a 9,99 ct se aprecian coincidencias del 11% y diferencias entre uno y dos grados del 78%
e incluso algún caso aislado entre tres y cuatro grados (Figs. 2 y 3).
Hay que tener en cuenta que en este comportamiento no influye solo el peso y la talla sino también el tipo
de diamante (no Cape) y, aisladamente, la posible fluorescencia y colores secundarios, aunque sobre la
posible influencia de estos últimos no se pueden sacar conclusiones definitivas hasta que se disponga de
mayor número de análisis (Figs. 6 a 12)
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
En cuanto a las tallas esmeralda, a pesar de los pocos datos obtenidos hasta la fecha permiten observar una
tendencia que indica frente a un 7% de coincidencias y un 21% de diferencias de un grado existe un 71% de
diferencias entre dos y tres grados (Figs. 4 y 5)
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
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Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Por último conviene tener en cuenta que como se puede observar en los resultados obtenidos casi todas las
diferencias detectadas se manifiestan mejorando el grado de color de los diamantes.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
THE QUESTION OF GEM TRACKING: SEARCHING THE GEM ORIGIN AND PROVENANCE
Miguel Ángel Pellicer García1 and Mª Cinta Osácar Soriano2
1: Asociación Gemológica de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza. Avda. Valencia, 51, 50005- Zaragoza,
España. mipelgar@gmail.com
2: Dpto. de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Zaragoza. C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009-Zaragoza, España.
cinta@unizar.es
ABSTRACT: Recently, several important gems have gone into the market through auctions; in these pieces
their provenance and history have been relevant in their appraisal, thus, raising the question of determining
the provenance of these gems. Eventually, this information could be incorporated to the certificate,
provided is scientifically based. The techniques that can help in this search are the same used to find out the
sources of gems of the historical heritage: PIXE-PIGE, spectroscopy (UV-Visible, infrared, Raman) have
yielded good results when applied to emeralds and garnets. The main problem is the availability of a
database of these techniques applied to gems of known origin. The desideratum would probably be the
characterization of the gems in their source deposits in a reproducible way. Diamonds are a special problem,
due to the peculiarity of their geological origin.
EL PROBLEMA DE LA TRAZABILIDAD DE LAS GEMAS: DETERMINACIÓN DE SU ORIGEN Y PROCEDENCIA
RESUMEN: La entrada en los circuitos comerciales de numerosas gemas importantes, y la importancia que
se concede en su valoración a su historia, plantean el problema de la determinación de la procedencia de
estas gemas. Esta información podría pasar a formar parte de la certificación, si está avalada
científicamente. Las técnicas que pueden aportar información en este sentido son las mismas que se utilizan
para determinar el origen de las gemas del patrimonio histórico: las técnicas PIXE-PIGE y espectrométricas
(UV-visible-infrarrojo, Raman) han dado buenos resultados sobre esmeraldas y granates. El principal
problema es disponer de una base de datos de este tipo de técnicas aplicadas a gemas de procedencia
conocida. Por ello se considera que la situación óptima sería que los propios yacimientos ofrecieran una
caracterización de sus gemas que pudiera ser reproducible. Los diamantes constituyen un problema
especial, difícil de abordar por su peculiar origen geológico
Introduction
Recently, several important gems have gone into the market through auctions; in these pieces their history
and, moreover, their alleged geographical provenance, have been considered relevant. These facts have
raised the question of determining the provenance of gems whose history is not well known. Some
laboratories already offer a certificate for geographic provenance “if possible” for certain gems1.
Provenance certification is interesting enough to be included in laboratories certification services in spite of
the difficulty to establish accurately the origin of a gem, for which the laboratory add the “if possible”
expression.
Technical problems to establish the gem provenance
This problem is similar to the determination of a gem origin –natural or synthetic-, which is, in fact, the
starting point to establish a gem provenance. The procedure requires to determine the gem physical
properties, to study its internal features and, if necessary, to carry out analysis to confirm the previous
results. The classic gemologist tools (refractometer, spectroscope and microscope) needs complementary
techniques to precise some identification aspects, its geographic origin, especially. The most often used
techniques are:
GIA: “Identification and origin report”, for ruby, sapphire, emerald or tourmaline
http://www.gia.edu/analysis-grading-sample-colored-stone-report
1
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts

Spectrometry: absorption of a range of electromagnetic radiations (wave length / energy); most
often spectra are UV-VIS, infrared and Raman. Non destructive technique.
 PIXE-PIGE: non-destructive compositional analysis (detection limit 1ppm, Mg, Al. Si); it does not
alter the sample
 EDXRF: non-destructive compositional analysis of the sample surface
 Electron microprobe: non-destructive, punctual, compositional analysis
 LA-ICPMS: scarcely destructive compositional analysis
 Isotopic analysis: stable isotope analysis of certain elements; it is a destructive analysis, for which
it has a limited applicability
Each of these techniques supplies a type of information which helps to solve some of the problems of a
gem the identification.
Some examples of gem characterization
The aforementioned techniques have been used in gem analysis, although not in a systematic way. They
have been used for the gem treatment identification, the gem color characterization (spectroscopies) and
for the determination of the sources of gems from the historical heritage. We present some of the cases
which show the possibilities to establish the gem provenance. They have been selected because of either
the gem importance or their interest for the provenance determination.
Emerald
Analyses on emeralds have been carried out basically to detect enhance treatments, for instance: oiling, or
their nature (either natural or synthetic and the synthesis type), nevertheless, the results have also allowed
to establish their origin. Other studies, chiefly studies on gems from the historical heritage for
archaeological purposes, are aimed to establish the gem provenance and are largely based on the chemical
or isotopic composition.
Fig. 1. Confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy: a
powerful tool to identify natural and synthetic
emeralds.Le Thi-Thu Huong, Tobias Häger, and
Wolfgang Hofmeister (2010). Gems &
Gemology, 46 (1), 36–41
This study differences between natural and
synthetic emeralds, however, the results of
confocal Raman spectrosco-py, along with the
alkali content, discriminate also emeralds of
different geographical provenances.
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Fig. 2 Estudio PIXE y PIGE de gemas en el Tesoro Torredonjimeno.Gutiérrez, P.C., Perea, A.,
Ynsa, M.D. y Climent-Font, A. (2007) Actas VII Congreso Ibérico de Arqueometría (Madrid,
octubre 2007).
This study identified one of the gems as an emerald; moreover, on the basis of the Na
content, they ascribed it to the Habachtal (Austria) deposit.
Ruby and sapphire
The study of the provenance of ruby and sapphire is more complex because, among other things, the
presence of trace elements in the structure is more limited than in emerald. Nevertheless, the chemical
(compositional and isotopic) analyses have yielded some positive results.
Fig. 3 Provenance study of
rubies from a Parthian
statuette by PIXE analysis.
Calligaro, T. Mossman, A.
Carot, J.-P. and Querré, G.
(1998). Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physics
Research Section B, Volume
136, Issue 1-4, p. 846-850.
Several rubies of a Mesopotamian statuette were analyzed and compared with rubies of
known provenance. Fe, Cr, Ti and V contents proved to be characteristics of their provenance
and, as a conclusion a source from Ceylan and Burma was established for these rubies.
Compositional analyses revel, partially, the inclusion composition; in fact spectroscopic analyses have been
even carried out on inclusions, which permit to identify them and help to establish the provenance. Many
efforts in this field have been devoted to authenticate the Kashimir origin of sapphires, when this
expression has been misused as a quality character.
Fig. 4 Kashmir sapphires
Krzemnicki, M.S. (2013). Facette, 20,
6-9
Chemical analysis of trace elements
by means of EDXRF, LAICPMS
allowed to characterize the sapphire
of Kashimir.
Garnets
Provenance determination of garnets displays specific problems, because they make up a large group of
minerals and can have different origins. Moreover, it is very important the scarcity of previous analyses of
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
garnets of known provenance, which hinders the provenance identification, even when combining
spectroscopic and compositional analysis techniques.
Fig. 5 Combined external-beam PIXE and μ-Raman characterisation of garnets used in
Merovingian jewellery Calligaro, T., Colinart, S., Poirot, J.-P. and Sudres, C. (2002) Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, B 189, 320–327
On the basis of chemical composition, this study recognizes 5 types of garnets: I: India, II:
Rajastan, II: Ceylon, IV y V: Bohemia. The garnet inclusions are identified by means of their
Raman spectra. However, in some cases the geographical identification can be considered as
tentative, due to the lack of complete analyses of some types of garnets.
Some considerations: the chain of custody and the gem characterization in origin
It is obvious that the real problem to obtain a good database is the availability of the corresponding
standard gems. This problem can be been solved, as it has been done in some cases, mainly gems of the
historical heritage, by the analysis of standards of various sources. At this stage, an additional problem can
arise: does this standard gem come really from the alleged source?, who grants it?, and finally, have been
all the requirements fulfilled to confirm this origin along all the way of the gem until the laboratory? This is
what in the forensic system is named “to guarantee the chain of custody” of the proofs involved in a legal
process.
This problem would be solved if the gems of each deposit were analyzed by the mining companies, in an
independent way, as part of the marketing process. Thus, they would provide analytical data, with
specification of the analysis characteristics, in such a way that they could be reproduced thereafter in the
gemological laboratories, when it is needed. This analysis, characteristic of the gems of a certain place,
would be a kind of “protected designation of origin” that is used in some trade contexts and it would be an
added value to the gems of this place, because it makes easier the subsequent certification.
This measure could be applied to color gems, because diamonds, due to the singularities of its geological
origin, are more difficult to assign to a specific deposit with the available techniques.
Summary and conclusions



The geographic provenance of gems is an interesting feature for certification, which can be established
by means of some modern analytical techniques of Gemology and a wide database for comparison.
In the best scenery, the mining companies would provide the characteristic feature of the gem they
market, in a reproducible way.
This possibility is ruled out for diamond, for the time being.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
BLUE PECTOLITE “LARIMAR” OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: STUDY OF FIBERS AND COLORS
José A. Espí
Departamento de Ingeniería Geológica. Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid
ABSTRACT: Related to its origin, complex, almost miraculous, the colored pectolite Barhouco in the
Dominican republic is a list of geologic events. Linked to its genesis and evolution, Larimar texture and color
show a series of events from the birth to its occurrence in a deep ravine in the La Española Island. Analyzing
images of rock’s and fibrous crystals’ sections forming the first marketable product, this presentation shows
figures interpretation that often appear in the polished stone and even be seen in the finished gem.
LA PECTOLITA AZUL “LARIMAR” DE LA REPÚBLICA DOMINICANA: ESTUDIO DE FIBRAS Y COLORES
RESUMEN: Ligado a su origen, complejo y casi milagroso, la pectolita coloreada de la Sierra de Bahoruco en
la República Dominicana es un listado de acontecimientos geológicos. Ligado a su génesis y evolución, la
textura y coloraciones del Larimar muestran una serie de acontecimientos que transcurren desde su
nacimiento a su aparición en un barranco profundo de la Isla La Española. Mediante el análisis de las
imágenes de secciones de la roca y los cristales fibrosos que forman el primer producto vendible, la
presentación va mostrando una interpretación de las figuras que muchas veces se trasladan a la piedra
pulida y que incluso se aprecian en la joya terminada.
Introduction and methods
In the Dominican Larimar and its microscopic examination, findings about colors, fibers and their
configuration are very difficult to establish and it is no possible to recognize crystallization sequences and
relationships with its surround geology. Then, it was decided to reproduce its direct image sometimes by
polished sections. The captured image was scanning the polished surface and expanding it to enhance the
desired effect.
Results and interpretation
Color Phases
In Figure 1 it appears phases succeed by depletion of color causes. Transparent pectolite appears linked to
outside, the green pectolite rests always in the country rock and taking it the color cause. Blue color sudden
is changing and its fiber are slightly longer than the green one to run out and go to the white. This is an
almost complete sequence of color temporal relationships.
The pectolite appearance
Not all pectolite reached same way to the crystallization site. Thus, the transparent one has penetrated on
the plant stem through the cylinder walls as the channels showed in Figure 1. Furthermore, in other
situations, especially in small stems, channel is wider and diffuse.
The color and fibers
Green, blue and sometimes white pectolites, are those that show fibrous texture, often long size, as
indicated in Figures 8 and 9. Also, blue, elongated fibers form bundles and change color by collision with
others growing in other directions such as in the texture "honeycomb" (Figures 1) or a “cross” when four
centers crystallization exist along the stem.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 1. Larimar entering by a side duct stem and crystallization textures "honeycomb"
Substitutions
Clearly, the bluish pectolite, always posthumous, is able to replace the green one, but also in the early
crystallization stages, when first pectolite phases invade stems and its contents, and then, organic matter is
replaced by pectolite that becomes a black mineral but with pectolític nature. Subsequent arrivals (always
in a short time) replace both the organic matter and gaps on all sides, including cracks in organic material.
Deformations
Figure 2 shows crushed stalks filled with a wet and deformed plastic phase of coked organic fragments.
Rolling stem and internal movement signals are abundant. All these movements were performed while
stem turned on its axis and colored pectolitas were crystallizing.
Fig.2 Organic stems deformation proceeds the filler with very plastic phase and rolling signals
Metals and sulfides
Native copper is always between crystallization stages and always connected to latest and blue pectolite
(Figure 3). Pyrite is relatively abundant, especially in early mineralization stages of organic material,
indicating its possible origin.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 3. Copper is always between two crystallization stages and connected to the latest and blue pectolite
Fruits and seeds
It is curious and surprising the conservation degree of some fruits and in some cases, matches calls
pectolite "balls", prized by miners (Figure 4). There is also abundant calcite in the core with pure and
translucent blue color.
Fig. 4. Fruits named as "Larimar balls" are prized by miners
Crystallization time
There are plenty reasons to understand about the short time happened between the first organic matter
substitutions and the arrival of another blue-green pectolite color. So tread signals in stems (Figure 5),
internal deformations (fractures and plastic phase motion) are contemporary with final settlement signals
(flat bases, pectolite segregations parallel to the steam base and colored pectolite depositions in the inner
core).
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig. 5. Rolling signals stems. Internal deformations are contemporaneous with definite settlement signals
(flat base, parallel to the base segregations, pectolite colored stools in the inner core)
In the case of colored pectolite filled fractures and upward, it just mixed or replaced the primitive or almost
transparent pectolite. That is, between the first stage and the following transparent pectolite must have
sufficient time for the primitive pectolite have crystallized.
Coloring pectolite
The color is a crucial aspect, since this mineral makes no aesthetic value whatsoever in the common variety,
the white, but it is a jewelry object when it appears with a defined color. Moreover, among the two
commercial varieties, green and blue, it is latter (and turquoise) the most sought.
There are always much interest to understand causes that have transformed the pectolite color, having
formulated many theories. One of the very few works that have been done on this topic corresponds to the
article entitled "Colored pectolites, so-called Larimar, from Sierra de Bahoruco" of K. Sorbent, R. Thum and J.
Wannemacher (1991). This paper recognizes the pectolite hydrothermal origin, linked to the last stage of
serpentinization basaltic series, providing minerals as calcite, natrolite, chalcedony and hematite. Furthermore,
there are some cases that contain native copper. The pectolite, according to authors, as fibrous crystals, has
been studied in several varieties linked with color (pure white, green, light blue and blue). These samples have
been analyzed for their major and trace elements, in addition to ATD, s on them. Its conclusions refer to the
association of green with color centers (disappearing at 240 ° C) and blue dyes are linked to the presence of
relatively high amounts of vanadium (up to 134ppm).
Furthermore, the work performed by J A. Espí in 1997 relying primarily on trace geochemistry and
petrography, was reached in both hand samples as in microscopy and analytical values, the presence of
manganese was related to the bluish color and there is always a high copper content (according to K. Bente).
However, high vanadium levels do not appeared. Also, Dr. Heinz-Jürgen Bernhardt Bernhard RU-University
Bochum, who has studied selected profiles in pectolite crystals with different colors, show no explained
variations in pectolites to move from white to colored, in the same crystal fiber.
Therefore, as a last contribution, in 2010 was held to be sampled by choosing among all those well classified
varieties from the pectolite crystallization sequence. The sampling preparation of geochemistry was carried out
with great care, separating wall rock from the crystallized mineral trying to relate pectolite crystallization with
the color envelope and geochemical profile, but considering also their origin and the forming episode. Thus,
the pure green color was extracted from the large vacuoles that appear inside the basalt and related to the
early stages of mineralization. Then, care was taken to choose it when shows no coloration which corresponds
to an invasive phase in other breakage levels occupying organic matter holes. Finally, it was chosen a sample of
extraordinary blue color, without any mixture of other colors and shades.
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V
Cu (ppm) Cr (ppm) Mn (ppm)
(ppm)
Blue Pectolite 1ª
143
58
24
282
Pectolite completely white and transparent
7
19
8
857
Green and Pink Pectolite
6
10
8
864
Pectolite and calcite, white and green. Vacuole
4
14
17
412
Contact Clay-Blue Pectolite 11/067
103
83
573
1167
Rock contacted the Green Pectolite 11/069
129
60
134
911
Basalt with vacuoles
252
111
718
1435
Red clays in core. 44m
144
913
100
558
Table 1. Geochemistry of selected Larimar samples
Conclusions
It is clear that corresponds to bluish pectolite relatively high vanadium and copper contents. The other
colors lack these levels of both metals. Furthermore, these vanadium high levels and copper are typical of
rock types in which are located bluish pectolites as paleosoils and volcanic basalts, configuring the leachdeposition pattern between the surrounding rock and the holes in basic volcanites and the paleo-stream
clays.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
CONFLICT DIAMONDS AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Mª Pilar Diago Diago
Dpto. de Derecho Privado, Universidad de Zaragoza. C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009-Zaragoza, España.
mpdiago@unizar.es
ABSTRACT: The main objective of the Kimberley Process certification system (KP) is to exclude the flow of the
so-called conflict diamonds from the legal market. To this end a series of measures have been developed
and each participating country has to adopt them according to its internal rules and jurisdiction. One of the
immediate consequences of the system is the limitation of the "free trade" on a global scale. This is a
milestone in the field of international trade and deserves special attention.
After a period of implementation of the Regulations (KP), it is necessary to analyze the results achieved and
one of the most important issues facing today is the possible modification of the definition of "conflict
diamond" in order to cover situations involving violations of human rights that nowadays escape the filters
set by the system and its rules, an issue that also will be analyzed in this paper.
LOS DIAMANTES DE CONFLICTO Y EL COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL
RESUMEN: El objetivo fundamental del Sistema de certificación del Proceso Kimberley (PK) es el de excluir el
flujo de diamantes de conflicto al mercado legal; para ello se elaboran una serie de medidas que cada país
participante adopta conforme a su propia normativa interna y en su jurisdicción. Una de las consecuencias
inmediatas del sistema es la limitación del “libre comercio” a escala mundial, esto constituye todo un hito
en el ámbito del comercio internacional que merece una atención especial.
Tras un periodo de implantación del Reglamento (PK) resulta necesario analizar los resultados alcanzados y
una de las cuestiones más importantes que se plantean en la actualidad es la posible modificación de la
definición de “diamante de conflicto” para abarcar otras situaciones que también entrañan violación de los
Derechos humanos y que, sin embargo, escapan los filtros establecidos por el Sistema y su normativa,
cuestión que también será objeto de análisis.
I.
Introducción
Entre todas las gemas, puede que el diamante sea una de las que más fascinación despierta, como
demuestra el porcentaje tan elevado de negocio internacional que se genera alrededor de su
comercialización2. Ahora bien, lo que no sería más que una realidad comercial se convierte en fenómeno
siniestro cuando es el tráfico de diamantes el que ha provocado, y sigue provocando, efectos devastadores
sobre la paz y la seguridad de países exportadores de estas gemas. El presente trabajo tiene como finalidad
exponer la problemática que generan los conocidos como “diamantes de sangre”. Se abordará, un análisis
de los mecanismos jurídicos que tratan de poner fin a este triste fenómeno y se concluirá con una reflexión
acerca de la necesidad de que el sistema avance para poner coto a otras situaciones que, igualmente,
generan violación de Derechos humanos y que se relacionan, directamente con el comercio internacional
de diamantes.
II.
Origen del Sistema de Certificación del Proceso Kimberley (PK)
Los diamantes extraídos a finales de los años 90 en Angola, Congo, Liberia y Sierra Leona, financiaron
grupos armados y alargaron conflictos sangrientos. El filme “Blood Diamond”, protagonizado por Leonardo
Di Caprio, conmociono a la opinión pública al describir la situación que vivió Sierra Leona y que era la
2
DIAGO DIAGO M. P “El Comercio internacional de gemas” en Osácar Soriano, M.C (ed.) Actas de las I
Jornadas Internacionales sobre Gemología científica en la sociedad actual (Zaragoza, 9-12 de abril de
2008). Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza (España), 2008. p. 58 a 71.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
misma que se produjo en el resto de países señalados. El Frente Unido Revolucionario controlaba las minas
y con el beneficio de las ventas de diamantes, adquiría armas y apoyo bélico que alimentaba una guerra
cruenta en la que la violación de Derechos humanos fue sistemática: desde la esclavitud, las torturas,
mutilaciones, violaciones, hasta el asesinato.
A ello se unía la iniciativa conjunta de Amnistía Internacional y Global Witness, generándose una presión
internacional que obligo a Nacionales Unidas a aprobar medidas concretas a través de la Resolución 55/56
(2000), en la que se insta a la Comunidad Internacional a preparar escrupulosa y urgentemente medidas
eficaces y pragmáticas para solucionar este grave problema3. Es así, como se crea el Sistema de
Certificación del PK cuyo objetivo fundamental es excluir los diamantes de conflicto del mercado legal.
III.
Funcionamiento del Sistema de Certificación Proceso Kimberley (PK)
La resolución citada dio lugar al Reglamento nº 2368/2002 por el que se aplica el sistema de certificación
del P.K para el comercio internacional de diamantes en bruto modificado por el Reglamento de ejecución
(UE) nº 786/2013 de 16 de agosto de 20134. El resto de países participantes adaptaron el sistema a su
normativa. Todos los países participantes se comprometen a que cada remesa de diamantes se acompañe
del certificado que declare que los diamantes en bruto no son diamantes conflictivos. Tales certificados
tiene que cumplir unos requisitos mínimos. Además, entre otros compromisos, es vital el que cada país se
asegure de que ninguna remesa de diamantes en bruto se exportará o importará de un país no
participante.
Esta normativa entraña una clara limitación al principio de libre comercio a escala mundial, que viene
justificada por el intento de ruptura de la relación triangular reconocida por Naciones Unidas entre
comercio de diamantes, conflictos armados y violación de Derechos Humanos. Ahora bien, son muchos los
problemas que genera, pues téngase en cuenta que opera en el marco del Derecho del Comercio
internacional, en el que está en juego la soberanía de los Estados y los principios de igualdad, beneficio
mutuo y consenso5.
IV.
Definición de diamantes de conflicto: clave para la delimitación del ámbito de actuación del
Proceso Kimberley (PK)
Los diamantes conflictivos son diamantes en bruto utilizados por los movimientos rebeldes o por sus
aliados para financiar conflictos encaminados a desestabilizar gobiernos legítimos, según los describen las
resoluciones del Consejo de Seguridad de las Nacional Unidas (CSNU) vigentes al respecto u otras
resoluciones similares del CSNU que puedan adoptarse en el futuro, y tal como los entiende y reconoce la
Resolución 55/56 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas (AGNU) u otras resoluciones similares de
la Asamblea que puedan adoptarse en el futuro.
Este sistema incorpora, además, una serie de definiciones especialmente importantes, pues supone una
homologación de descriptores de los diamantes y de su consideración de no tallados:
DIAMANTE: mineral natural que consiste esencialmente en carbono puro cristalizado en el sistema
isométrico, con una dureza 10 en la escala de Mohs, un peso específico de 3,52 y un índice de
refracción de 2,42;
3
Dentro del ámbito de la UE destaca otras iniciativas como la Posición Común del Consejo de 29 de
octubre de 2001 para luchar contra el tráfico ilegal de diamantes a efectos de contribuir a la prevención y
resolución de conflictos v. DO L 286/2 de 30-10-2001.
4
DOUE L222/2
5
Para un análisis exhaustivo de esta cuestión v. DIAGO DIAGO M.P “El comercio internacional de
diamantes: Sistema de certificación del Proceso Kimberley” en Cuadernos de Derecho Transnacional
(marzo 2009) vol. 1. N1 1 p. 72 a 91 disponible en www.uc3m.es/cdt
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
DIAMANTES EN BRUTO: diamantes no trabajados o simplemente aserrados, exfoliados o
desbastados, descritos en el Sistema Armonizado e incluidos en las partidas 7102 10 00, 7102 21
00, y 7102 31 00 de la nomenclatura combinada
Obsérvese que sólo recibe la consideración de diamantes en conflicto, los diamantes en bruto6. Ello es así
porque una vez manipulados, se evapora su origen. Fluyen al mercado legal y terminan integrados en
piezas de joyería que el consumidor final adquiere, sin conocer el origen del diamante. Obsérvese,
igualmente, la limitada configuración que recibe la descripción de diamantes de conflicto. Sólo serán
aquellos utilizados por movimientos rebeldes para desestabilizar gobiernos legítimos.
De esta forma se trataba de poner fin a las guerras civiles ya mencionadas. No debe olvidarse, sin embargo,
que muchos sistemas políticos de países de producción de diamantes son dictatoriales y que se siguen
cometiendo violación de Derechos Humanos al calor de la extracción y, posterior, comercialización de
diamantes, aunque estos, no entren en la estrecha definición consagrada en el PK.
V.
X Aniversario del Sistema de Certificación Proceso Kimberley (PK): ¿es necesaria la
renovación?
Kimberley celebró su Asamblea general en Sudáfrica los días 19 a 22 de noviembre, acogiendo el X
Aniversario del PK. Uno de sus logros mayores es la adhesión de gran parte de los países exportadores e
importadores de diamantes. La puesta en marcha del sistema de certificación con el apoyo de los países
participantes, ha hecho posible frenar el comercio de diamantes de conflicto. De ahí, que pueda
considerarse éste un instrumento de prevención de conflictos, cuya cobertura jurídica es única y singular.
Tal cobertura podría ser, también, utilizada para evitar los conflictos que genera la extracción de otras
materias primas como el coltán.
Ahora bien, no se ha terminado del todo con este mercado de diamantes de conflicto y todavía existe un
gran desconocimiento y falta de implantación. Hasta ahora la crisis más importante ha tenido lugar en
diciembre de 2011 cuando la ONG Global Witness decide abandonar el PK al no producirse una evolución
para acabar con los vínculos existentes entre diamantes-violencia-tiranía.
Al respecto, resulta especialmente importante resaltar la propuesta de la presidencia norteamericana del
PK (2012) que sugirió la reformulación del ámbito en el cual debe estar llamado a desplegar sus efectos el
sistema de Certificación. Los conflictos que generan los diamantes ya no son sólo los descritos, sino que se
ha producido una cierta evolución hacía otros: gobiernos tiránicos y opresivos, condiciones de trabajo
infrahumanas, semi-esclavitud.
La violación de los Derechos humanos se sigue produciendo y una redefinición de “diamantes de conflicto”
podría convertirse en un instrumento útil para tratar de contenerla. Corresponderá en todo caso a China,
país participante que asume la presidencia durante 2014, el impulso de las medidas que permitan un
deseable avance del PK en la línea expuesta. Habrá que esperar para saber cual será el papel que
desempeñe, al que no será ajeno los intereses económicos que en estos momentos tiene este país en
África.
6
v. DIAGO DIAGO M.P “Las gemas como objeto de protección en la normativa internacional (Proceso
Kimberley)” en Osácar Soriano, M.C (ed.) Actas de las I Jornadas Internacionales sobre Gemología
científica en la sociedad actual (Zaragoza, 9-12 de abril de 2008). Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza
(España), 2008. p. 72-90.
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BEAUTY or THE BEAST – CUTTING CORNERS CUTTING GEMSTONES
G. Dominy
F.G.A. (with Distinction), Canada
ABSTRACT: Two diamonds, both 6.50mm in diameter, both VS1 clarity, G colour and cut to ‘Ideal’
proportions yet one costs 25% more…….why?
In this thought-provoking seminar, Geoffrey Dominy F.G.A (with Distinction), author of ‘The Handbook of
Gemmology’ delves into the complexities of cutting gemstones, from the dramatic effect it can have on the
overall value to the ‘Grey’ areas that cutters often exploit in grading systems and price guides to enhance
their bottom line.
When science and economics collide…..anything can happen.
LA BELLA O LA BESTIA – ASPECTOS COMERCIALES DE LA TALLA DE GEMAS
Dos diamantes, ambos de 6,50mm de diámetro, ambos de pureza VS1, color G y tallados con proporciones
‘ideales’, pero uno cuesta 25% más que el otro… ¿por qué?
En este seminario, Geoffrey Dominy, FGA (con honores), autor del libro “The Handbook of Gemmology”,
invita a reflexionar sobre las complejidades de la graduación de calidad de talla de gemas, desde el efecto
dramático que puede causar la talla en el precio y hasta las áreas de sombra en listados de precios
utilizadas con frecuencia por los lapidarios para conseguir valoraciones mayores.
Cuando la ciencia y la economía colisionan… todo puede pasar.
The moment a mineral is cut and polished, the science of mineralogy ends and the science of gemmology
begins—it is the line that separates the two. Indistinguishable and unidentifiable from the crystal that was
pulled from the earth, the resultant gemstone is now judged purely by the style and quality of the cut, the
degree of inclusions present and of course the colour.
To the hobbyist, gem cutting is an art form, free from any economic pressures or compromises. Often, he
will cut stones for his own enjoyment, oblivious to current market trends or conditions, unaware of any
market constraints.
To the commercial cutter, cutting is a numbers game, a gamble where the difference between making
money and losing money can be very small indeed. Often he will be forced to compromise in order to
realize a profit.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Unlike other earth sciences, gemmology is full of economic considerations, be it at the mining, cutting,
wholesale/retail levels or from an appraisal standpoint. No function of our industry escapes these economic
factors.
In this thought-provoking seminar, gemmologist Geoffrey M. Dominy F.G.A (with Distinction) and author of
‘The Handbook of Gemmology’ draws on over 30 years of experience to delve specifically into the
complexities of cutting gemstones.
Topics covered include the role of the lapidary and the diamond cutter, the importance of yield and how
shape, clarity, colour, cut, optical phenomena and market considerations affect the overall value of a
gemstone.
He will also explore the ‘Grey’ areas that cutters often exploit in grading systems and price guides to
enhance their bottom line, how their intimate knowledge of the these grading systems can help them
achieve this goal and the role creative marketing plays in todays market.
Join him for this interesting, informative and unapologetic look at gemstone economics and why ‘Cut’ is
perhaps the most important ‘C’.
When science and economics collide - anything can happen.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
ANALYSIS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND IMPURITY CENTERS IN STRUCTURE OF DIAMONDS FROM ALLUVIAL
DEPOSITS OF THE NORTH EAST OF THE SIBERIAN PLATFORM BY INFRARED SPECTROMETRY, ELECTRONIC
PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE AND PHOTOLUMINESCENCE METHOD
I.V. Klepikov1, Y.V. Nefedov2, S.M. Sukharzhevskii3, O.P. Matveeva2, E.A. Vasiliev2, G.F. Anastasenko1
1: Department of Mineralogy, Geological faculty, Saint Petersburg State University, Russia.
2: GRMPI department, National Mineral Resources University, Russia.
3: Resource center "Magnetic resonance methods of research", Saint Petersburg State University, Russia.
ABSTRACT: Authors investigated a collection of Anabar diamonds (120 individuals) by methods of infrared
spectrometry, an electronic paramagnetic resonance and a photoluminescence. On IR spectrums for all
studied crystals of diamond concentration of nitrogen (in the form of defects) were calculated. For
reconstruction of thermal conditions of diamond formation were plotted Taylor Wayne diagrams with
calculated isothermal curves. Selection of crystals of various color (yellow, brown, pink, green) was studied
and the conclusions about dependence between the color and presence of nitrogen defects in the crystal
structure were done.
Also the main photoluminescent defects in crystals of diamond of a studied collection were revealed. Some
features of studied individuals were shown only in photoluminescence ranges.
By means of the EPR (electronic paramagnetic resonance) method 20 crystals were divided into 3 types on
ranges of EPR and one crystal was investigated in more detail.
ANÁLISIS DE LOS CENTROS DEFECTO E IMPUREZAS EN LA ESTRUCTURA DE LOS DIAMANTES DE LOS
DEPÓSITOS ALUVIALES DEL NORDESTE DE LA PLATAFORMA SIBERIANA, POR TÉCNICAS DE
ESPECTROMETRÍA IR, RPE Y FL
RESUMEN: Se ha estudiado una colección de diamantes de Anabar (120 ejemplares) por espectrometría IR,
RPE y FL. Mediante los espectros de IR de todos los cristales estudiados, se ha calculado la concentración de
nitrógeno (en la forma de defectos). Para la reconstrucción de las condiciones térmicas de formación del
diamante se han representado diagramas Taylor Wayne con las curvas isotermas calculadas. Se ha
estudiado una selección de cristales de varios colores (amarillo, marrón, rosa, verde) y se han obtenido
conclusiones acerca de la dependencia del color con la presencia de defectos de nitrógeno en la estructura
cristalina.
También se han caracterizado los principales defectos luminiscentes en una colección de cristales de
diamante. Algunos rasgos de las muestras estudiadas se han mostrado solo en rangos de fotoluminiscencia.
Utilizando la técnica RPE veinte cristales han sido clasificados en tres tipos según rangos de RPE y un cristal
ha sido investigado con más detalle.
Authors investigated a collection of Anabar diamonds (120 individuals) belonging to the museum of
mineralogy department of Saint Petersburg State University. The aim of the research is to detect specific
features of the diamond crystals from diamond placer deposits of Anabar-Olenek interfluve area by means
of infrared spectrometry, electronic paramagnetic resonance and photoluminescence.
Infrared spectrometry. The research was conducted on spectrometer Vertex 70 using IR-microscope
Hyperion1000 with 4 cm-1 resolution and 32 scans averaging. Spectra of optical density were normalized to
its own two-phonon absorption. The nitrogen concentration was calculated using the program for visual
selection by the reference absorption spectra A, B1 and C (programmer Kovalchuk O.E.) with known
coefficients of proportionality [Boyd et al, 1994, 1995]. The relative errors in A and B1 defects concentration
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determining were up to 10%, depending on the shape, thickness, presence of inclusions and surface quality.
In addition to the A and B1 defect concentration, absorption coefficient bandB2 was also studied.
The concentration of nitrogen in diamond crystals N, and the degree of aggregation of nitrogen %B were
calculated. Studies have shown that according to the physical classification the vast majority of diamonds
collection are of the type IaAB, that is, nitrogen is present in the form of A and B defects (Fig. 1).The total
nitrogen concentration N in diamond crystals from the alluvial deposits of the North-east of the Siberian
platform ranges from 0 (minimum) ppm in a colorless dodecahedroids to 2946 (maximum) ppm in brown
fragment of the octahedron.
Figure 2 shows the absorbance spectra of the two crystals, showing the variations in the concentration of nitrogen and
the degree of nitrogen defects aggregation. In the spectrum of the crystal pr 157 only A system is observed, no bands B1
and B2 are represented, while in the crystal 276 there is only B1 system which proves that there were significant
differences in their thermal history. These crystals are extreme cases of nitrogen defects transformation among A- B1,
and B2 range. Significant temperature variations indicatethat there may have been a great number of primary sources.
Fig.2.The absorption spectra of diamond crystals № pr 157 (A-defect) and № 276 (B1-defect).
It is known, that the degree of nitrogen defects aggregation depends on the nitrogen content in the
diamond, temperature and the time of its being exposed to this temperature. These parameters are usually
analysed using the Taylor diagram that shows dependence between nitrogen concentration and nitrogen
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
defects aggregation level [Taylor, 1990]. For studied collections the Taylor diagram was constructed (Figure
3).
Anabar diamonds were compared with the data by Nefedov Y. (2012) about the Ural and the Brazilian
diamonds from alluvial deposits(the collection ofthe Museumof theNational
Mineral Resources University). It has been observed that the Brazilian and Anabar diamonds are very
similar in terms of the formation. However Anabar diamonds very in the total nitrogen concentration less
than the Brazilian crystals. The crystals of the Urals are the most compact on the Taylor chart and they have
a wider range of temperatures than the diamonds of Brazil and Anabar.
Fig.3.Taylor diagram for the 120 studied crystals of diamond.
Diamonds of Anabaro-Olenek interfluves have absolutely different color (see Fig. 4).
а
b
33
c
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
d
e
f
Fig. 4. Color variations of researched crystals of diamonds.
It is well known that absolutely pure diamond is transparent [Solodova et al, 2008]. Its color is always
associated with the presence of its own or impurity defects in its crystal structure. Various colors and tones
depend on different defects and their correlation.
Using spectrometry method the nature of diamond crystals coloration from alluvial deposits of the NorthEast of Siberian platform was studied. Absorption spectra in the range 190-800 nm were registered on a
double-beam spectrophotometer UV-2550PC from Shimadzu Company with resolution1 nm.
Yellow color of the diamonds depends on presence and amount of N3 and C nitrogen defects, which were
detected in the studied crystals. Figure 5shows the spectrum of the crystal m33with a characteristic N3
absorption system and spectrum of the crystal pr 19 602 which proves the existence of structural C defect.
Both crystals are characterized with saturated yellow color.
a
b
Fig. 5 –Absorption spectrums of the crystals m33 (a) andpr 19 602 (b)
Photoluminescence method. To investigate the photoluminescence spectra modular spectrofluorometer
by Horiba with double monochromator excitation and detection, equipped with a microscope Olympus was
used. Software Fluoressence based on Origin was used. Measurements were made at 77 K. This equipment
has been used to study 95 crystals. The excitation was produced by monochromatic light from a xenon
lamp. Used excitation light wavelengths of 300, 350, 500 nm, helped to reveal all the luminescence centers.
We have established the following systems of radiationin spectra:
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
N3 - with the zero-phonon line of 415-416 nm (95 crystals, 100% of the total sample);N4 - with the zerophonon line 344.2nm (72 crystal, 75% of the total sample), H3 - with the zero-phonon line 503.2nm (41
crystal, 43% of the total sample), the band 575 (7 crystals, 7% of the total sample) system 637 (8 crystals,
9% of the total sample), GR-1 system with the zero-phonon line 740.6nm (1 crystal, 1% of the total sample).
Examples of listed spectra centers are shown in Figure 6.
Fig. 6.Diversity of the PL spectra of the investigated crystals of diamond.
Of greatest interest are poorly studied strip 575 and 637nm system (see Fig. 7) associated with nitrogen
centers (NV0) and 637 (NV-) nm that were obtained on synthetic crystals grown by the CVD method at
temperatures from 1000 to 1500 C (Qi Liang, Chih-shiue Yan et al, 2008). According to other data (Evans,
1984), such centers were obtained at temperatures of 1300-1600oS and the pressure of 5-8 GRa.
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
583
636
689
Fig. 7. The photoluminescence spectrum of the sample 1581, containing the strip 575 nm and 637
nm.Excitation 500 nm.
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Titkov S.V. et al (2012) obtained similar results about the photoluminescence of Anabar dodecahedral
diamonds and came to the conclusion that this proves the epigenetic high plastic deformation. Our data on
the photoluminescence supports this conclusion.
EPR method. Using the EPR method, 21crystals of diamonds of different colors (yellow, brown, green,
smoky, colorless) and morphology (dodecahedroids, cuboids, octahedra) on the EPR spectrometer
ELEXSYSE580 (X-band) at temperatures below room temperature were investigated. Experimental
conditions: power Pmv = 1.5 mV; modulation Bmod = 1 G; ΔBscan = 120 G = operating frequency Fsvch
9389.4 MHz, power on the device Psvch = 20 dB, the number of steps-4K; while writing 4 minutes, 200
savings point.
Based on the data obtained, all the studied crystals were divided into 3 types of spectra: 1) the spectrum of
atomic nitrogen 2) the spectrum with intens central impulse 3) the spectrum with a small central wavy
impulse. In some crystals pulses paramagnetic centers were not found.
For more information on the spectrum, for some samples shooting conditions varied - the number of steps
per sweep, the number of accumulations in each point of the spectrum, the sweep rate of the magnetic
field, etc. Figure 8 shows the spectra of the samples m33 and pr19602. By varying the conditions of the
sample spectrum m33 measurement, we were able to show that the structure of this diamond is more
complicated - there are many splits. Both studied samples have yellow color. For shooting they were
oriented at crystallographic direction 110, matching facet of rhombododecahedron. Consequently, the
spectra can be compared with each other. Fig .shows that the spectrum of the sample pr 19 602 an order
more intense than m33. Besides, the sample spectrum pr 19 602 is more simple. In these samples the
nitrogen defects N3 (m33) and C (pr 19 602) were previously detected. EPR spectra confirm the presence of
atomic nitrogen in both samples, this is shown in the form of lateral paired impulses.
602
m-33
602
m-33
Fig. 8. Shooting conditions and EPR spectra of diamond crystals m-33, pr 19 602.
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REFERENCES:
1.
Boyd S.R., Kiflavi I., Woods G.S. The relationship between infrared absorption and the A defect
concentration in diamond // Phil. Mag. B, 1994. Vol.69, P.1149-1153.
2.
Boyd S.R., Kiflavi I., Woods G.S. Infrared absorption by the B nitro-gen aggregate in diamond // Phil.
Mag. B, 1995. V.72, P.351-361.
3.
Taylor W.R. Nitrogen-defect aggregation characteristics of some Australian diamonds: timetemperature constraints on the source regions of pipe and alluvial diamonds // Am. Mineral., 1990, V. 75,
P. 1290-1310.
4.
Vasilyev E.A., Kozlov A.V., Nefedov Y.V., Petrovskij V.A., Structural features of Uralian, Anabar and
Brazilian diamonds detected by FTIR, Mining Institute reports, 2012. V.200 - P. 18-22;
5.
Solodova Y.P., Nikolaev M.V., Kurbatov K.K., Diamond gemology, Agat, 2008. P. 416\
6.
Q. Liang et al., Recent advances in high-growth rate single crystal CVD diamond, Diamond and
Related Materials, Volume 18, Issues 5-8, pp 698-703 (2009).
7.
Zudina NN, SV Titkov and other. Centers of photoluminescence in cubic diamonds from placers
illuvial northeastern Siberian platform and their genetic significance. Annual Session 2012 Fedorov Session:
'Mineralogy in the whole space of this word. "Proceedings. 2012. s. 117-118.
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DOMINICAN AMBER: ORIGINS, COLOR AND TEXTURES
José A. Espí
Departamento de Ingeniería Geológica. Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid
ABSTRACT: Amber on La Española Island appears in various geological environments, although due to
similar situations differs because ores are in different tectonic units. Texture and sometimes color are
related to the specific conditions of its formation. This “stone” though often studied still has many
unknowns.
EL ÁMBAR DOMINICANO: GÉNESIS, COLOR Y TEXTURAS
RESUMEN: El ámbar de la Isla La Española aparece en diversos ambientes geológicos que, aunque obedecen
a situaciones parecidas, se diferencian al encontrarse en unidades tectónicas diferentes. La textura y, a
veces, el color poseen significados que se relacionan con las condiciones específicas de su formación. Esta
“piedra” aunque muchas veces estudiada aún presenta muchas incógnitas por resolver.
General geographic conditions
Simplifying, Dominican amber appears in two major geographic domains: in the Northern Cordillera and
Eastern Cordillera.
1. The Northern Cordillera
In geological terms, amber stratigraphic series participates with three fundamental terms: a conglomeratic
base, an episode dominated by clay levels and sandy rhythmic series.
Amber always is presented together with organic matter, either in their imprints (leaves and branches sings
with iron oxide) by oxidation or by retaining its integrity in carbonaceous shales lying between levels or
inside of amber. Amber is bound to detrital episodes but in low energy: shale clays. Amber occupies a more
or less developed furrows filling them and spreading over a wide stratigraphic level. However margins are
paleo-stream places of maximum amber concentration, where current energy was lower. All series tells us
about a very close situation to the river bank near landmasses with small erosion episodes.
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2. The Eastern Cordillera
In this domain amber appears in the following geological conditions:
 Wrapped with all kinds of organic materials (leaves, roots, etc.) and elemental sulphur efflorescence.
Pieces sometimes are more than medium size and very irregular.
 With sandy material and plant debris.
 In clays with shells, fossil fragments and presence of organic matter.
 Close to grey clays beds.
Amber often shows signs of rolling motion speaking us about its transport way. Dispersion occurs in beds of
varied origin, but stratigraphically next. That is, we are considering that at certain times there was an
amber denudation from its position of buried material to be entrained and deposited to short distances.
Some producers recognize best mining bonanzas properly aligned; probably as paleo-streams carved within
the same clay series.
Petrographic and microthermometric fluid inclusions studies
This work was performed by the Professor R. Castroviejo research team of Polytechnic University of
Madrid. It started from different specimens belonging to the Northern Cordillera in doubly polished plates.
Fluid inclusions are relatively abundant in Dominican amber, dominating the rounded shapes, with sizes
between 10 and 100 microns. According to their content, dominate those of V (gas) and also appear some
type B (two-phase, liquid and gas). These inclusions have been classified in two types: "primary" or more
precisely “conform " to concentric surfaces of structured samples and, likely , are in the oxidation of resin
beads in contact with the air . Other cases occur in tangential arrangement of these structures and could be
secondaries, “unadjusted”.
The criogenetic results were as follows:
V - inclusions type (gas)
They are always monophasic with only gas phase. Therein has appeared unchanged during the cooling
phase.
B - inclusions type (liquid - gas)
Relations L:V variables. There have been the following phase changes:
• Cooling cycle: freezing (metastable) around -45 ° C, preceded by gas bubble disappearance to -38 º C.
• Cycle temperature recovery : first fusion to -1 ° C , final melting temperature between 1.5 ° and 1.8 ° C,
accompanied by vapour bubble sudden appearance .
Conclusions can be proposed as follows:
- The petrographic and microscopic features of V-type inclusions suggest the air presence may coexist with
other gases of organic origin.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
- B type inclusions seem to be constituted by the same above components and water; possibly little or no
salted (no low melting points of ice formation).
The former results indicate fully sub-aerial environments. Amber already formed, sometimes in tabular
structures, was dragged along with organic matter to build an integral part of the sediment.
Information about the internal structure
Much of the amber used today in jewellery is part of cylindrical bodies in different scales (from a few
millimetres to several centimetres diameter). These rolls or "tubes" retain features that speak us about
their origin. Thus, the bodies are elongated without ever found their original endings.
Concentrically and internally are asymmetric textures, forming layers of varying thickness and not always
completed, that overlap with wedging. Often these layers have different colours and various liquid and
gaseous inclusions linked to certain environments. Insects appear folded and subject to the layer limits,
"floating" on their internal structure. The core is completely regular and cylindrical outer portion has
thinner layers and tends to turn red. In addition, this core can be completely filled with bubbles or vacuoles
and even contain insects, never plant material is preserved.
In short, these facts speak us about circumstances closely linked to a micro climate without much vegetable
matter (in the near environment, a few centimetres) except for the outer layer having plant leaves, and
even the red coloration may be due to alteration. The layers welding and the insects presence tells us about
resin was still fluid and malleable.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
The growth into distinct phases and the lack of symmetry may be accumulation result on pyramidal
horizontal beds (layered). Moreover is easy wonder same kind of insects in different layers. It means they
were caught in a very short time; amber formation must happen for episodes with great resin contribution.
The formation of Stalactitic body type seems the most plausible, but once on the ground was not affected
by other processes of organic matter incorporation.
Amber evolution as a component of sediments
Sedimentary environment differs from Eastern Cordillera to Northern Cordillera. In the first cordillera it is
predominantly clay in composition. Amber is often devoid of organic shell, except among the sandy levels
and organic matter accompanying it is not form carbonaceous beds but is another detrital element. In
short, in the horizons with clayey elements, amber was transported as result of muddy avalanche and was
buried with all kind organic elements (bone material, for example). It means a primary sedimentation stage
and probably closed to their original place.
Other issues are the detrital beds containing amber in the Northern Cordillera (although not exclusive).
Here amber form paleo-channels filling accompanied by organic matter in abundance. These paleochannels occur at different scales, but the most important production levels are linked to high
concentrations of carbonaceous material. Moreover, amber "tubes" are always involved laterally by organic
material (dead leaves, organic needles) and compacted as pure coal beds.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
They are somehow "traps" on the sides of erosional channels or bottom wrinkles. Moreover, from the
exploration point of view, these tabular bodies are oriented along the flow direction. Sandy and clayey
levels containing amber concentrations are soft, enough to cause weight traits as light as amber material. In
addition, these beds paleo-concentrations were sandier, with all kinds of detrital materials (crushed
seashells, sands of various origins) and even crushed amber. Amber as a sediment suffered other various
process as erosion and transport.
Amber sheets are in discordant carbonaceous sedimentary beds with their environment. Amber is the
product of an earlier crush, when resin was in plastic form, since it retains drag and imprints of other
materials. In short, in this environment type (La Toca, Palo Alto and many others) amber appears as the
final stage of erosion-sedimentation s process, sometimes very complex.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
FEATURES OF THE SCULPTED SURFACES FACETS OF DIAMOND CRYSTALS OF DIFFERENT MORPHOLOGY
FROM ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF THE NORTHEAST OF SIBERIAN PLATFORM
Erysheva N.V.
Department of Mineralogy, Geological faculty, Saint Petersburg State University, Russia.
ABSTRACT: In order to research the widespread of sculptural formations on the faces of diamond crystals
has been used the atomic-force microscope (ASM) which gives the opportunity to consider in detail the
ledges and hollows, the form and amount of tubercles, jagged sculpture, hatch. Found that for each
morphological varieties of diamond has a kind of sculptural formation on surfaces of facets. The method of
catodoluminiscence revealed the specifics of outer and inner morphology of individuals.
ESTUDIO DE LAS FIGURAS SUPERFICIALES EN DIAMANTES DE LOS DEPÓSITOS ALUVIALES DEL NORDESTE
DE LA PLATAFORMA SIBERIANA UTILIZANDO MICROSCOPÍA DE FUERZA ATÓMICA Y
CATODOLUMINISCENCIA
RESUMEN: Para investigar la generalidad de las formaciones esculturales en las caras de los cristales de
diamante se ha utilizado la microscopía de fuerza atómica (ASM) que ofrece la oportunidad de considerar
en detalle los salientes y huecos, la forma y cantidad de los tubérculos, la escultura dentada, las escotillas.
Se ha encontrado que para cada variedad morfológica de diamante hay un tipo de formación escultural en
la superficie de las caras. La técnica de catodoluminiscencia reveló los datos específicos de la morfología
externa e interna de cada individuo.
Study of the morphology and surface microrelief of diamond crystals from alluvial deposits north-east of
the Siberian platform from the collection of the Department of Mineralogy Museum St. Petersburg State
University, revealed sculptural formations dependence on crystal faces of their morphology. These data are
possible for use in the diagnosis of various types of diamond deposits as well as for understanding the
process of growth in a given environment.
I.F. Gorinа studied diamonds Anabaro-Olenek interfluve and established the following forms of crystals:
octahedra dodecahedroids, octahedroids, cuboids, balases and transitional forms [1]. All studied crystals
can be divided into two large groups. These groups are flat and curve-faced crystals. Flat group include
octahedral crystals. Curve-faced group include dodecahedroids and cuboids. Named species were identified
in the study of visual collections under a binocular microscope. They were examined in an electron
microscope Hitachi 3000 -scattered electron (REI) without spraying.
Fig . 1. Octahedral diamond crystal with
Plate- step development faces
Fig. 2. Octahedral diamond crystal with
plate- wandering development faces
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Fig. 3. Parallel splice octahedron diamond
with plate- step development faces
We can divide the studied octahedra on several varieties according to the morphological characteristics:
octahedra with flat faces, straight sharp edges and sharp corners; octahedra with plate and plate- step
development of faces, octahedra with rounded edges [2,3].
Microrelief faces of diamond crystals initially studied visually. Surface is perfectly smooth only in
exceptional cases. We can observe different types of sculptures on the same crystal in vast majority.
Microrelief on the facets of octahedra manifested in various forms and formations. Clearly stands out
jagged edges, sometimes in combination with conical tubercles, triangular vicinal, diamond-shaped,
hexagonal shape and bumps of growth, formed sinter forms.
Peaked, less truncated triangular projections and recesses of varying heights are most common on the
facets. They are located both singly and in groups, the number of such sculptures ranging from one to
several dozen within one face.
The character of development of triangular indentations is very diverse. In some crystals, and is not always
observed on all the edges of recesses of various sizes isolated. Example triangular depressions and
elevations was observed in the crystal of alluvial rivers, shown in the photograph (Fig. 4, 5), which was
made under an electron microscope. In addition, on the faces of octahedral crystals from placers clearly
expressed numerous rivers into each other in the same direction peaked, in different sizes and heights,
triangular protrusions (Fig. 5, 6.).
Many facets of octahedral crystals exhibit wavy relief, in which the trough extended alternate sites with
elevated terrain.
Sculpture of numerous tiny bumps on the background of reduced surface facets creates shagreen surface.
Small bumps are shaped like elongated, sometimes blurred pyramid. Arranged as a pyramid alone or in
groups, often merging into larger formations (Fig. 7.).
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Fig . 4 . Triangular lifting to octahedral
diamond crystal direction on the faces
Fig. 5 . Numerous oriented in a single
of the triangular protrusions diamond
Fig . 6. Combination of triangular vicinal
knobs on the verge of growth crystal diamond
Fig . 8 Triangular vicinals in
crystal surface of intermediate type
Fig. 7. Triangular convex - concave with
education diamond crystal faces
Fig. 9. Rhombic on vicinal
crystal surface of intermediate type
This type of vicinal mostly distributed on wavy surfaces faces octahedral crystals. They are rounded
elevations of different heights, which are located both singly and in a series extending along one line. Shape
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and surface of small tubercles rounded, larger bumps are triangular shape and are triangular pyramid (Fig.
8, 11.). Small bumps are often grouped together.
The vast majority of the crystals exhibit jagged edges: facets consist of a series of parallel plates.
Wherein the upper plate is always smaller dimensions compared to lower. Very often manifested faces
with speed and sculpture exhibit triangular and hexagonal pyramid in single figures, but more often in the
form of serial clusters.
Fig . 10 . The triangular recesses in conjunction
with the conical tubercles on the faces and edges.
Fig.11 .Triangular vicinal combined with conical crystal
growth hillocks on the crystal face of diamond.
Dodecahedral crystals habit characterized by a more complex structure of facets, than octahedral crystals.
Relief facets of the dodecahedron is expressed in the presence of mild or rough undulating surface bumpy
vicinal complicated. Some facets show a stepwise structure and how poorly developed, and roughly
pronounced hatch.
Steps are usually gentle and low on the facets of dodecahedroids, often corroded detect load in the form of
drop-shaped tubercles, which are arranged singly and in clusters. Height of the steps is much higher than
the height of the tubercles (Fig. 10.).
We have data on the structure of the crystal faces of the intermediate type represented by semi -rounded
individuals with traces cut. On the crystal facets of the intermediate type are most common teardrop
bumps, which usually do not exhibit faceting. In some cases, bumps are trihedral structure.
Concluding the description of diamond crystals, it should be emphasized that according to all of these data,
we can conclude, that the conditions can differ in the latter stages of growth of the crystal facets. Also,
possible to carry out a correlation between the shape of the diamond crystals and sculptures on their faces,
each of which corresponds to a particular type of selection.
References
[1] . Bataeva A.A. Diamonds from the alluvial deposits of the northeastern Siberian platform, St. Petersburg
2010, 65 p.
[2]. Milashev V.A. Diamond, legend and reality, Moscow, Nedra , 1976,
[3]. Milashev V.A. Environment and processes of natural diamonds , St. Petersburg , Nedra, 1994, 130c.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS INTO DIGITAL COLOR ANALYSIS AND COMMUNICATION OF COLOR IN GEMS
Menahem Sevdermish
FGA D. Litt., Gemewizard, Ramat Gan, Israel. smenahem@gemewizard.com
ABSTRACT: The accurate description of color of gemstones and colored diamonds presents a major issue
both online and offline. As the gem digital business is growing exponentially every year, the online buyer is
struggling with color descriptive issues that are lowering confidence in the trade and prevent it from
reaching its full potential.
The Gemewizard, a digital color communication and analysis system, which we have been developing over
the past decade, provides us with the power to scan, record, analyze and easily describe color data within
gem images.
Using our system as a color analysis and research tool, we are able to describe, grade, price and
communicate the color of gems and thus we have been exposed to vast information online and offline.
This new data enables us to achieve two major new developments:
A new comprehensive digital color master set and grades for gemstones and fancy colored diamonds which
were built into the pricing systems, and the first ever digital color-based online gem marketplace, in which
color analysis is performed on a vast scale, and an elaborated color search engine enables the user to search
for a certain stone of a specific color.
NUEVOS DESARROLLOS DEL ANÁLISIS DIGITAL Y COMUNICACIÓN DEL COLOR DE LAS GEMAS
RESUMEN: La descripción precisa del color de las gemas y diamantes de colores fantasía supone un gran
problema, tanto para comercio tradicional como online. Las ventas de gemas online están creciendo cada
año, y los compradores sufren problemas con la descripción de color que minan su confianza en el mercado
y limitan su crecimiento.
Gemewizard, un sistema digital de comunicación y análisis de color, desarrollado a lo largo de la última
década, proporciona una herramienta para escanear, archivar, analizar y describir fácilmente el color de las
imágenes de gemas.
Utilizando nuestro sistema como herramienta de análisis e investigación de color, podemos describir,
graduar, valorar y comunicar el color de las gemas, de forma que se ha podido recopilar una gran cantidad
de información de las fuentes online y offline.
Esta información nos permite desarrollar dos principales aplicaciones nuevas:
Una nueva y exhaustiva escala digital de patrones de color y grados de calidad de color para gemas y
diamantes fantasía por un lado, y, por otro lado y por primera vez en la historia, una plataforma de
marketing online de gemas basada en el color digital, donde el análisis de color se realiza a gran escala y las
herramientas de búsqueda permiten al usuario buscar gemas de un color específico.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
INTRODUCTION
The Gemewizard, a digital color communication and analysis system, which has been developed by the
author and his team over the past decade, provides the user with the power to scan, record, analyze and
easily communicate color data within gem images.
As the gem digital business grows exponentially every year, the online buyer is struggling with color
descriptive issues that are lowering confidence in the trade and prevent it from reaching its full potential.
This system can eliminate misunderstanding, uncertainty and disputes between two parties because the
seller on one side of the world is able to use a computer, a Smartphone or a tablet to communicate the
precise color description of the precious gem to his potential buyer.
THE SYSTEM
The suite of products developed by Gemewizard is based on the company’s groundbreaking color
communication technology called GemeSquare™, which has been endorsed by GIA® Education, and since
2006 has been incorporated into the GIA curriculum.
Overall, nearly 500,000 gem images were analyzed by the system and reproduced in 3D in 15 cutting
shapes. From the assembled image bank, 1146 images were chosen and arranged around the spectrum
color pie, followed by the GIA co-researcher team's review, to what was later named the GemeSquare
system.
GemeSquare, Gemewizard’s basic color-communication software application, identifies 31 master color
hues, with each visible in six tones, and each of those in six levels of saturation, creating together the 1146
colors. Every resultant color image can be generated in 15 polished gemstone shapes. The system creates
email messages enabling the color information to be sent to a third party.
The GemeSquare was followed by the GemePro™, a professional product tailored specifically for traders
and manufacturers of colored gemstones, fancy colored diamonds and jewelry appraisers. It is five times
more detailed than Gemewizard’s popular standard color communication system. The GemePro system
incorporates some 200 unique coded colors for each hue, providing a total of more than 7,000 colors. The
system also defines the borders of the “fancy” colored diamond grades (yellow, green, pink, etc.), enabling
a quick definition of the fancy color grade.
The system also allows the user to convert, numerically and graphically, between the Gemewizard digital
color system, GIA®'s color definition terminology, Munsell® book of colors, CIE L*a*b* color space, and
computerized Red-Green-Blue (RGB) and Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Key (CMYK) values.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Figure 1: the Gemewizard convertor.
APPLICATIONS
Bundled together within the GemePro, the Sampler™ is a module that analyzes a digital image of a colored
gemstone or fancy colored diamond and automatically defines its color makeup. Using a proprietary
algorithm, the sampler digitally analyzes images of gems in 2,500 to 10,000 sections. The module retrieves
the “Color DNA” of the image and calculates the average and dominant colors of the gem.
After realizing its potential, the team used the Sampler for a much larger scale survey. The system was set
to automatically search the web for gems offered for sale. For every gem found, the Sampler analyzed the
colors of the images and copy the textual information provided, including the price. By conducting the
method described, real-time online trading information from over $250 million worth of fancy-colored
diamonds and gemstones is recorded at any particular moment. The information is derived from the whole
gamut of trading, including dealers, manufacturers and retailers. The online inventory is mapped out and all
the gemstones are recorded in the Gemewizard's database.
The combination of color analysis and the recorded textual data, led to the development of GemePrice™
grading and pricing abilities. GemePrice is an online wholesale pricing system that assigns prices to
diamonds, fancy colored diamonds and gemstones according to the color codes generated by Gemewizard.
The system offers an exclusive solution to the international diamond and gemstone market, displaying the
exact color combination along with the price and relevant gem parameters.
The system includes a Jeweler Pricing Station module, designed to serve jewelers and retailers and enables
them to determine the price of a piece of jewelry by obtaining the individual current cost-price of each and
every component of which the jewelry item is composed. As a result, the centerpiece gem, as well as each
of the additional gems used in the jewelry, and the type of precious metal, can be valued in one aggregate
appraisal report.
The capability to analyze, determine, price and communicate the color of gems, paved the way to the next
level – online trading; The GemeShare™ platform, online color-based trading platform. The gem owner
"commits" to the Gemewizard color image and description provided, giving a guarantee that the stone is as
it is described – what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG). The potential buyer, for his part, searches for a
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
certain stone of a specific color and is provided with matching items belonging to businesses around the
world.
Figure 2: GemePrice screenshots.
RESEARCH
Using the Sampler system, as a research tool, the team is able to describe, record, grade, price and
communicate the color of gems.
An ametrine crystal, displaying unusual color distribution, was examined by the system to retrieve its color
distribution. By inspecting the specimen from top- and side-views, a rare 'trapiche'-like pattern (Figure 2) of
citrine orange stripes crossing amethyst purple background, was identified. The stripes are aligned
perpendicular to the c-axis in three directions, according to the crystal trigonal structure.
The system was also used to analyze pleochroism within anisotropic gems.
Fine quality rough tourmaline gems are mined in Morogoro Tanzania.
These gems of unique earth tone colors, ranging from reddish orange to brown to yellow and green, were
the subject of a color analysis and research.
These highly dichroic gems show a variety of colors and intensities from different angles.
The unique dichroic color combinations are typical to this area only, and cover a very large portion of the
visible spectrum save purple, violet and blue.
Strong dichroic colors components were apparent in all gems, ranging from green to yellow to orange to
red. In some gems, the color components were quite different from the overall make-up appearance. As
seen in figure 3, the makeup of the yellowish Green tourmaline (earth tone color) were 85% of dark slightly
yellowish green and 15% of very light yellowish green was found.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
By comparing the retrieved colors with the calcite dichroscope observation's colors, a correlation was
identified. This revelation enables the team to record the extent of pleochroism in these gems by digitally
measuring the ratio. The side-effect discovery and its capabilities, is currently a subject for an ongoing
research.
Figure 3: tourmaline analysis.
The system can function as a color variety consultant also.
Such was the case with a unique multi-colored andradite garnet gem, displaying an attractive color zoning
of green and yellow colored stripes that was tested by the system as part of a consultation service. The gem
was sent to a GIA laboratory for identification, prior to the color analysis and received an identification of
an andradite garnet, without noting a demantoid variety name. Further explanation given by the GIA
laboratory director, explained that the GIA laboratory cannot identify it as demantoid due to the fact that
demantoid gems are green colored.
Comparing the analyzed color components of the gem with the system's grade chart, confirms that the
green area indeed corresponds with the demantoid definition. However, the yellow area was found to
correspond with general andradite garnet (without a specific variety name). The smallest area, made of
strongly yellowish Green color, was found to be closer to the demantoid definition, yet the green shade
was not dominant enough.
The results provide a reasonable explanation for the GIA report. Although the major color component,
medium very slight grayish yellow green corresponds with the demantoid typical colors, its portion was
found to be small and does not represent a sufficient portion of the gem color’s mixture. According to the
analysis, a multi-colored andradite is a more suitable name for the tested gem.
Opal color analysis is an ongoing research. In order to visualize and better understand the gem's
phenomenon, the team is using the Sampler system to inspect the play of color effect. Since the Sampler
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
was originally designed to define the body color of gems, a system modification was performed, and the
sensitivity recalibrated to be twice as sensitive as the regular sampler. By doing that, the system enables to
provide the main color groups and their ratios within the overall appearance of the gem. From the resultant
list, the body color hues were eliminated and the colored flashes were left for analysis.
For example, this 8.89ct oval cabochon-shaped Ethiopian opal (Figure 4 left hand side) was analyzed by the
system. The opal displays a massive play of color effect, in a pin fire pattern, distributed all over the dome.
As seen in Figure 4, the main colors that the sampler identified were Red (5.88%), Orange (0.37%), Yellow
(0.37%), Green (1.48%), Blue (1.48%) and Violet (0.37%).
The results demonstrate the visibility of the effect and its intensity – almost 10% of the gem reflects play of
color flashes. Moreover, the effect is not limited to a few colors, but rather their combinations cover the
entire spectrum. Looking at the Color DNA (Figure 4 right hand side) it is clearly evident that the colored
reflections are distributed all over the DNA results, reflecting spreading over the entire dome.
Figure 4: opal analysis and prices.
UPCOMING DEVELOPMENTS
Future applications are already undergoing fine tuning and quality assurance checks. The current testing
state of the Gemewizard lighting box is beta. Once finalized, the box will offer an imaging tool for gems for
scientific reference and commercial uses, as well as a worldwide lighting standard for analyzing gems' color.
In addition, the researches above lead to important insights regarding the system. The data collected is
used as a guideline for developing a newer version of the Sampler system, offering a wider range of
scanning capabilities.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
New visual grading rulers, tailored specifically for certain gems, are under development. The new ruler
icons are aimed for gems characterized and priced by other attributes, such as optical phenomena and
texture, which exclude them from the common grading method and demand their unique language - i.e.
opal, jade, turquoise etc.
In the Gemewizard's vision, the new system modules would move towards a single fully integrated system.
The new system will offer the user, i.e. laboratory, gemologist, appraiser, gem dealer, etc., a one-stopstation to photograph, analyze, grade, price and trade of gems.
Figure 5: Search, match and compare process.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS IN GEMMOLOGY: WHAT, WHEN, HOW?
Helena Calvo del Castillo
Université de Liège. Centre Européen d'ArchéométrieAllée du 6 Août - Bât. B.15Sart Tilman, 4000 Liège
Belgium. hcalvo@ulg.ac.be
ABSTRACT: Most gemmologists use a restricted but effective series of instruments to correctly identify a
gemstone: Optic microscope, refractometer, polariscope, hydrostatic balance and spectroscope. Provided
some expertise is present, these tools allow the practised gemmologist to determine the geological
environment, in which the gemstone has grown, the laboratory procedure by which it has been synthesised
or the treatment the gemstone has undergone – in most of the cases.
Of all these techniques, spectroscopy is more often than not restrictively performed in the visible spectral
range. The purpose of using prisms or diffraction grating spectroscopes is reduced to observing the
absorption and fluorescence features of gemstones as a fingerprint for identification. Other portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum are frequently disregarded within the everyday practice outside gemmologyresearch laboratories.
This paper, aims to approach a variety of spectroscopic methods, namely Ion Beam Induced techniques,
Luminescence, Raman, or FTIR, to a general audience by answering the following questions: What
spectroscopic techniques are available? When should they be applied? How do they work?
MÉTODOS ESPECTROSCÓPICOS EN GEMOLOGÍA: ¿QUÉ, CUANDO, CÓMO?
RESUMEN: Una gran parte de los gemólogos emplea una reducida gama de instrumentos, suficiente para
identificar correctamente una gema: Microscopio óptico, refractómetro, polariscopio, balanza hidrostática y
espectroscopio. Estas herramientas permiten determinar al gemólogo experimentado el origen geológico, el
proceso por el cual ha sido sintetizada o el tratamiento que ha sufrido – en la mayor parte de los casos.
De todas estas técnicas, la espectroscopía es frecuentemente realizada en el rango visible del espectro. El
uso del espectroscopio de prisma o rejilla de difracción se reduce a la observación de las bandas de
absorción y fluorescencia de las gemas como huella dactilar para su identificación. Las otras porciones del
espectro electromagnético no son frecuentemente consideradas en la práctica cotidiana fuera de los
laboratorios de investigación en gemología.
Esta comunicación aspira a acercar una variedad de métodos espectroscópicos, entre los cuales se cuentan
las técnicas de haces de iones acelerados, luminiscencia, Raman o FTIR a un público general, respondiendo a
las preguntas siguientes: ¿Qué técnicas espectroscópicas pueden ser aplicadas? ¿Cuándo deben ser
aplicadas? ¿Cómo funcionan?
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
LUMINESCENT TECHNOLOGIES APPLICATION (PL & DIAMONDVIEW) IN THE CHARACTERIZATION OF
TREATED, SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL DIAMONDS
Juan S. Cózar1, Adrián Andrada2, Valentín García2
1.-Instituto Gemológico Español. Laboratorio de Investigación y Certificación de IGE&Minas
juancozar@ige.org
2.-Departamento de Altas Presiones, Química-Física 1. Facultad de Químicas. Universidad Complutense de
Madrid
ABSTRACT: In the beginning of the 21th century the appearance of the gem-quality synthetic colorless
diamonds grown by CVD, the HPHT treatments and the combined treatments they make indispensable the
application of luminescent technologies on cryogenic temperatures to confirm the identification.
In this presentation are shown the obtained results in synthetic diamonds, synthetic treated and natural
treated, using a Raman microspectrometer and a Linkam modified cryogenic slide. There have been
obtained PL spectra on environmental temperature and -180ºC that confirm the need of low temperatures
to detect PL emission that are masked by the Raman emission working on environmental temperature.
The obtained information has been compared with DiamondView´s images.
APLICACIÓN DE TÉCNICAS DE LUMINISCENCIA (FL, Y DIAMONDVIEW) A LA CARACTERIZACIÓN DE LOS
DIAMANTES NATURALES, SINTÉTICOS Y TRATADOS
RESUMEN: En los comienzos del siglo XXI la aparición de diamantes sintéticos de calidad gema crecidos por
el método CVD, los tratamientos HPHT y los tratamientos combinados, hace indispensable la aplicación de
técnicas luminiscentes a temperaturas criogénicas para confirmar la identificación.
En esta ponencia se muestran los resultados obtenidos en diamantes sintéticos HPHT y CVD, en diamantes
sintéticos tratados y en diamantes naturales tratados, utilizando un microespectrómetro Raman y una
platina criogénica Linkam modificada. Se han obtenido espectros FL a temperatura ambiente y a -180oC que
confirman la necesidad de las bajas temperaturas para detectar las emisiones FL que son enmascaradas por
la emisión Raman cuando se trabaja a temperatura ambiente.
La información obtenida ha sido relacionada con las imágenes de DiamondView.
INTRODUCCIÓN
La aparición de la nueva generación de diamante sintético, el CVD, así como el tratamiento de alta presión
y temperatura (HPHT) en los diamantes naturales, sintéticos y en los diamantes naturales irradiados, ha
complicado aún más la labor de los laboratorios de certificación. Ya no es suficiente con disponer de
medios económicos para poder adquirir una técnica analítica avanzada. La solución de muchos de estos
problemas requiere la interpretación de una combinación de datos obtenidos por medio de distintas
técnicas. Por otro lado hay que tener en cuenta que en el caso de los diamantes la aplicación de esas
técnicas se complica aún más al tener que utilizar temperaturas criogénicas si se quieren obtener
resultados fiables como se verá a lo largo de esta ponencia.
En el caso de los diamantes tratados por HPHT incoloros el joyero e incluso muchos laboratorios
gemológicos no pueden identificar estas piedras. Solo pueden hacerlo los laboratorios muy especializados
que disponen del equipo adecuado, las personas adecuadas que utilicen el equipo y una base de datos
experimentales. GIA afirma que puede detectar “casi todas las piedras tratadas por HPHT” pero reconoce
que puede haber un pequeño porcentaje de piedras extremadamente puras que no ofrezcan datos
espectroscópicos reveladores. También admite que algunos casos los declara como de origen del color
indeterminado. Hay que tener en cuenta que el diagnóstico de los rasgos espectroscópicos de absorción o
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
emisión que se observan en los diamantes sintéticos CVD actuales pueden llegar a estar en el futuro por
debajo de los límites de detección de los instrumentos actuales, debido a la mejora en la pureza y
crecimiento de estos materiales, por lo que los laboratorios implicados en la identificación deben continuar
desarrollando métodos de reconocimiento.
Desde que hace catorce años General Electric consiguió buenos resultados en el tratamiento de alta
presión y temperatura (HPHT) en diamantes marrones del tipo IIa, los diamantes naturales más raros,
transformándolos en incoloros incluso hasta el grado D, han aparecido nuevas firmas que realizan también
este tipo de tratamiento: Bellataire y Suncrest en Estados unidos y parece ser que están funcionando otras
em presas en Rusia, China, Corea e Israel.
Sin duda es el mejor tratamiento conseguido para el diamante, revalorizando la gema hasta niveles
extraordinarios. Después de quince minutos el grado de color de un diamante puede mejorar de forma
espectacular. Cuando se empezó a comercializar estos diamantes por Pegasus Overseas Limited (POL) en
Amberes, conocidos por el nombre de diamantes Pegasus, quisieron valorarlos al mismo precio que los no
tratados con la escusa de que el tratamiento era estable y no detectable. Sin embargo una directiva de
CIBJO de 1999 exigió a sus laboratorios que estos diamantes fueran declarados en los documentos como
diamantes tratados. La Federación Mundial de Bolsas de Diamantes en una resolución aprobada en el
Congreso Mundial del Diamante celebrado en octubre de 2004, exige que en los certificados de los
laboratorios se informe, de manera evidente y sin ambigüedades, que son diamantes tratados por HPHT.
De todos modos el tratamiento HPHT para diamantes incoloros se considera un negocio modesto debido a
que solo funciona con los diamantes marrones del tipo IIa que al fin y al cabo representan menos del uno
por ciento de todos los diamantes naturales. Por otro lado hay que considerar también que el proceso es
muy comprometido puesto que los errores pueden ser muy graves tanto al no conseguir el color esperado
como por los posibles daños que se pueden provocar a la gema. Esto obliga a estas empresas a seguir una
campaña constante de I+D para aprender a no cometer errores.
También se someten a este tratamiento los diamantes con mucho más nitrógeno, de tipos Ia y Ib para
conseguir colores amarillos y verdes. Combinando este tratamiento con el de irradiación se consiguen
colores rosa y rojo. Estos diamantes son detectados en los laboratorios especializados con absoluta
fiabilidad.
Se han conseguido grandes avances en la producción de los diamantes calidad gema crecidos por HPHT y
sobre todo en la nueva generación por el proceso CVD. Hasta ahora los diamantes de peso superior a 0,3 ct
se detectan de manera fiable en los laboratorios especializados, pero se están empezando a encontrar
grandes lotes de diamantes CVD, de tamaño inferior, mezclados con diamantes naturales. Esto está
empezando a generar un grave problema a la hora de tener que diferenciarlos cuando están montados en
joyas. El reto está actualmente en conseguir la técnica adecuada para su detección que permita un costo
analítico rentable.
Con los datos mostrados en esta ponencia se pretende aportar un grano más de arena para la solución de
estos problemas con que nos ha dado la bienvenida el siglo XXI.
DESCRIPCIÓN DE LAS MUESTRAS
Referencia
Origen
Características
Peso
DNZ
Natural
Clase Ia, Grado Z
0.66 ct
DNT1
Natural
Brown, irradiado electrones
0.70 ct
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
DNT2
Natural
Irradiado electrones
0,41 ct
DNT3
Natural
Irradiado neutrones
0,39 ct
DNT4
Natural
Amarillo, tratado HPHT
0.33 ct
DNT5
Natural
Tratado HPHT, irradiado, tratado LPLT
0.40 ct
DNT6
Natural
Verde, irradiado electrones
DSHPHT1
Sintético HPHT
Incoloro, ruso
0.31 ct
DSHPHT2
Sintético HPHT
Incoloro, ruso
0.19 ct
DSHPHT3
Sintético HPHT
Marrón, ruso, bruto
0.38 ct
DSHPHTT1
Sintético HPHT
Irradiado+calentamiento, rojo, ruso
0.35 ct
DSHPHT4
Sintético HPHT
Verde
0.26 ct
DSHPHT5
Sintético HPHT
Rosa, Chatan
0.23 ct
DSHPHT6
Sintético HPHT
Marrón, De Beers
0.09 ct
DSHPHT7
Sintético HPHT
Incoloro, De Beers
0.30 ct
DSHPHT8
Sintético HPHT
Azul, Morion
0.14 ct
DSHPHT9
Sintético HPHT
Azul, Chatan
0.18 ct
DSHPHT10
Sintético HPHT
Azul pálido
0.35 ct
DSCVDT1
Sintético CVD
Tratado HPHT, Gemesis
0,39 ct
DSCVDT2
Sintético CVD
Tratado HPHT, Gemesis
0,40 ct
DSCVDT3
Sintético CVD
Tratado HPHT, Gemesis
0,48 ct
DSCVD1
Sintético CVD
Policristalino
TÉCNICAS
Microespectrometría de FL. Dependencia de la temperatura
Los espectros de absorción, por ejemplo en el visible, son espectros vibrónicos, es decir electrónicovibracionales, de modo que los picos debidos a transiciones electrónicas se ven enmascarados por las
bandas vibracionales. La baja temperatura disminuye la intensidad de las vibraciones permitiendo un
espectro en el que se manifiestan con más nitidez los picos electrónicos y aparecen otros nuevos.
Los espectros de dispersión Raman no se ven afectados significativamente por la temperatura. Sin
embargo, con una excitación de 532 nm, la emisión FL se intensifica notablemente al disminuir la
temperatura, pudiendo llegar en algunos casos incluso a enmascarar la radiación Raman dispersada, tal y
como queda reflejado en la Figura 1. Debido a esto se justifica la necesidad de utilizar temperaturas lo más
bajas posible.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Intensidad (unid. arb.)
CVD1_298K
CVD1_93K
DSHPHT4_298K
DSHPHT4_93K
540 550
560 570
580 590
600 610 620
630 640
650 660
Longitud de onda (nm)
Figura 1. Dependencia de la temperatura de las bandas de fotoluminiscencia (575 y 637 nm) en dos
muestras de diamante sintético HPHT y CVD.
Para obtener los espectros Raman/FL se empleó un sistema Raman confocal de la firma BWTEK, modelo
VoyageTM BWS435-532. Este sistema está compuesto por un láser de banda estrecha de excitación a 532.0
nm con una potencial nominal máxima de 21.8 mW. Además, la potencia del láser es ajustable mediante
varios filtros de densidad neutra de 79, 50, 25, 10, 5 y 1%. El espectrofotómetro consta de un
monocromador simple de doble paso con un intervalo espectral desde 531.4 a 664.5 nm, con una
resolución de unos 3 cm-1. La detección de la radiación se realiza mediante una CCD Hamamatsu modelo
S10141-1107S, refrigerada termoeléctricamente a -20oC, con un área efectiva de 122x2048 píxeles. El
microscopio confocal, modelo Olympus BX51, dispone tres objetivos 10x, 20x y 50x así como una
plataforma xyz donde se sitúa la muestra que se puede mover en las direcciones x, y,z. Además, dispone de
una cámara digital tipo PGR ChamaleonTM que permite monitorizar el punto exacto de incidencia del láser.
El dispositivo completo se controla mediante el software BWSpecTM. Los espectros FL se registraron a
temperaturas de 298 K (25oC) y 93 K (-180oC), manteniéndose con un error de ± 0.1oC durante el tiempo de
medida. Para ello, se empleó una placa criogénica Linkam, modelo THMS600, la cual empleaba nitrógeno
líquido como líquido criogénico. L
Luminiscencia en el DiamondView
Se utiliza una fuente de radiación UV de longitud de onda menor de 225 nm. El diamante al ser excitado
emite una luminiscencia superficial procedente de las zonas en las que están distribuidos los distintos
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
defectos estructurales del cristal causantes de emisiones características. Esto se corresponde también con
los distintos patrones de crecimiento que caracterizan a los diamantes naturales, sintéticos de HPHT y
sintéticos de CVD (Fig 2).
DIAMANTES NATURALES
DIAMANTES SINTÉTICOS
HPHT
CVD
Figura 2. Imágenes de DiamondView en diamantes naturales y sintéticos
RESULTADOS
Características espectroscópicas conocidas
En el proceso de HPHT además de la reorganización macroestructural, desaparición de planos de
deslizamiento y dislocaciones, tiene lugar la disociación de los agregados de nitrógeno dando lugar a mayor
número de átomos de nitrógeno disperso que a esas temperaturas atrapan vacantes negativas y neutras
aumentando la cantidad de los conocidos centros N-Vo (575 nm) y N-V- (637 nm).
Las experiencias realizadas han demostrado que todos los diamantes naturales y sintéticos CVD con
nitrógeno, estudiados, que han sido tratados por HPHT contienen los dos centros y que se cumple la
relación de intensidades N-V- > N-Vo, tal y como se muestra en la Figura 3.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
575 nm
637 nm
Intensidad (unid. arb.)
DNT5
DNT4
DSCVD2
DSCVD3
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
Longitud de onda (nm)
Figura 3. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de los diferentes diamantes naturales y sintéticos con nitrógeno
tratados por HPHT.
Así mismo, en la Figura 4 se observa que todos los diamantes sintéticos de HPHT con nitrógeno contienen
los dos centros N-V o, al menos, los N-V-.
Intensidad (unid. arb.)
DSHPHT10
DSHPHT6
DSHPHT5
DSHPHT4
DSHPHTT1
DSHPHT3
DSHPHT2
540
550
575 nm
560
570
580
590
637 nm
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
Intensidad (unid. arb.)
Longitud de onda (nm)
er
1 orden
Raman
570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642
Longitud de onda (nm)
Longitud de onda (nm)
Figura 4. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de los diferentes diamantes sintéticos por HPHT con nitrógeno. Todas
las muestras presentan centros N-V- (637 nm) y sólo algunos centros N-Vo (575 nm).
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Por otra parte, la Figura 5 muestra que los diamantes naturales con mucho nitrógeno que no han sido
tratados por HPHT contienen pequeñas cantidades de centros N-V-, pero no contienen los N-Vo.
DNT2
DNT1
DNZ
Intensidad (unid. arb.)
637 nm
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
Longitud de onda (nm)
Figura 5. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de los diferentes diamantes naturales con nitrógeno. Se observa la
presencia de los centros N-V- (637 nm) así como la ausencia de centros N-Vo (575 nm).
Características espectroscópicas no analizadas en estudios previos
615 nm.- Solo se ha detectado en todos los diamantes naturales y sintéticos que han sido irradiados (véase
Figura 5).
543 y 545 nm.- Solo se han detectado en los diamantes sintéticos de HPHT marrones De Beers.
549, 558 y 563 nm.- Solo se han detectado en los diamantes sintéticos de HPHT sin nitrógeno azules.
658 nm.- Solo se ha detectado en todos los diamantes naturales y sintéticos con nitrógeno.
588 nm.- Solo se ha detectado en todos los diamantes naturales y sintéticos con nitrógeno que han sido
tratados por HPHT.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Figura 6. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de los diferentes diamantes naturales y sintéticos irradiados. La banda
de fotoluminiscencia centrada a 615 nm es característica de este tipo de muestras.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Figura 7. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de tres diamantes naturales irradiados (A, B y C). La banda de
fotoluminiscencia centrada a 615 nm es característica de este tipo de muestras así como la imagen de
DiamondView (D).
A
B
Figura 8. Espectros Raman/FL (93K) de un diamante natural tratado por HPHT,irradiación y LPLT (A). Los
rasgos característicos del tratamiento combinado se complementan con la imagen determinante de
DiamondView (B).
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
PRESENTATION: THE HANDBOOK OF GEMMOLOGY
Geoffrey M. Dominy
F.G.A (with Distinction), Canada
ABSTRACT: In 1367, at the insistence of Don Pedro the Cruel of Sevilla, Edward of Woodstock, Prince of
Wales, Duke of Cornwall and Prince Aquitaine (1330 –1376) helped quell an insurgence by Don Pedro’s own
brother at the Battle of Najera. In return, the Black Prince, demanded payment in the form of the 170 carat
ruby that Don Pedro himself had taken from the body of the original owner Abu Said, the Moorish Prince of
Granada, who many believe he had stabbed to death.
Unfortunately for Edward of Woodstock the 170 carat ruby was not a ruby… it was a red spinel.
Times have certainly changed since the days of Edward of Woodstock. Fortunately we no longer rely on
colour purely as the basis of gemstone identification, we rely on science.
Enter ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’……..
Gemmologist and author Geoffrey M. Dominy F.G.A (with Distinction) and internationally renowned
gemstone photographer Tino Hammid have teamed up to bring the newest offering to the gemological
table. Combining state of the art technology that allows you to view their book on your computer, iPhone,
iPad, android or e-reader, ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’ consists of 654 pages and over 700 colour
photographs, diagrams and illustrations and is divided into three sections, ‘Gemmology’, ‘Reflections by
Tino Hammid’ and ‘Gem Identification’.
Join author Geoffrey M. Dominy as he demonstrates the book and talks about his passion for gemmology.
PRESENTACIÓN DE “THE HANDBOOK OF GEMMOLOGY”
RESUMEN: En 1367, ante la insistencia de Don Pedro el Cruel de Sevilla, Eduardo de Woodstock, Príncipe de
Gales, Duque de Cornualles y el Príncipe de Aquitania (1330 -1376) ayudó a sofocar una insurgencia del
propio hermano de Don Pedro en la batalla de Nájera. A cambio, el Príncipe Negro exigió el pago en forma
de un rubí de 170 quilates que el propio Don Pedro había tomado del cuerpo de su dueño original Abu Said,
el príncipe moro de Granada, que muchos creen que él mismo había apuñalado hasta la muerte.
Por desgracia para Eduardo de Woodstock el rubí de 170 quilates no era un rubí... era una espinela roja.
Los tiempos han cambiado desde la época de Eduardo de Woodstock. Afortunadamente, ya no confiamos
solo en el color como la base de la identificación de piedras preciosas, nos basamos en la ciencia.
Bienvenidos a “The Handbook of Gemmology”…
El gemólogo y autor Geoffrey M. Dominy FGA (con honores) y el internacionalmente reconocido fotógrafo
de piedras preciosas Tino Hammid se han unido para llevar esta nueva oferta a la mesa gemológica.
Combinado con la tecnología más avanzada que permite ver el libro en el ordenador, iPhone, iPad, Android
o e-book, "El Manual de Gemología” consta de 654 páginas y más de 700 fotografías a color, diagramas e
ilustraciones y se divide en tres secciones: "Gemología", "Reflexiones por Tino Hammid' e “Identificación de
Gemas”.
Únete al autor Geoffrey M. Dominy en su presentación del libro y comparte su pasión por la gemología.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Gemologist and author Geoffrey M. Dominy F.G.A (with Distinction) and internationally renowned
gemstone photographer Tino Hammid have teamed up to bring the newest offering to the gemological
table. Combining state of the art technology (that allows you to download their book onto your Mac or
Windows PC, iPad, iPhone, smart phone or e-Reader), with a no nonsense approach to gemmology and
a stunning array of photographs by Tino Hammid, ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’ delivers at every
level.
‘I had always admired Tino’s work and I knew that with his photographs and my words we could
create something that was unique and different. From the outset, we wanted the book to not only be
up-to-date and user friendly but also affordable. We also wanted to explore digital technology since
this would give us greater freedom and more importantly the ability to update the contents on a
regular basis’ says Dominy.
Indeed part of their marketing strategy is to update the book every year providing those who have
previously purchased the book with the opportunity to buy the latest edition at a reduced price
through their preferred client pricing policy.
Consisting of 654 pages and over 700 color photographs, diagrams and illustration, the ‘Handbook of
Gemmology’ is a lavish treat that takes the science of gemmology to a different level.
The e-book is divided into three sections: ‘Gemology’, ‘Reflections by Tino Hammid’ and ‘Gem
Identification’.
The first section covers the science of gemology, including the chemical nature of gemstones, their
physical and optical properties, basic crystallography, the absorption of light, the spectroscope,
polarized light, the polariscope, pleochroism, the dichroscope, color filters, specific gravity,
luminescence, magnification, thermal conductivity, imitation, assembled and synthetic gemstones,
enhancements, mining, gem cutting and grading.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
The center section includes 160 color plates by Tino Hammid in quarter, half and full page layouts
including not only famous gemstones such as the Hope Diamond, the Hancock Red and Green
Diamonds, the Star of Asia Blue Sapphire, the Rosser Reeves Star Ruby and the Archduke Joseph and
De Young Pink Diamonds but also a dazzling array of exceptional, rare and unusual gemstones in a
kaleidoscope of colors.
The third section covers gem identification and includes twelve chapters covering the identification of
gemstones based on their color and transparency plus natural, cultured and imitation pearls, and
advanced gem testing techniques.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
At just under $ 50.00, ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’ is not only a wonderful addition to anybody’s
gemological library at an affordable price but also the ideal blend of science and the latest technology.
During this presentation, author Geoffrey Dominy takes you on a virtual tour of the book, explaining
not only the various topics covered but also the rational behind them. He will also talk about the
challenges both he and Tino faced in trying to digitize a book of this size and scope, the many
obstactles they encountered and how they were able to overcome them.
About the Authors
Geoffrey Dominy is an independent gemmologist based in Vancouver, British
Columbia and the senior jewelry appraiser on the CBC Canadian Antiques
Roadshow. He is a Fellow of the Gemmological Association and Gem Testing
Laboratory of Great Britain with Distinction, which is one of the highest
gemmological designations in the world. He has been appraising, lecturing and
teaching since 1987 and was a contributing author for both the 5th & 6th
Editions of Robert Webster’s ‘Gems’ which even today is considered one of the
most authoritative textbooks in Gemmology.
Tino Hammids’ photographs have appeared in countless books, major jewelry
publications, and advertisements. Winner of two Jesse H. Neal awards from the
Association of Business Publishers for his work with David Federman and
Modern Jeweler, he has also photographed more than a hundred Jewellery sales
catalogues for Christie’s Auction House. His business is located in Los Angeles,
California.
What the Industry is saying about the Book
(The Handbook of Gemmology) ….. – an absolutely stunning MUST HAVE eBook. Take it along on your
cellphone or tablet, flip the pages on a wide-screen computer monitor and you will quickly appreciate
this innovative approach. Filled with superb photography, hundreds of diagrams and illustrations it is
not only the best up-to-date resource for gemmology but also an excellent learning tool. Wolf Kuehn,
Canadian Institute of Gemmology.
Tom Chatham from Chatham Created Gemstones writes……”At first, I scanned the entire book and
was blown away at the depth of coverage in every discipline, presented in language every student can
comprehend and benefit from”…
“Your research on gemstones made in the laboratory was the most complete, in depth accounting, I
have ever read; almost too in depth. I can see some new competitors growing out of your factual
information”…
With Geoffrey’s unique and easy to understand style and Tino’s awesome photography this book is
gem and gemology eye candy and brain candy for budding and seasoned gemologists and anyone with
a love of gemstones. What an incredible value for so little cost……Michael D. Cowing.
Conny Forsberg of GemologyOnline writes……..”Publications spanning the entire subject of basic
gemmology are few and not showing up every day. In May of this year I received a new publication by
gemmologist Geoffrey M. Dominy who just released his contribution to the field of gemmology”.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
“It is distributed digitally for a variety of platforms and is aimed at beginners as well as professionals.
The language is straight on and easy to grasp and the subdivision of the eBook into chapters guiding
the beginner from the foundating chemistry and physics into the world of gemstones and their
properties is well thought through. Illustrations many times show gemmological/physical principles
with the aid of every day objects and situations. This approach makes the understanding easier for
beginners who then can relate to familiar things. There are many photographic illustrations of very
high quality showing everything from inclusions, different gem color qualities and the mining of
gemstones. As a fantastic bonus the book contains a whole section of gemstone images by the well
known gem photographer Tino Hammid, called Reflections“.
“If you are looking for a nice and up-to-date publication covering the field of gems and gemmology
where you have most of the information you need, go for it. I will for sure recommend this as one of
the must have to everyone thinking of becoming a gemmologist and asking me the question what
books to start with”.
“To be completely honest I will always keep ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’ in my iPad or Windows 8
pad”.
The International School of Gemmology writes……’The Handbook of Gemmology is so amazing that
I find it difficult to put into words the true importance of this work. Rather than give our readers a
long, drawn-out, well-deserved glowing review of this amazing project, let me simply say this:
“The Handbook of Gemmology by Geoffrey M. Dominy replaces Richard T. Liddicoat, Jr’s. Handbook of
Gem Identification as the single most important knowledge and reference resource in the world of
gemology and gemstones.’
This 654 page interactive masterpiece on DVD virtually eliminates the need for 90% of the other
gemology reference books on the market, and costs only: US $49.95 on DVD.
Seriously! If this project were printed and bound it would have to cost over $400.00. By using the
latest digital technology of the ‘flip-book’, Geoffrey Dominy has accomplished what many thought was
a totally impossible task: Utilizing the finest minds of this industry to produce the ultimate handbook
on gemmology, and provide it at a price that everyone can afford!
Gloria Staebler of Lithographie writes……”We want to add our voice to the chorus of enthusiastic
endorsements for Geoffrey M. Dominy’s readable, fully searchable, independently edited, and
gloriously illustrated ‘Handbook of Gemmology’. This worthwhile volume is available exclusively as an
ebook to which the author promises annual updates. We highly recommend this affordable,
indispensable reference”.
To learn more about ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’,
http://www.handbookofgemmology.com
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please
visit their website
at:
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
THE SYMBOLISM OF GEMSTONE CUTTING
Viktor Tuzlukov
College of Gem Cutting, Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT: Gemstone cutting could be art, not only craft. Carrying symbols in the pattern of facets, gems
could bring to the mind some associations based on these symbols. “Lapis Philosophorum” collection was
the first attempt of author to reach the art-object level, to fulfill gemstones with the meaning by symbolism
of faceting. Three generations of the “philosophical” stones – three ways to the comprehending of symbols,
three different mechanisms of cooperation between gemstone and human consciousness. Gemstone-friend,
gemstone-assistant, gemstone-teacher. Faceted stone as the carrier of author’s idea, method and feature of
the master’s creative realization. Samples and video presentation.
EL SIMBOLISMO EN EL TALLADO DE GEMAS
RESUMEN: La talla de gemas también puede ser un arte, no solo artesanía. Los símbolos reflejados en la
forma de las facetas de la gema pueden causar determinadas asociaciones en el observador. La colección
“Lapis Philosophorum” fue el primer intento del autor de conseguir el nivel de arte en el tallado de gemas,
llenando las piedras de significado especial a través del simbolismo en sus facetas. Tres generaciones del
las piedras “filosofales” – tres formas de entender los símbolos, tres diferentes mecanismos de cooperación
entre la gema y la conciencia del observador. Gema-amigo, gema-ayudante, gema-maestro. Las piedras
facetadas como transmisores de la idea del autor, método y característica de la realización creativa del
maestro. Presentación de muestras y vídeo.
A man decorated himself by symbols since the ancient age. First it was paintings and tattoos on body,
talismans and amulets on clothes, then jewelry. And, if beads or necklaces carried images of some symbols,
gemstones were just an addition to the jewelry pieces increasing its beauty, charm and, of course, value.
Today the technology level lets fill gemstone proper by meaning, depicting symbols in the pattern of facets.
The collection named “Lapis Philosophorum” or “Philosophical Gemstone”, created in 2009, has become
my first experience of using symbols in gemstone cutting. That time it contained seven stones, now - ten
stones. In design of each stone you can make out either image. And the parable was written to each stone.
This parable revealed the image into philosophical conception. In fact, two kinds of art - literature and
faceting – supplement each other. I refer to faceting as art - it is not a mistake in this case. What is the
objective of art? To call up the chain of image-bearing associations in the human mind. These associations
have emotional tint and awake an occurrence of “creative resonance” when a man wants to be a creator.
The parable gives the initial mood of the concrete image, and the gemstone, keeping this image, acts the
part of “a key” which opens well-known chain of associations in the mind.
It is important that this “key-stone”, like any art-object, is taken by people differently. A profane sees just
simple jewelry insert, a piece of mineral which is cut into some shape. But, if somebody read the parable
and saw the symbol among facets, it takes gemstone as more than just beautiful trinket. For such man this
gemstone like a friend who could sense his thoughts about problem touched in the parable and expressed
by the symbol. And the depth of comprehension of this problem depends on spiritual progress of the man.
For example, gemstone named “The World’s Treasure”. It has shape of a polished diamond seen from the
side, in profile. The crown facets repeat the pattern of standard diamond cutting. But it is visible, the outer
layer. And the star shines on pavilion, the back side which is hidden from our eyes. It means that another,
much deeper things could be hidden behind the obvious values. This idea is disclosed in the parable
connected to this stone: once man must choose the main treasure for him, and mistake could cost much
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
and much… Now in practice we can say that these gemstones found new niche on the jewelry market – comeditation, the place traditionally taken by books, films and paintings.
It was the first generation of Philosophical stones. The symbolism of the second generation has another
level; in the difference with mentioned case, it is active.
To understand this expression, have a look at the sample. The gemstone named “The Ariadna thread” has
round shape. There are two seven-rays stars on pavilion. One star has “light” rays contained from one
facet. Another star has two-facet rays, as if darkened by lengthwise edge. These two stars with common
center are the symbol of our Universe – the one in the duality of spiritual and material aspects. Rays of the
stars alternate (or rather to say – unite) by lower girdle facets – symbol of pervasive unity, invisible cloth of
the space.
So, on pavilion we can see the space. The crown facets apply to the human nature. The star heptagon
(symbol of a man, his physical nature which reveals in his words and actions) is going to the girdle. The
same heptagon of less size is inserted in the bigger one. This is symbol of the inner nature of a man, which
manifests itself in his ideas, expectances and motives. It is worth draw attention that sides of the heptagons
are parallel – it’s the ideal case when human lives in harmony with his inner world, and his thoughts don’t
separate off the actions.
Now have a look how correlates human with space in this stone. The corners of “human” heptagon concur
with corners of the “Matter star” on pavilion. This is the way of an ordinary man which lives by the interests
of material world. But if we rotate crown facets when cutting just on one ray relatively to pavilion – a man
represented in the stone begins to go by the spiritual way. This is road of the holies, the hermits living for
the commonweal. And the main work of the stone begins just now, when I give the gemstone to the new
owner saying: “This stone carries your image. Held it and don’t forget your way and your place in the
Universe”.
What happens after that? Many of us know about thoughts materiality. And now, each time when you see
the stone, take it, admire it – the associations connected with its symbolism arise in your mind. And these
thoughts begin to change your destiny – invisibly, drop by drop. But – who knows? – may be just this
invisible correction, like the last straw, once will turn the scale and prevent the irreparable action…
There was the second generation of the Philosophical gemstones. Four years is a long time for the creative
activity, and first Gems of the third generation have appeared.
I will not talk so much about these stones, because I don’t know exactly the mechanism of its action. These
are world-view gems which change human consciousness. Such this stone acted with me, for example.
When the design of gemstone was created on the computer, I understood that it is impossible to facet it.
But when I made a step behind the impossible – I became another man. Once after finish my work I have
seen the Universe around me as this Gemstone and my consciousness also as this stone inserted into the
big one. But inserted not only by corners, like square inserts into circle, - by all facets, all edges, all essence.
That time I sensed that there are no people separate from me – only one Mankind scattered on the facets
of planet. And each man is me, with all my joys and sorrows. And one moment of this acknowledgement
gave me more than all previous life. I did not understand exactly what has happened. In fact, I faceted
whole world while faceting one stone. At the same time I faceted myself and, the most important, the way
of my transformation to the harmony of this world. That is the third generation.
The Gemstone that I talked about was donated to His Holiness Dalai Lama because it symbolically presents
the Buddhist Mandala. The Kalachakra Mandala contains 722 elements, the stone contains 722 facets as
well. Each facet reflects either aspect of the Existence. And incredible play of light in the facets gives the
obvious presentation of complexity of the Universe aspects interaction. This is good illustration of the idea,
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
which expressed by one of the first “Philosophical gemstones” named “Touching to the Perfection”: the
real Master can use any features for the creative self-actualization – pen and paper, guitar and microphone,
paints and canvas, stone and lap. The main thing is the Master should have something to say and his ideas
crystallized in his work should bring joy to the people.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
SCIENTIFIC GRADE RAMAN & PHOTOLUMINESCENCE SPECTROMETER IN GEMOLOGICAL LABORATORY
Mikko Åström and Alberto Scarani
M&A Gemological Instruments -Alhotie 14, 04430 Järvenpää, Finland
ABSTRACT: M&A Gemological Instruments has developed two fully automatic Raman & Photoluminescence
spectrometer models for gemological applications. The use of the spectrometer, from basic gem
identification to specific advanced applications for detecting treatments and synthetic gemstones will be
illustrated in the session.
Attendees of the congress workshop will be given hands on opportunity for familiarizing with the technique
and understanding its functionality. New GemmoRaman-532SG model, based on state of the art TEC cooled
scientific grade spectrometer will be also presented.
Besides basic gem identification by Raman fingerprint, the PL feature is extremely useful to spot for
treatments and, in some cases, synthetics. Identifying jade type and possible polymer impregnation,
characterizing emerald types (natural schist/non-schist and synthetics), separating natural, unheated spinel
from synthetic and heat treated spinel, determining color origin of cultured freshwater pearls and coral,
discriminating imperial topaz by the chromium content, these are only some of the task s the
GemmoRaman-532 is able to do. The SG model extended spectral range and thermo electronically cooled
spectrometer allows important diamond related studies, such as Silicon Vacancy luminescence detection for
synthetic CVD diamonds and GR1 peak for irradiated diamonds. GemmoRaman-532 is also one of the few
tools available for distinguishing between untreated and HPHT treated colorless natural type IIa diamonds.
ESPECTRÓMETRO DE RAMAN Y FOTOLUMINISCENCIA DE NIVEL CIENTÍFICO EN EL LABORATORIO
GEMOLÓGICO
RESUMEN: M&A Gemological Instruments ha desarrollado dos modelos completamente automatizados de
espectrómetros de Raman y Fotoluminiscencia. El uso del espectrómetro, desde la identificación básica de
gemas hasta las aplicaciones especificas avanzadas para la detección de tratamientos y gemas sintéticas se
enseñaran en la sesión.
Los asistentes del congreso tendrán la oportunidad de familiarizarse con las técnicas y comprender su
funcionalidad. El nuevo modelo GemmoRaman-532SG, basado en la última generación de espectrómetros
de nivel científico con refrigeración TEC, también será presentado.
Además la identificación básica de gemas mediante ( Huella digital Raman), la Fotoluminiscencia
característica extremadamente útil para detectar tratamientos y, en algunos casos, sintéticos.
Identificación de tipos de jade y posible impregnación con polímeros, caracterización de tipos de esmeralda
( natural esquisto/no-esquisto y sintéticas), separación de naturales, espinela con y sin tratamiento térmico,
determinación de origen del color en perlas cultivadas de agua dulce y coral, discriminación de topacio
imperial por el contenido de cromo, estas son solo algunas de las tareas que el Gemmo-Raman-532 es capaz
de realizar. El espectrómetro modelo SG de rango espectral extendido y termoelectrónicamente refrigerado
permite importantes estudios relacionados con el diamante, tales como la detección por luminiscencia de la
Vacante de Silicio en diamantes sintéticos CVD y los picos GR1 en diamantes irradiados. GemmoRaman-532
es también una de las pocas herramientas disponibles para la distinción entre diamantes naturales incoloros
del tipo IIa sin tratar y tratados por HPHT.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
M&A Gemological Instruments has developed two fully automatic Raman & Photoluminescence
spectrometer models for gemological applications. The use of the spectrometer, from basic gem
identification to specific advanced applications for detecting treatments and synthetic gemstones will be
illustrated in the workshop session of International Gemological Congress in Madrid 2014.
The combined Raman & photoluminescence (PL) spectrometer is a powerful instrument for gem
identification. Current developments in miniature CCD spectrometers and laser technology make Raman
spectrometers finally affordable for small gem labs and gemologists. Raman spectrometer is nondestructive, non-contact optical device. It works for loose and mounted as well as rough gems and it does
not require special sample preparation. In most cases it produces a diagnostic identification. All these
properties combined in single technology make Raman one of the most important tools on gemologist's
desktop in foreseeable future.
Fig 1. GemmoRaman532SG – scientific grade gemological Raman & photoluminescence spectrometer
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Basic material identification
In vast amount of cases the gem under study exhibits distinct Raman scattering and its identification is a
very straightforward process with the GemmoRaman spectrometer. The fully automatic software optimizes
the spectrum acquisition and compares the result to library items. A mathematical algorithm calculates
matching percentage between the sample and library items and displays the results in order from best to
weakest match. The result is typically fully diagnostic for the identification, and gemologist may
conveniently move on to other important tests. For example, Fig 1 shows typical Raman spectrum of
diamond and some of its simulants. The total time of the analysis varies from 20 seconds to 4 minutes
depending on the strength of Raman effect of the material and by some spectral quality choices made by
the operator.
Fig 2. Raman spectra of diamond and some diamond simulants are a good example of diagnostic properties of Raman
spectrometer.
Treatments
In some cases is possible to identify a foreign material impregnating treatment. Jadeite is commonly
treated by bleaching, dyeing and impregnation. The most commonly used chemicals for impregnation are
resins or other polymers which can be identified by series of peaks near 3000 cm-1 and 1610 cm-1. Basically,
untreated A-type jadeite does not show any Raman peaks above the 1100 cm-1 line. It should be noted that
VIS-NIR spectroscopy is needed for testing the origin of color. Typically coloring agents of C-type (dyed) jade
can not be seen in Raman or PL spectrum.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig 3. Raman spectra of type A and type B jadeite.
Photoluminescence
Traditionally Raman spectrometers operating with visible wavelength laser have been considered
somewhat problematic, since some materials fluoresce uncharacteristically at the Raman fingerprint zone
masking the very weak Raman scattering effect. The extension of the spectrometer wavelength range in
order to cover a wider area at red and near infrared gives more precise understanding about the
luminescence reactions involved. Many materials, especially gems containing chromium, vanadium or rare
earth elements do exhibit characteristic photoluminescence which can be used for positive material
identification and in some cases for getting information about natural vs. synthetic origin or treatments.
For example, Fig 4 contains PL- spectra of natural unheated red spinel (green line) having characteristic set
of relatively narrow chromium related peaks at red. This photoluminescence effect is probably one of the
most known by gemologists as some times these so called ‘organ pipes’ can be seen as emission lines in
traditional optical spectroscope. If well-ordered spinel crystal lattice receives heat above 800°C it starts to
disorder. Disordering shows up in the PL spectrum so that emission peaks start to broaden, merge and shift
(red line).
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig 4. Photoluminescence spectrum of chromium in spinel crystal lattice.
Diamond
Photoluminescence has a bright future for the gemology as
most of its applications are still waiting for to be found.
However, as diamond is the most studied material in human
history it is not a surprise that most of the currently published
scientific PL articles are focused on diamond. Usually, a
diamond sample needs to be cooled to at liquid nitrogen
temperature (LNT) for detecting even the weakest PL signals.
MAGI have developed a cooling finger system allowing the
stone to be cooled without liquid nitrogen immersion. This
approach reduces the acquisition time and prevents
formation of ice from ambient moisture. Special metal alloy
ensures good thermal contact and cools the diamond
temperature in fast but secure manner.
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Fig 5. GemmoRaman LNT accessory
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
CVD- diamond
One of the most important PL application of GemmoRaman-532SG is the detection of Si-V (Silicon vacancy)
peaks of CVD diamond at 737nm. This crystallographic defect has been found from some natural diamonds,
but it is still one of the most important signs of CVD origin. Si-V is very heat resistant defect and it can’t be
easily removed by HPHT post treatment.
Fig 6. Strong Si-V- peak at 737 nm is a proof of synthetic (CVD) origin of a diamond.
Detecting HPHT treatment of natural type IIa colorless diamonds
HPHT (High Pressure High Temperature) treatment can be used to enhance the color grade of brownish or
grayish type IIa diamonds to colorless or near colorless. Most of the larger HPHT-treated diamonds has
been sold branded as GE-POL, Bellataire, Pegasus or Monarch and can be readily identified by laser
inscription located on the girdle of the stone. Unfortunately it is possible to remove these laser markings by
repolishing the girdle, and small stones may have entered the market without any inscription at all.
Photoluminescence spectroscopy is one of the very few methods available for determining HPHT treatment
of colorless type IIa diamonds. However, this method cannot be used alone without other instrumentation,
because as a preliminary requirement, the sample under study has to be determined as natural type IIa
diamond.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Fig 7.
HPHT-treated and untreated natural type IIa diamond LNT spectra plotted on the same graph for revealing the
obvious differences in overall appearance. All the lines have been vertically shifted for visual convenience.
Irradiated blue diamonds
Photoluminescence is also the key technology for studying naturally and artificially colored fancy diamonds.
For example, blue diamonds having their color generated by irradiation and subsequent low temperature
annealing can be separated from type IIb blue diamonds by their strong irradiation generated PL-peaks,
such GR1 peak at 741 & 744nm.
Fig 8. Strong GR1- doublet at 741 & 744nm, blue irradiated and annealed diamond, LNT.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
GEMOLOGICAL TRAINING: VIRTUAL LABORATORY
Gonzalo Moreno Díaz-Calderón
Instituto Gemológico Español, Madrid
ABSTRACT: Nowadays, distance learning (via Internet) is being increasingly required by students from all
over the world because they can access customized teaching without leaving their location, choose their
own work schedule, study periods and work pace and due to the fact that a continuous tutoring is at their
disposal, students can rely on a lifelong learning and assessment.
Particularly in the case of Gemology, although the studying is carried out by the students under the
monitoring and tutoring of our specialized teaching staff, what it is absolutely essential is the practical
training which allows them to get in touch directly with gems. In this context, specially developed Virtual
Laboratory application allows our students to learn online how to use the laboratory toolkit to analyze and
identify a gem so, what it is aimed is that our students learn the analysis protocol in order to know exactly
how to proceed when going through face-to-face laboratory practices.
PRÁCTICAS DE GEMOLOGÍA: LABORATORIO VIRTUAL
Gonzalo Moreno Díaz-Calderón
Instituto Gemológico Español, Madrid
RESUMEN: En la actualidad, la enseñanza a distancia (por Internet) está cada vez más demandada por los
alumnos de todo el mundo. De esta forma, los alumnos tienen acceso a la enseñanza a medida, sin tener
que abandonar su localidad, pueden elegir los horarios y ritmo de estudios, y tener a su disposición la
tutoría online para realizar el aprendizaje continuo.
En el caso particular de la Gemología, además de la tutoría personalizada por parte de los profesores, son
absolutamente esenciales las clases prácticas que permiten a los alumnos estar en contacto directo con las
gemas. Para ello, una aplicación de Laboratorio Virtual especialmente desarrollada permite a nuestros
alumnos a practicar online el uso de los principales aparatos gemológicos para analizar e identificar una
gema. De esta forma los alumnos aprenden el protocolo de análisis que es muy útil como fase previa de
preparación para las clases prácticas en el laboratorio real.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
El laboratorio virtual diseñado por el Instituto Gemológico Español divide la enseñanza de las prácticas del
laboratorio en dos partes.
Gemología I.
Teoría y funcionamiento de los instrumentos de laboratorio
Objetivos:
- Aprender los fundamentos y el funcionamiento de los instrumentos del laboratorio
- Aprender a utilizar el equipo de laboratorio
- Aprender a utilizar un método en los análisis
- Aprender a interpretar los resultados
Contenido
- Polariscopio-Conoscopio
- Refractómetro
- Espectroscopio
- Balanza hidrostática
Lámpara de radiaciones ultavioletas (UVL-UVC)
- Lupa binocular
Evaluación
- Una vez comprendida la física del instrumental, el protocolo de análisis y la
interpretación de los resultados el alumno dispone de cajas de 12 gemas
desconocidas que con ayuda del laboratorio virtual debe analizar e identificar
correctamente, en cuyo caso accede a una clave de acceso para poder estudiar e
identificar una 2ª caja y así sucesivamente, en un aprendizaje continuo y
autoevaluativo (disponiendo siempre de un tutor con el que aclarar sus dudas).
Gemología II
Gemas naturales, tratadas y sintéticas
Objetivos
- Continuar el aprendizaje de Gemología I en relación al protocolo de análisis
- Continuar y ampliar el funcionamiento del instrumental de laboratorio.
- Aprender a identificar inclusiones en las gemas (naturales, sintéticas y
tratamientos)
Contenido
- Cajas de gemas virtuales
Evaluación
- Cajas de gemas naturales, sintéticas y tratadas, que el alumno debe analizar e
identificar.
- Cuando haya resuelto la 1º caja tendrá acceso a la clave que le permite realizar la
misma operación con la siguiente caja y así sucesivamente.
Tanto en Gem I como en Gem II el alumno dispone de una biblioteca virtual (tabla
de gemas, espectros, fichas de gemas, métodos de síntesis, tablas dicotómicas, etc.
disponible en el momento que necesite realizar cualquier consulta para comprobar
o ampliar sus conocimientos.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Pantalla de inicio del laboratorio virtual desde la que podemos entrar:
-
En la teoría de los instrumentos del laboratorio, su utilización y fundamento.
Laboratorio donde elegiremos la caja de gemas y utilizaremos los instrumentos necesarios para su
identificación.
Cuaderno de trabajo donde se irán anotando los datos del análisis realizado.
Polariscopio. Partes que lo constituyen, uso y fundamento.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Laboratorio virtual. Instrumentos. Caja de muestras. Cuaderno de trabajo. Biblioteca
En la biblioteca. La ficha de cada gema con sus características ópticas, físicas, cristalización, yacimientos,
tratamientos… Nos ayudan a identificar las gemas de la caja de muestras del laboratorio.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Desde el cuaderno de trabajo podemos dirigirnos a cualquier punto del laboratorio virtual.
En el cuaderno de trabajo se irán anotando todos los datos del análisis que realizamos de las gemas.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Cuando estén clasificadas correctamente las gemas de la caja de muestras obtendremos la clave de acceso
para solicitar y resolver otra caja de gemas. También podremos comparar nuestros datos con los correctos.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
FTIR & RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY APPLICATION IN THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL-PHYSICS PROCESSES IN THE
FORMATION OF FOSSILS RESINS AND THEIR CHARACTERIZATION. COMMUNIC ACID.
Oscar R. Montoro,1 Juan S. Cózar,2 Mercedes Taravillo,1 Valentín G. Baonza,1
MALTA-Consolider Team & QUIMAPRES Team, Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias
Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040. Madrid; Email: ormontoro@quim.ucm.es
2
Instituto Gemológico Español. Laboratorio de Investigación y Certificación de IGE&Minas. C/ Alenza, 1.
28003. Madrid; Email: juancozar@ige.org
1
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this work is to provide spectroscopic evidences of possible chemical pathways
that took place in the formation of fossil resins, through the reactivity of pure communic acids and their
comparison with resins fossils FTIR and Raman spectra. The vast majority of fossil resins derives from
natural terpene-based polymers, and therefore has an organic origin. These are classified into five classes,
of which the most important is called Class I, that are composed by monomers of labdanics family (a type of
diterpene) polymerized, primarily of polymerized communic acids [Anderson et al.,1992]7.
The reaction processes that have taken place throughout the ages until formation of fossil resins are
complex, poorly understood and little studied.
Great part of the spectroscopic certain features they are of great help for the differentiation of the amber in
strict sense of other natural and synthetic resins.
RESUMEN: El propósito de este trabajo es dar evidencias espectroscópicas de posibles rutas químicas que
tuvieron lugar en la formación de las resinas fósiles, a través de la reactividad de los ácidos comúnicos puros
(en este caso con el isómero trans-), y su comparación con los espectros Raman y FTIR de las propias resinas
fósiles. La gran mayoría de las resinas fósiles derivan de co-polímeros terpénicos y por tanto, tienen un
origen eminentemente orgánico. La clasificación más aceptada para las Resinas fósiles está basada en la
Clasificación de Anderson et al. [Anderson et al.,1992]7, la cuál establece una clasificación en cinco Clases
atendiendo a su origen químico, de las cuales la más abundante es la Clase I, cuyos componentes están
formados químicamente principalmente por co-polímeros de terpenos labdánicos, principalmente por
diferentes isómeros de ácidos comúnicos co-polimerizados en sus diferentes formas oxidadas y reducidas.
Los procesos de reacción que han tenido lugar a través de las Eras Geológicas hasta la formación de resinas
complejas, han sido poco estudiados en la literatura.
Las características espectroscópicas de estos ácidos comúnicos son de gran ayuda para la diferenciación de
los diferentes ámbares en sentido estricto de otros naturales y de resinas sintéticas.
El ámbar es una de las piedras fósiles más extraordinarias que ha llegado hasta nuestros días. Tiene el
privilegio de haber sido y ser objeto de estudio en Ciencias tan diversas como la Botánica, la Geología, la
Física, la Química, la Geografía e Historia,…etc.; en áreas más concretas de éstas como la Arqueología, la
Paleontología, la Pre-Historia o la Gemología y, en Artes tan dispares como la Literatura y la
Cinematografía, donde ha servido de inspiración a escritores y cineastas.
La motivación principal del presente estudio es la de aportar datos y tratar de interpretar las posibles
rutas químicas que tuvieron lugar en la formación de las resinas fósiles al ser sometidas, desde pretéritas
Eras Geológicas y durante millones de años, a radiación solar, presión, temperatura e incluso diferentes
composiciones atmosféricas de manera continuada.
La gran mayoría de las resinas fósiles derivan de co-polímeros terpénicos y por tanto, tienen un origen
eminentemente orgánico. La clasificación más aceptada para las Resinas fósiles está basada en la
7
Anderson K. B.; Winans R. E.; Botto R. E. The nature and fate of natural resins in the Geosphere. II.
Identification, Classification and Nomenclature of Resinitas. Organic Geochemistry. 18(6), 829-841, 1992.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Clasificación de Anderson et al. [Anderson et al.,1992]7, la cuál establece una clasificación en cinco Clases,
de las cuales la más abundante es la Clase I, cuyos componentes están formados químicamente
principalmente por co-polímeros de terpenos labdánicos, más concretamente por diferentes isómeros de
ácidos comúnicos co-polimerizados en sus diferentes formas oxidadas y reducidas. En la Figura 1, se
muestra una representación esquemática de esta clasificación.
Figura 1. Representación esquemática del sistema de clasificación de las resinas fósiles Clase I, propuesto
por Anderson et al.7
Los estudios del presente trabajo se han realizado sobre un isómero en particular de los ácidos comúnicos,
esto es, el ácido trans-comúnico puro (véase Figura 2), tratando de simular las condiciones en las que
pudieron envejecer las resinas fósiles ancestrales, (llevándole a extremos para compensar en lo posible la
evidente limitación temporal), siendo los procesos caracterizados y monitorizados fundamentalmente
mediante espectroscopia Infrarroja y Raman.
Dobles enlaces conjugados en disposición trans-.
R = CH3, trans-biformeno
R = CH2OH, trans-comunol
R = COOH, ácido trans-comúnico
R = COOMe, trans-comunato de metilo
Figura 2. Representación del ácido trans-comúnico en sus diferentes formas reducidas
Hay que recalcar que los estudios previos encontrados en la literatura están basados, en su mayoría, en la
caracterización química partiendo de las propias resinitas “maduradas” a través de las Eras Geológicas
(con la complejidad que implica el estudio de una mezcla terpénica presente en las resinas exudadas), hasta
querer llegar a conocer los eslabones individuales que están polimerizados e las mismas. En este trabajo se
ha elegido el camino contrario; esto es, partiendo de terpenos puros como unidades básicas (acreditados
en la literatura como los elementos precursores mayoritarios de las resinas fósiles Clase I, como son
terpenos labdánicos, principalmente ácidos comúnicos), llegar a aportar datos espectroscópicos de cómo
tuvo lugar la formación de las Resinas Fósiles ancestrales. En este trabajo presentado, como ya hemos
reseñado, se ha realizado con el ácido trans-comúnico.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Los procesos de fosilización de las Resinas Fósiles a través de las Eras Geológicas, parece que han tenido
lugar en dos procesos, el primero (en relación con las formas copálicas más jóvenes) por polimerizaciones
iniciales de dobles enlaces conjugados y un segundo nivel de maduración posterior por reacciones
intramoleculare para dar lugar a resinitas más longevas como el ámbar. La polimerización inicial de estos
compuestos (Resinas Fósiles Clase I) se piensa que ocurre primeramente, a través de los grupos olefínicos
terminales localizados en un extremo de la cadena lateral del labdanoide monómero (donde se presentan
el dieno conjugado), predominando la adición 1,2- por impedimento estérico (o adición 14,15- si
atendemos a la nomenclatura común, según Figura 2), resultando la formación de un polímero de
estructura general, 14,15-polilabdatrieno, como el ilustrado en la Figura 3. Nos referiremos a esta fase
como la “polimerización inicial”. Esta “co-polimerización inicial” de los labdatrienos parece ser que tiene
lugar casi a la vez que las resinas son segregadas por las plantas o en las primeras semanas (o meses) desde
que son expuestas al exterior.
Figura 3. Polimerización inicial de los labdatrienos.8
Nos referiremos a la segunda fase de la polimerización como “polimerización de maduración” (véase Figura
4). Los esquemas de maduración propuestos en la literatura para esta fase de mayor maduración son: a)
reacciones de isomerización; b) polimerizaciones intermoleculares (por el exometileno o doble enlace
exocíclico); c) ciclaciones intramoleculares. La principal característica química que lleva consigo es la
pérdida progresiva de los dobles enlaces exocíclicos presentes en los co-polímeros.
Figura 4. Trímero de ácido policomúnico mostrando posibles ciclaciones, isomerizaciones y reacciones de
desfuncionalización. Las flechas internas de las moléculas no sugieren un mecanismo de reacción concreto,
sino que muestran la posibilidad de condensación debido a la proximidad de los carbonos olefínicos,
desfuncionalización e isomerización.9 (P =Polímero)
Para realizar nuestros experimentos sobre el ácido trans-comúnico, la obtención de éste compuesto se ha
llevado a cabo por extracción directa sobre las arcéstidas de diferentes especies de Juniperus, un Género de
la familia de las Cupressaceae (del Orden de las Coníferas), ya que no es comercial. Para este isómero, se
han llevado a cabo las medidas espectroscópicas pertinentes en condiciones ambientales, y se ha realizado
la asignación espectral de los modos de vibración de sus grupos funcionales más característicos. La
8
Carman R. M.; Cowley D. E.; Marty R. A. Diterpenoids. 25. Dundathic Acid and Polycommunic Acid.
Australian Journal of Chemistry 23: 1655, 1970.
9
Clifford D. J.; Hatcher P. G.; Botto R. E.; Muntean J. V.; Anderson K. B. The nature and fate of natural
resins in the geosphere. IX: Structure and maturation similarities of soluble and insoluble polylabdanoids
isolated from Tertiary Class I resinites. Organic Geochemistry 30: 635-650, 1999.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
asignación espectral se ha basado en datos bibliográficos y cálculos mediante la teoría del funcional de la
densidad electrónica, realizados ex profeso para dicho isómero.
Posteriormente, para estudiar la evolución del isómero comúnico emulando (y acelerando) en lo posible la
acción de la naturaleza, se les ha sometido a alta temperatura, a alta presión, a envejecimiento acelerado
en cámara de UV y a diferente atmósfera gaseosa; siempre con la intención de mitigar en lo posible la
“etapa limitante” que hemos de tener presente y que no es otra que la imposibilidad de emular por
completo el “Tiempo de las Eras Geológicas”, es decir, los millones de años a los que las resinas originarias
de las resinitas han estado sometidas a diversas inclemencias.
Además, de monitorizar los cambios estructurales del isómero trans- por espectroscopia, para el caso
particular de la temperatura, nos hemos apoyado también en los estudios realizados por Calorimetría y
Termogravimetría en cada isómero.
En la Figura 5, se muestra los espectros Raman resultantes al someter a este isómero a diferentes
temperaturas, donde cabe destacar el aumento de fluorescencia al llegar a las temperaturas que por
experimentos paralelos por Calorimetría DSC y Termogravimetría ATG, nos indican que tienen lugar
procesos reactivos, que hemos asimilado como “polimerización inicial” de los análogos de resinas fósiles
obtenidos. En la Figura 6, también a diferentes temperaturas, se muestran los espectros infrarrojos del
isómero trans-comúnico, se aprecian los cambios espectroscópicos relacionados con las bandas de las
tensiones y flexiones de los dobles enlaces del ácido trans-comúnico, en especial la banda de 892 cm-1,
fruto de las flexiones C-H del doble enlace exocíclico, propio de la “polimerización de maduración”, en este
caso de nuestros análogos de resinas fósiles obtenidos.
T 175ºC
T 155ºC
Intensidad / u.a.
T 130ºC
T 100ºC
T 25ºC
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Desplazamiento Raman / cm
3000
3500
4000
-1
Figura 5. Espectros del ácido trans-comúnico a 25ºC, 100ºC, 130ºC, 155ºC y 175ºC, donde se pueden
observar los cambios espectrales más significativos que tienen lugar durante el calentamiento,
especialmente el aumento de la fluorescencia.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
1618
Absorbancia / u.a.
340ºC
290ºC
210ºC
180ºC
25ºC
1735
1645
927, propio oopOH...H
892
1260
1320
987
1091
1364
500
1772
600
700
800
1643
1606
1693
1650
1384 1405
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
-1
Número de Onda /cm
Figura 6. Espectros infrarrojos del ácido trans-comúnico tras haber sido sometidos a diferentes
temperaturas, zona espectral 500-1800 cm-1. Donde se muestra marcadas los modos de vibración que más
sufren cambios con la temperatura (los relacionados con las tensiones y flexiones de los dobles enlaces del
ácido trans-comúnico).
A partir de nuestros resultados, hemos creado nuestra propia base de datos de espectros (Raman e
Infrarrojo) de varias resinas fósiles de diferente datación geológica. Para ellas, y basándose en la
elucidación estructural realizada para los ácidos comúnicos, se ha hecho la asignación espectral de manera
más exhaustiva y precisa de dichas resinitas, con el ánimo de mejorar sensiblemente las posibles lagunas
existentes en la bibliografía en cuanto a esta asignación.
Absorbancia / u.a.
Para concluir nuestro estudio, y en el caso particular del ácido trans-comúnico, se han comparado los
espectros Infrarrojo de los “análogos” tras ser sometidos a diferente inclemencia extrema de manera
aislada, con el conjunto de espectros de las propias resinas fósiles, para mostrar el parecido de la evolución
de las resinas fósiles de diferente datación, con los espectros bajo condiciones extremas a las que se ha
sometido al ácido trans-comúnico (véase Figura 7).
340ºC en O2
Resinita de Borneo
Ámbar Báltico
290 ºC
Ámbar de la Rep. Domi.
210 ºC
Copal de Colombia
Copal de Madagascar
180 ºC
UV d+117
Goma Copal contemporánea
Ác. trans-Comúnico
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
-1
Número de Onda / cm
89
3500
4000
International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
Figura 7. Comparativa de los espectros infrarrojo de las resinas fósiles utilizadas en el presente trabajo,
junto con espectros intercalados de experimentos que se han realizado en el presente trabajo (en este caso
envejecimiento UV y alta temperatura), para mostrar el parecido de la evolución de las resinas fósiles, con
los espectros bajo condiciones extremas a las que se ha sometido al ácido trans-comúnico.
A buen seguro, todos los datos aportados en este trabajo serán de extrema utilidad para la identificación
en la Ciencia Forense y en la Gemología, de muestras verdaderas y/o imitaciones de resinas fósiles en
general, prestando especialmente atención a los ámbares del Mar Báltico.
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International Gemological Congress IGE 2014 – Extended abstracts
GEMOLOGY AND LAW: AN EXAMPLE OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND INTERDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION
Mª Pilar Diago Diago1 and Mª Cinta Osácar Soriano2
1: Dpto. de Derecho Privado, Universidad de Zaragoza. C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009-Zaragoza, España.
mpdiago@unizar.es
2: Dpto. de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Zaragoza. C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009-Zaragoza, España.
cinta@unizar.es
ABSTRACT: We present an example of cooperative and interdisciplinary education, in which Gemology and
Law are combined to enhance and upgrade the education of future gemologists and jurists. The experience
case is based on two Seminars about legal aspects (International Trade of gems and the Kimberley Process),
chaired by a professor of Private International Law and followed by a talk. The Seminars are attended by
students of both Gemology and Law, and professionals of Gemology.
Gemology students acquire not only a basis on the vocabulary and legal context of gems, but also a
multidisciplinary approach about gemological questions. With respect to the Law students, the profit lies on
an interesting transference of the juridical theory to the practical cases. The present globalization makes
this approach especially useful.
GEMOLOGÍA Y DERECHO: UN EJEMPLO DE ENSEÑANZA COOPERATIVA E INTERDISCIPLINAR
RESUMEN: La experiencia docente cooperativa e interdisciplinar que se presenta, aúna la Gemología y el
Derecho con la finalidad de enriquecer la enseñanza de los futuros gemólogos y juristas. Se desarrolla a
través de dos Seminarios sobre los aspectos jurídicos de las gemas (Comercio Internacional de gemas y
Proceso Kimberley), impartidos por una profesora de Derecho Internacional Privado y seguidos de un
enriquecedor coloquio. En los Seminarios participan los estudiantes de las dos disciplinas así como
profesionales de la Gemología.
Los estudiantes de Gemología adquieren así no sólo nociones sobre el vocabulario y los fundamentos del
contexto jurídico de las gemas, sino también una perspectiva pluridisciplinar sobre los problemas
gemológicos. Para los estudiantes de Derecho tales resultados se concretan, en especial, en una interesante
interpolación de la teoría jurídica a la práctica. Todo ello es especialmente útil en el contexto actual de un
mundo globalizado.
Introducción
La actual situación de globalización del conocimiento y de las comunicaciones favorece la incorporación de
contenidos y actividades que promuevan los enfoques pluridisciplinares de las materias a enseñar. Por otra
parte, las directrices del Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior sobre el proceso de enseñanzaaprendizaje, centrado en el trabajo del estudiante, también favorecen el desarrollo de competencias
transversales que, en última instancia, mejorarán su formación. Consecuencia de todo ello es la
revalorización del CV de los discentes, que lo hará más atractivo para un mercado laboral cada vez más
internacionalizado. Por todo ello, en los estudios de Gemología de la Universidad de Zaragoza y, de manera
pionera, se han introducido temas de Derecho Internacional Privado que aparecen íntimamente unidos a la
realidad del comercio internacional de gemas.
El Diploma de Gemología se imparte en la Universidad de Zaragoza desde 2010 como Estudio Propio, en
colaboración con AGEDA (Asociación Gemológica de Aragón). Consta de dos cursos de 130 horas cada uno y
en él se incluyen, no sólo los habituales aspectos normativos relacionados con la nomenclatura de gemas,
sino también temas de Derecho Internacional Privado, uno en cada curso. En el primer curso se dedica
monográficamente un tema a “Las gemas y su marco jurídico actual: Normativa nacional e internacional”.
El comercio internacional de gemas en el contexto de la integración mundial de los mercados es una
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realidadcuyo estudio, desde la perspectiva jurídica,resulta muy interesante como complemento de la
formacióndel estudiante. En el segundo curso se dedica otro tema monográfico a“Las gemas y su
problemática jurídica (Proceso Kimberley)”, tema de relevante actualidad en el comercio internacional de
diamantes y que ha sido objeto de amplia difusión, a través de diferentes medios de comunicación y
Asociaciones internacionales.
La novedad de la experiencia que se presenta consiste en la naturaleza mixta de su desarrollo. Se utiliza el
formato de Seminarios especializados10, en los que participan tanto los alumnos del Diploma de Gemología
como los de la asignatura de Derecho internacional Privado (último curso de licenciatura en Derecho);
también se invita a socios de AGEDA, que representaban al sector profesional.De esta forma, la actividad se
convierte en una experiencia de aprendizaje de tipo cooperativo e interdisciplinar que provoca una alta
motivación en sus participantes.En este trabajo se describe esta experiencia en la primera edición del
Diploma de Gemología de la Universidad de Zaragoza, correspondiente a los cursos 2010-11 y 2011-12.
Objetivos y desarrollo de la experiencia
Aunque la experiencia es conjunta a dos estudios, cada uno de ellos se plantea sus propios objetivos
concretos, enmarcados en su plan de estudios.
Los objetivos concretos para el Diploma deGemología eran:
 Proporcionar a los estudiantes de Gemología algunos conocimientos jurídicos básicos
específicamente relacionados las gemas y la práctica profesional de la Gemología.
 Introducir a los estudiantes en el lenguaje legal y en el contexto jurídico relacionado con la
Gemología
Para ello se utilizaron casos en los que se aplicaban las leyes, tanto comunes como específicas, a
situaciones reales o posibles. Valga como ejemplo la determinación de los Tribunales competentes para
conocer de un litigio surgido de una compra-venta internacional de gemas, así como la ley aplicable al
mencionado litigio.
Para facilitar el seguimiento del discurso jurídico a los estudiantes, sin conocimientos previos de Derecho,
se les proporcionó, con anterioridad, un resumen del tema a tratar, desarrollado conforme a los
paradigmas de la “enseñanza para no juristas”.
De esta forma, los alumnos de Gemología conocieron la legislación a aplicar en distintas situaciones y los
problemas jurídicos que podían surgir.
Los objetivos concretos para la Licenciatura de Derecho eran11:
 Enfrentar a estudiante con supuestos reales que genera el Derecho del comercio internacional de
gemas
 Ponerles en contacto con profesionales de un tema que es objeto de litigio en el ámbito
internacional
 Producción de un ambiente de aprendizaje atractivo y motivador.
 Mejora de la enseñanza y del aprendizaje profundo
El Seminario se componía de tres partes:
10
Tales Seminarios se abrieron a aquellas personas interesadas en los mismos, encuadrándose
las actividades dentro de código abierto v. como ej. post en
http://www.plataformamillennium.com/n-45-seminarios-avanzados-de-derecho-internacionalprivado-millennium-gemologia-y-derecho-internacional-privado-comercio-internacional-de-gemas.
También se difundió la actividad en el colectivo de gemólogos de AGEDA
11Para
un acercamiento a los mismos desde esta rama de Derecho ver DIAGO DIAGO Mª P. (2011) “La innovación
docente en el marco del desarrollo tecnológico. El Derecho Internacional Privado como referente” AAVV
Experiencias de innovación e investigación educativa en el nuevo contexto universitario, Zaragoza (2007)
“Planificación de competencias cooperativas para el estudio del Derecho Internacional Privado” II Congreso de
Innovación docente en Ciencias Jurídicas Málaga.
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 exposición del tema por una especialista de Derecho Internacional Privado, la Dra. Mª Pilar Diago
Diago,
 preguntas sobre el tema de los estudiantes de Gemología y Derecho
 coloquio sobre el tema con los profesionales de la Gemologíae intercambio de impresiones a la luz
de la actualidad de los temas tratados
En ambos casos la participación de los estudiantes fue muy importante y mostraba tanto el interés por el
tema como un alto grado de asimilación de los conocimientos expuestos.Cabe destacar que todas
lasactividades desarrolladas son orientadas a potenciar el Study “Deep” o aprendizaje profundo12.
La evaluación de los resultados se hizo tanto por la participaciónactivaen clase como por:
a)
para la Gemología, cuestiones al respecto en una prueba de evaluación escrita
b)
para el Derecho, entrega de un pequeño trabajo jurídico que incorporaba una sección de
valoración personal, debidamente justificada, sobre las cuestiones que más habían suscitado el
interés del estudiante
Resultados
Como en el caso de los objetivos, es preciso reflejar los resultados para cada uno de los estudios.
En cuanto a la Gemología los principales resultados
 Inmersión en el lenguaje y contexto jurídicoy adquisición de nociones básicas de las leyes
relacionadas con la Gemología
 Valoración, por parte del estudiante, de las cuestiones gemológicas desde el punto de vista jurídico,
mediante el conocimiento de casos reales
 Diálogo entre profesionales de las dos Ciencias (transferencia de conocimiento entre iguales)
Para los estudios de Derecho los principales resultados fueron:
• Creación de un entorno de aprendizaje atractivo
• Transpolación de la teoría jurídica a la práctica
• Fomento del intercambio y la interactividad con otros profesionales
• Favorece el aprendizaje significativo del estudiante
Cabe indicar que de todas las actividades que se realizaron, estas fueron las mejores valoradas por los
estudiantes de Derecho, tanto por la dinámica de su desarrollo como por el interés de los temas analizados.
Conclusiones y perspectivas
La experiencia descrita ha demostrado seraltamente eficaz a la hora de ayudar a los estudiantes a adquirir
un punto de vista pluridisciplinar sobre algunos aspectos de sus estudios. Este aprendizaje es
especialmente útil en el actual contexto de globalización y cambios rápidos que afecta de forma intensa a la
Gemología y que es fundamental en la práctica del Derecho Internacional Privado. Los beneficios de esta
actividad incluyen:
• La creación de un espacio adecuado para el aprendizaje
• El fomento del intercambio, la interacción y la creatividad
• El conocimiento del mayor número de entornos y de realidades
Para los docentes también supone una ganancia en tanto en cuanto implica una: puesta al día en aspectos
“periféricos” y complementarios a los conocimientos básicos.
De esta forma, se contribuye a mejorar las competencias de los futuros profesionales y, por tanto, se
favorece su integración en un contexto laboral, cada vez más internacionalizado y diversificado, lo que es
uno de los objetivos planteados en el EEES.
12RAMSDEN
P. (1992) LearningtoTeach in HigherEducation London
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Por ello, no sólo no se mantiene este tipo de actividad, tan positivamente valorada tanto por estudiantes
como por los profesionales participantes, sino que se está planteando la posibilidad de introducir otros
temas imbricados en contextos amplios directamente relacionados con las gemas y olvidados en el marco
de la enseñanza tradicional centrada en el enfoque desde la perspectiva de una única rama de la Ciencia.
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TYPOMORPHIC FEATURES OF DIAMONDS FROM ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF THE NORTHEASTERN SIBERIAN
PLATFORM
Anastasenko G.F., Bataeva A.A., Klepikov I.V., Zenchenko E.O.
Department of Mineralogy, Geological faculty, Saint Petersburg State University, Russia.
ABSTRACT: The research of the internal and external morphology and phase inhomogeneity of alluvial
diamond deposits of northeastern Yakutia was conducted using a scanning microscope Hitachi TM300, as
well as the scanning electron microscope CamScan MX2500 S (CamScan Electron Optics, Ltd, UK) ( SEM) . A
total was received about 2400 images).
Alluvial diamonds are single crystals , their fragments and splinters. Among polyhedra dominated
octahedral, dodecahedroids and transitional (intermediate ) forms. The predominant morphological type
are dodecahedroids . Polyhedra are combinations of plane- and curve-sided shapes.
APLICACIÓN DEL SEM AL ESTUDIO DE LAS CARACTERÍSTICAS MORFOLÓGICAS DE LOS DIAMANTES DE LOS
DEPÓSITOS ALUVIALES DEL NORDESTE DE LA PLATAFORMA SIBERIANA
RESUMEN: El estudio de la morfología externa e interna y las fases de heterogeneidad de los diamantes de
los depósitos aluviales del Nordeste de Yakutia se ha llevado a cabo utilizando un microscopio electrónico de
barrido CamScam MX2500S (CamScam Electron Optics, Ltd, UK). Se han obtenido un total de 2400
imágenes.
Los diamantes aluviales son monocristales, fragmentos y lascas. Entre los poliedros dominan el octaedro, los
dodecaedroides y formas intermedias. El tipo de morfología predominante son los dodecaedroides. Los
poliedros son combinaciones de formas con caras planas y caras curvadas.
To study the internal and external morphology and phase inhomogeneity of diamond alluvial deposits
northeast of Yakutia raster scanning microscopes HitachiTM300 and CamScan MX2500 S (CamScan Electron
Optics, Ltd, UK) ( SEM) were used. A total of images is 2400.
Diamonds from alluvium Anabaro - Olenek interfluve are presented by single crystals, their fragments,
twinnings and irregularities splices, and fragments. Among of polyhedra, octahedra, rhombic
dodecahedron, most common dodecahedroids, cuboids and transitional (intermediate) forms were
diagnosed. The crystals are presented by combinations of flat and curve shapes.
1. Octahedra. Octahedra are busy about 23% from the total number ( 1375 ) of studied crystals . By
morphological features among them are allocated:
1.1. octahedra with flat faces, straight sharp edges and sharp corners. (Fig. 1) Usually they are colorless,
transparent and small in size - about 1 mm.
1.2. octahedra with plate and plate- step development of the faces. They are composed of overlapping
plates, gradually decreasing in size.
Number of plates on different faces can reach 10. Edges are usually straight and sharp. (Fig. 2). Octahedral
crystals often form irregularly (Fig. 3), parallel (Fig. 4) splices and splices by spinel law (Fig.5).
Surfaces of faces octahedral crystals have many sculptures, characterized by different sizes and vividness.
Back parallel triangular recess (Figure 6), coarse matting and small shallow cavity are most often found on
the faces of the octahedron.
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Surfaces of faces octahedral crystals have many sculptures, characterized by different sizes and vividness.
Back parallel triangular recess (Figure 6), coarse matting and small shallow cavity are most often found on
the faces of the octahedron.
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Fig. 6. Surface of the octahedron diamond crystal № 184
2. Rhombododecahedron.
2.1 Right facets rhombododecahedron.
These crystals are rare. They are transparent and have smooth straight facets and smooth edges (Fig. 7).
2.2 rhombododecahedron with little roundness edges. In such crystals curve-faced surfaces are spread from
the edges and does not exceed 25% of the total surface area of the faces. Rounded surfaces at the mid-rib
sometimes narrowed to very fine strips (Fig. 8).
3. Dodecahedroids. For the separation of the crystals of this group on the species we took into account the
features of the habitus of individuals and their inherent sculptural educations.
3.1. Dodecahedroids with minimal curvature of the facets are widespread in the alluvial deposits of the
district. Private individuals do not have a hatching on the facets, edges have slightly matted surface .The
ribs are distinctly expressed, usually they are curved, but sometimes offset (Fig. 9).
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3.2. Isometric dodecahedroids with clearly pronounced curvature of the facets. This species is extremely
rare. Dodecahedroids have unevenly developed facets of the crystals. They are characterized by a small
number of sculptural formations on the surface of the frosted facets, full transparency and the lack of color
(Fig. 10).
3.3 dodecahedroids flattened by L3.
Flattened dodecahedroids are spread quite widely. The degree of flattening crystals varies widely. When
we have minimum flattening at L3 on the facets, there is a characteristic hatching, closed around the
outlets triple crystallographic axis. Relief of the hatching is usually determined by the degree of flattening with minimal flattening it is represented by blurred strokes, but with a substantial - it is getting more relief
and it can be converted in the stair-step sculpture.
3.4 Difficult-deformed dodecahedroids. These polyhedra are predominant in the described region. The main
difference of this species is curved ribs and bending facets with the emergence of numerous sculptural
formations on the surface.
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In addition, there are crystals, which have the strongly corroded surfaces of facets and they are cracked
cracks. Usually these cracks are filled with iron hydroxides, thereby acquires yellow (to brown ) color of
the crystal. There are large gaping sculptural cracks with covered walls by narrow facet planes on the
surface of hard-deformed dodecahedroids except open and closed rectilinear cracks usually propagated
into the deep of the crystal. Cracks are usually accompanied by a variety cavities with rough edges.
4. Cuboids.
Isometric cuboids are rare. Significantly often we can find complex curve-faceted crystals (see Fig. 13),
which, by their appearance are very differ from isometric cuboids, but nonetheless they have a lot of
features in common. Most strongly developed facets have a troughs, which is reflected in curve of sided
seams and edges. On their surface elongated relief triangular pyramid and teardrop-shaped tubercles are
observed.
Concluding the description of diamond crystals, it should be emphasized that the diamond surface is rich of
the various kinds of the sculptures characterized by different sizes, topography, varying degree of
spreading. First time in our country's careful description of sculptures on the faces of diamond crystals was
performed by AA Kuharenko ( 1955). The question of the genesis of most of the accessories on the surface
of the facets of natural diamonds are currently not resolved - some authors are consider them as a result of
growth, others - as a result of the dissolution ( Fersman , 1955; Kuharenko , 1955; Gnevushev , 1955
backgammon, 1958, Orlov, 1962 , etc.).
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COLLECTION OF DIAMONDS IN THE MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM OF SAINT PETERSBURG STATE
UNIVERSITY.
G.V.Barjudarova, S.Y.Yanson and G.F.Anastasenko
Department of Mineralogy, Geological faculty, Saint Petersburg State University, Russia.
ABSTRACT: The formation of the collection of diamonds in the museum of the department of the mineralogy
of St-Petersburg State University stated in 1875 -1877 with the purchasing several small Brasil crystals
from well-known merchant C.F.Pecha. Following appending of the collection dates to 1912-1914 when
South-African samples from Kimberly from well-known firm Kranz were bought. Then, the professor of
Department of Mineralogy A.A.Kukharenko deals with the crystals of diamonds during several years, it is
shown in our collection.
After the discovering in 1954 in Yakutia the bed-rock deposits of diamonds the museum gets gifts of
separate crystals of diamonds and its fragments and samples from kimberlite tubes as well. Soon
V.Yu.Massaytis delivers small grains from Popigai vent. The main pride of the museum is the collection of
crystals (more than 1000 individuals) delivered by I.F.Gorina – our graduate from the alluvial deposits of the
northeastern part of Siberian platform.
COLECCIÓN DE DIAMANTES EN LA COLECCIÓN DEL MUSEO MINERALÓGICO DE LA UNIVERSIDAD ESTATAL
DE SAN PETERSBURGO.
RESUMEN: La formación de la colección de diamantes en el Museo del Departamento de mineralogía de la
Universidad Estatal de San Petesburgo se llevó a cabo entre 1875 y 1877 con la compra de varios cristales
pequeños de Brasil del bien conocido comerciante C.F.Pecha. Continuando la ampliación de la colección
entre 1912 y 1914 cuando las muestras sudafricanas de Kimberley fueron compradas a la bien conocida
firma Kranz. Entonces, el profesor del Departamento de Mineralogía A.A.Kukharenko se encargó de los
cristales de diamante durante varios años, esto se muestra en nuestra colección.
Después del descubrimiento en 1954 en Yakutia de los yacimientos de diamantes, el museo consigue
gratuitamente separar cristales de diamantes y sus fragmentos así como también muestras de las pipes
kimberlíticas. V. Yu Massaytis entrega pequeños granos del cráter Popigai. El principal orgullo del museo es
la colección de cristales (más de mil muestras) entregadas por I.F.Gorina, nuestro graduado de los depósitos
aluviales del Nordeste de la plataforma siberiana.
The Mineral collection of St.-Petersburg State University has rich history which goes back more than 230
years. It exhibits huge systematic collection(Fig.1) and memorial collections. A significant role in the mineral
collection plays the diamond collection. The history of that collection dates back to the 19th century. The
first diamonds appeared in the museum's collection from E.K. Hofman (the head of the chair in 1845-1862).
This collection consists of 15 diamonds from Brazil (Minas Gerais). Among them larger attention should be
given to the big rhombic -dodecahedron crystal (0.794 g)(Fig. 2) and to the rounded crystal 0.8299 g
weight.
In 1875 in the office of famous Mineral seller C.F. Pecha were bought for 90 marks two large colorless and
transparent crystals (2 and 3 mm) from South Africa. In 1877 in the same place were bought two more
cubic crystals from Brazil (Minas Gerais) for 60 marks. One of these crystals is 5 mm along the edge of the
cube and 0.21 g weight. It is black because of graphite inclusions. Another crystal is smaller only 2 mm
along the edge of the cube and 0.021 g weigt (Fig. 3).
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Fig. 1. The second hall of the Museum. The systematic collection locates here.
Fig.2 Rhombic -dodecahedron crystal from Brazil (Minas Gerais)
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Fig.3. Cubic diamond crystals from Brazil (Minas Gerais)
In the beginning of the 20th century (1912) from dr.F.Krantza famous firm selling minerals were bought
specimens of kimberlite with diamond crystals and grinded kimberlite in 9 boxes from South Africa. These
samples contain diamond accessory minerals such as pyrope, chrome-diopside and pikroilmenit (Fig). This
purchase was made for very low price only 37 marks.
In 1912 for 60 franks from the minerals seller Grebel was acquired yellow brown diamond crystal 0.222 g
weight (Kimberly deposit,South Africa). In 1914 the museum acquired for 88 marks 4 more diamond
crystals from South Africa, Kimberly deposit. These crystals were bought from another Humburg supplier of
minerals Vinter. All of these crystal have different shape and color. The first one has cubic shape and almost
transparent, 0.0820 g weight. The second one has the shape of an octahedron and pink color, 0.0515g
weight(Fig.4). The third one is black twinned aggregate 0.08g weight. The fourth has the form of
octahedron and 0.293g weight (Fig.4).
Fig.3. Pink octahedron diamond crystal, Kimberly deposit,South Africa
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Fig.4.Octahedron diamond crystal Kimberly deposit,South Africa
In the same year museum received diamonds from the collection of Higher female educational courses. The
crystals (5pcs) from Brazil (Minas Gerais), round carbonado fragment 2mm in size, round crystal 0.02g
weight (Fig.5.), pink colored diamond crystal 0.04g weight, crystal splinter 0.01g weight. Also the roundish
transparent diamond unit with the weight of 0.37g from the Ural mountains was received from these
courses collection.
Fig.5. round crystal 0.02g weight from Brazil (Minas Gerais)
This unique diamond collection played significant role in Yakut diamond ledge deposit discovering. The
famous mineralogist, professor of mineralogy department of St.-Petersburg State University A.A.
Kuharenko for many years studied diamonds and accessory minerals. He wrote the richly illustrated work
dedicated to the Ural diamonds . He was well acquainted with the diamond collection of the Museum.
Professor Kuharenko, a diamond expert often consulted mineraligists who had been searching deposits of
this mineral. He also consulted mineralogists of A.P. Karpinsky Soviet Geological Research Institute (VSEGEI)
N.N. Sarsadski and L.A. Popugaeva. They made heavy minerals sampling (1951-1953) in Daldyn-Alakinsky
district of Yakut. Professor Kuharenko identified diamond accessory minerals among which were pyrope,
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chrome-diopside and pikroilmenit, also he identified their parent rock as kimberlite. A.A. Kuharenko
suggested to search for diamond bearing kimberlites by presence of pyrope in heavy minerals fractures.
The “pirope-path”, a specific trail scattering of this mineral near diamond parent rock brought to the first
Yakut kimberlite pipe ”Zarnitsa” in 1954.(Fig. 6.)
Fig.6. L.A. Popugaeva on the first Yakut kimberlite pipe ”Zarnitsa” in 1954
In 1962 N.N. Sarsadski the employee of VSEGEI institute donated to the Museum kimberlite samples with
visible diamond crystals up to 5 mm in size.
Besides, V.L. Masaitis, employee of VSEGEI institute presented some black-grayish grains from Popigay
impact crater.
In 2000 year researching institute VNIIOkeangeologia gave to the museum diamond collection of more than
1300 small (up to 6mm)crystals from Anabar-Oleneksk kimberlite field.
The latest receipts to the museum are from kimberlite pipes Mir, Botuobinskaya, Amakinskaya and others.
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WORKSHOPS AND DEMONSTRATIONS – DESCRIPTIONS
Scientific grade Raman & Photoluminescence spectrometer in gemological laboratory
Mikko Åström and Alberto Scarany, M&A Gemological Instruments, GemmoRaman.com
M&A Gemological Instruments has developed two fully automatic Raman & Photoluminescence
spectrometer models for gemological applications. The use of the spectrometer, from basic gem
identification to specific advanced applications for detecting treatments and synthetic gemstones will be
illustrated in the session.
Attendees of the congress workshop will be given hands on opportunity for familiarizing with the technique
and understanding its functionality. New GemmoRaman-532SG model, based on state of the art TEC cooled
scientific grade spectrometer will be also presented.
Besides basic gem identification by Raman fingerprint, the PL feature is extremely useful to spot for
treatments and, in some cases, synthetics. Identifying jade type and possible polymer impregnation,
characterizing emerald types (natural schist/non-schist and synthetics), separating natural, unheated spinel
from synthetic and heat treated spinel, determining color origin of cultured freshwater pearls and coral,
discriminating imperial topaz by the chromium content, these are only some of the tasks the
GemmoRaman-532 is able to do.
The SG model extended spectral range and thermo electronically cooled spectrometer allows important
diamond related studies, such as Silicon Vacancy luminescence detection for synthetic CVD diamonds and
GR1 peak for irradiated diamonds. GemmoRaman-532 is also one of the few tools available for
distinguishing between untreated and HPHT treated colorless natural type IIa diamonds.
GemmoRaman-532TM equipment.
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GemRam™, Raman gemstone identification system
Ignacio Sánchez-Ferrer Robles, Microbeam S.A.
The GemRam™ is a lightweight, portable Raman spectrometer dedicated to both the verification of known
gemstones as well as the identification of unknown gemstones. It comes equipped with B&W Tek’s
GemID™ identification software, powered by GemExpert’s spectral library of nearly 400 different
gemstones, as well as unlimited space for user defined spectra that can be added at any time.
The GemRam utilizes a spectrum stabilized 785nm diode laser and high resolution TE cooled spectrometer
to provide unrivaled performance and repeatability. It comes complete with a fiber optic probe, X-Y-Z
positioning stage, and netbook computer with pre-loaded software, all in a convenient carrying case.
Specifications:
Laser Power: 785nm, <300mW
Spectrometer Range: 175cm-1 – 2700cm-1
Spectrometer Resolution: ~3.5cm-1 @ 912nm
Computer Interface: USB: 2.0 / 1.1
Power: 220V
Optional battery of 5V
Dimensions: 17 x 34 x 23.4cm
Weight: ~3 kg
Operating Temperature: 10°C – 35°C
B&W Tek's GemID identification software allows you to navigate your GemRam™ Raman spectrometer
using user-friendly icons and instructions. You can easily choose to verify a known gemstone or identify an
unknown gemstone by measuring the spectrum of the gemstone, then comparing it with that of the
GemExpert library included in the software. You can also view the general spectra and results of your
measurement independent of the library, or add an unlimited amount of your spectra to the library to use
for future comparisons. B&W Tek's exclusive GemID identification software, preloaded in every GemRam™,
is powered by GemExpert's spectral library of nearly 400 different gemstones. The library contains
gemstone spectra for all classes, including: borates, carbonates, halides, native elements, oxides,
phosphates, silicates, sulfates and sulfides. Different varieties of each gemstone from around the world are
also available in the GemExpert library. Each entry within the library includes the commercial name, a
picture of the gemstone, the country of origin, and other information that will assist with quickly identifying
and verifying gemstones.
During the workshop the attendants will have the possibility of seeing the instrument demonstrations and
also the possibility of analyze their own samples will be given.
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Digital grading and pricing of gems and fancy colored diamonds with GemeWizard system
Menahem Sevdermish, FGA D. Litt., Gemewizard.com, Ramat Gan, Israel
The accurate description of color of gemstones and colored diamonds presents a major issue both online
and offline. As the gem digital business is growing exponentially every year, the online buyer is struggling
with color descriptive issues that are lowering confidence in the trade and prevent it from reaching its full
potential.
The Gemewizard, a digital color communication and analysis system, which we have been developing over
the past decade, provides us with the power to scan, record, analyze and easily describe color data within
gem images.
Using our system as a color analysis and research tool, we are able to describe, grade, price and
communicate the color of gems and thus we have been exposed to vast information online and offline.
This new data enables us to achieve two major new developments:
A new comprehensive digital color master set and grades for gemstones and fancy colored diamonds which
were built into the pricing systems, and the first ever digital color-based online gem marketplace, in which
color analysis is performed on a vast scale, and an elaborated color search engine enables the user to
search for a certain stone of a specific color.
The participants of the workshop will be introduced to Gemewizard analysis and grading tools, and to
GemePrice – the online pricing station for gemstones, diamonds and fancy colored diamonds. All
participants will be entitled to free 2-month subscriptions on all Gemewizard applications.
Gemewizard: Pricing modules for gemstones, diamonds
and fancy colored diamonds.
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Detection of synthetic diamonds using DiamondView equipment
Juan Cózar and Anthony Cáceres, Laboratorio de Análisis y Certificación de Gemas, IGE&Minas.
The recent news about the apparitions of small synthetic diamonds mixed with natural diamonds on the
market have created great concern in the jewelry industry. This problem requires certification labs to
deepen their knowledge of synthetic diamonds and invest in advanced techniques to be able to detect
them safely.
One of the main equipments used for this aim in the Laboratory of Analysis and Certification of Gems of
IGE&Minas is DiamondViewTM equipment de De Beers, which provides a source of 225 nm UV radiation and
generates fluorescence, images of the growth patterns and zonal distribution of certain structural defects.
These data, together with other complementary techniques, such as PL and CL, allows us identify HPHT and
CVD synthetic diamonds, as well as treated natural and synthetic diamonds.
Workshop attendees will learn how to use the DiamondView equipment with samples of different types of
diamonds and also see the images of different natural and synthetic diamonds accumulated over the use of
the equipment in the IGE&Minas laboratory.
Colorless natural diamond seen in DiamondView. Fluorescence color and zoning typical for natural
diamonds. Photo IGE.
HPHT synthetic brown diamond seen in DiamondView (UV light). Photo IGE.
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Devices for the digital analysis of the quality of diamond cutting:
OGI Scanox Planner HD
Juan Cózar and Anthony Cáceres, Laboratorio de Análisis y Certificación de Gemas, IGE&Minas.
Quality of cut is a very important factor for grading of diamond quality. In the IGE&Minas Laboratory, the
grading of cut quality is done using the OGI Scanox Planner HD device. This equipment is based on threedimensional scanning of the stone, allowing the design to optimize the rough for the cutting process.
In the case of polished diamonds, the device make the grading of its proportions and symmetry
parameters, and also performs automatic calculations for a possible re-cutting of the stone to improve its
cut quality.
Rough diamond scanning and design for two brilliant-cut diamonds,
by OGI Scanox Planner HD.
Cut quality grading data for a brilliant-cut diamond obtained with
OGI Scanox Planner HD.
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Inclusions photomicrography using MacroRail setup
and stacking of images
Óscar Fernández Arcís, MacroRail.com
The objective of this workshop is to show how to get high quality and resolution photographs of gems and
inclusions in gemstones using the technique of stacking of images and MacroRail setup for it.
MacroRail is a sturdy device with a weight of 12 kg, high precision aluminum and manufactured to last a
lifetime, which allows us to move a camera or trinocular microscope head with a resolution of 1.6 microns.
MacroRail setup, general view.
Photomicrography of inclusions within a gemstone requires performing a sequence of photographs from
the upper part of the inclusion to the lower part, and subsequent stacking of all shots to get a totally
focused photography.
MacroRail setup with microscope trinocular head mounted.
The software allows us to have complete control of microscope head and/or camera movement, stacking
software, zoom in or out of the gem, apply filters on photography, etc. All the process of camera
movement, shooting and stacking of images is controlled by the same software, with the final result
presented on screen.
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MacroRail software screenshot.
For details and examples please visit the following link: http://macrorail.com/VerProducto.php?P=1
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Automated 3D/360º photography applied to gems and jewelry,
by Macrorail.com
Óscar Fernández Arcís, MacroRail.com.
Using a computer controlled turntable, sequences of images of gems and jewels in rotation are made and
joined together to generate interactive animations in Adobe Flash or HTML5 format, to present a 360º view
of a jewel or a gem for a web page, a document, computer, tablet, smart phone or any other electronic
device that supports HTML5 or Adobe Flash format.
MacroRail turntable for 3D/360º photography, general view.
The software allows us to have complete control of an SLR camera and the turntable, to center the object
to photograph, zoom in/out, run a simulation before photographing, apply filters on all the animation, etc.
It makes the process quick and easy since all the steps are automated and controlled by the same software,
from the camera controls, rotation of the turntable and to the preparation of the final 360º animation.
3D/360º photography software screenshot.
For details and examples please visit the following link: http://macrorail.com/VerProducto.php?P=7
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Advanced methods for the design and manufacture of new gems cuts: GemCad, GemRay, DiamCalc
Egor Gavrilenko, IGE&Minas
The use of computers and technological advances are providing entirely new possibilities for gem cutting
process. The main innovations that will be explained in this workshop belong to the following areas:
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Computer programs for the design of new cuts (GemCad)
Online data bases for gem cut designs (facetdiagrams.org, gemologyproject.com)
Optimization of crown and pavilion angles to maximize the light return depending on the refractive
index of the gem (BOG, GemRay)
Previewing the faceted stone using computer renderings (GemRay, DiamCalc)
Methodological advances in the cutting process (meetpoint faceting)
Technological advances in the cutting process (precision equipment, new materials for grinding and
polishing).
New cut styles: combined cuts, concave cuts, drawings with “frosted” facets.
Virtual image (rendering) of a combined cut amethyst.
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Analysis of jewelry and precious metals through the technique of
X-ray fluorescence
Joan Pujol, Fischer Instruments S.A.
The aim of this presentation is to inform the professionals of gemology the technique of x-ray fluorescence
by energy dispersion (EDXRF) which is a very powerful tool for elemental analysis in general and that we
will apply to the analysis of gold content in gold and precious metals alloys used in jewelry.
The main advantages provided by this technique are:
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Non-destructive measurement method
Fast, accurate and reliable analysis
Analysis of unknown samples
Complete information of the composition of the alloy
Accuracy better than 0.5o/oo
Measurement of the thickness of coated materials (e.g.: rhodium/white gold)
Determination of the content of nickel (Ni free) and toxic metals (cadmium, lead, mercury, etc.)
Simple and safe use (approved equipment)
See also: related article, equipment specifications
FISCHERSCOPE® X-RAY XUV® 773,
Micro-x-ray fluorescence-spectrometer with
vacuum chamber for non-destructive material
analysis. Sample positioning on programmable
X/Y/Z stage supported by video image.
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SPEAKERS
Klaus Schollenbruch
Dr. Klaus Schollenbruch studied Geology at the University of Tübingen. His diploma work was about the
alteration of eudialyte in the Illimaussaq intrusion in South Greenland.
In 2007 he started his PhD work at the University of Frankfurt about phase transformations in Febearing spinel. This involved in situ experiments with multi anvil and diamond anvil cells.
After his PhD work, which included the discovery of a new Fe-oxide phase, he went to the German
Gemmological Assiciation working as a teacher in the gemological courses and also in the laboratory of
the DSEF (German Gem Lab). Klaus Schollenbruch has the degree of a FGG and EG and is a member of
the examination committee of the FEEG.
Juan S. Cózar
Vice-president of the IGE, President of the scientific committee of the IGE, Member of the Board of
Directors of IGE&Minas,
Director of the Gem Testing Laboratory of IGE&Minas,
Director of the Diamond Graduation course of IGE&Minas.
For twenty years he was also the Head of the SEM+EDX laboratory of the Institute of Environment at
CIEMAT. Has participated in ten international projects: “El Berrocal”, “FEBEX”, “GRIMSEL”, “OKLO”,
“BARRA”, “MATRIX”, “PALMOTTU”, “Los Ratones”, “Mont Terri” y “Almacenamiento de CO 2”.
Author and co-author of more than a hundred of scientific publications on petrology, mineralogy and
gemology in Spanish and international journals, 29 presentations to congresses.
Author of the Book IV of the project “The Visigoth treasure of Guarrazar” edited by the CSIC.
Anthony Cáceres
Graduated Gemologist and Diamond Grader by Spanish Gemological Institute (IGE) and European
Gemologist (FEEG). Currently working at IGE&Minas Gem Testing Laboratory. His other interests are
gem cutting using modern techniques, gemstone photography and web sites development.
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Miguel Ángel Pellicer García
Graduated in Chemical Sciences (University of Zaragoza),
Graduated in Gemology (University of Barcelona and Gemological Association of Great Britain, Gem-A),
Specialist in diamonds and synthetic and treated gems (U.B.).
President of AGEDA (Gemological Association of Aragón).
Gemology teacher at the School of Gemology of Barcelona (1986-2008). Gemology teacher at the
University of Zaragoza (2009-2013).
Author of the book "The other precious stones" about synthetic gemstones. Editor of the journal
"Cuadernos de Gemología".
Author of various gemological articles.
Tully Medal Gemology award granted by Gem-A in 1985.
San Pedro Gemology award granted by AGEDA in 1989.
Mª Cinta Osácar Soriano
Graduated and PhD in Geology in the University of Zaragoza, she got the Gemology Diploma in the
University of Barcelona and the Gemmological Association of Great Britain and the Diamond Diploma in
the University of Barcelona. She is senior lecturer in the Crystallography and Mineralogy division of the
Earth Sciences Departement (University of Zaragoza), where she has taught Crystallography and
Mineralogy in the Geology and Chemistry degrees. She is director and lecturer in the Gemology
Diploma of the University of Zaragoza.
Currently, her research focuses on the mineralogy and geochemistry of modern and recent sediments
(detrital sediments, tufas, speleothems), linked to climatic and environmental changes and on the
mineralogy of sediments in relation with paleomagnetic analysis. Member of AGEDA (Asociación
Gemológica de Aragón) since its foundation, she coordinated the “I Jornadas Internacionales sobre la
Gemología científica en la sociedad actual” (April 2008, Zaragoza). She has given talks on popular
Gemology.
José A. Espí
Doctor in Mining Engineering (1977) in Polytechnic University of Madrid and Master of Business
Administration by New Mexico Hihglands University, USA (1985). Since 1970 he has worked in a
multiple projects as Chief of Exploration, Director of Production, Project Manager y Director of
Research in companies such as ENADIMSA, Minas de Almagrera, Promotora de Minas y Carbones and
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PRESUR.
In addition, from 1992 to 1997 he was Director of Geology and Basic Techniques and later Director of
Mineral Resources of the Spanish Technological Geomining Institute. In the 1998-2013 period,
professor, at first, and senior lecturer later in the School of Mining Engineers of Madrid, in the Mineral
Deposits department, alternating this dedication with investigation work, and participating in various
CYTED projects, Joint PhD Courses of the UPM in Latin America, Project Alfa in Latin America and
consultancy in mining projects in Spain and aboard.
Mª del Pilar Diago Diago
Full Professor in International Private Law. Faculty of Law, Zaragoza University.
Graduated in Law in 1993 and Doctor of Laws in 1998, Faculty of Law, Zaragoza University, with
“sobresaliente cum laude” distinction.
Investigation areas: International property law, international business law, international family law,
conflict-alliance of civilizations, interregional law, international procedural law, alternative dispute
resolution mechanisms.
Teacher of the Gemology Diploma courses in the University of Zaragoza.
Co-Director of the International Private Law Platform Millennium:
http://www.plataformamillennium.com
Geoffrey Dominy
Geoffrey Dominy is an independent gemmologist based in Vancouver, British Columbia and the senior
jewelry appraiser on the CBC Canadian Antiques Roadshow. He is a Fellow of the Gemmological
Association and Gem Testing Laboratory of Great Britain with Distinction, which is one of the highest
gemmological designations in the world.
He has been appraising, lecturing and teaching since 1987 and was a contributing author for both the
5th & 6th Editions of Robert Webster’s ‘Gems’ which even today is considered one of the most
authoritative textbooks in Gemmology.
He has just released ‘The Handbook of Gemmology’, the first gemmological reference book written
specifically for the digital market featuring the photography of internationally renowned gemstone
photographer Tino Hammid and is a regular contributor to Jewelry Business Advisor and Jewellery Net
Asia.
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Igor Klepikov
Bachelor of Geology, Geological faculty of St. Petersburg State University (specialization in gemology).
Master student of mineralogy department, Saint-Petersburg State University.
Master thesis is devoted to the study of crystal morphology and structural defects in diamond crystals
from the alluvial deposits of the Northeast of Siberian Platform.
Areas of interest: gemological examination, precious and ornamental stones, minerals, mineralogy and
gemology of diamonds, evaluation of diamonds.
Yury Nefedov
Master student of «Geology and prospecting of mineral deposits» specialty at Saint-Petersburg State
Mining University - SPMU, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.
Areas of interest: “Brazil-Uralian” diamond type. Infrared spectrometry of the diamonds.
Galina Anastasenko
PhD in Geology, Associate Professor in the Department of Mineralogy, Geological faculty, SaintPetersburg State University.
Curator of the museum of the Department of Mineralogy of Saint-Petersburg State University. Expert at
the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation. Co-Chairman of the Museum of the Russian
Mineralogical Society (with V.G.Krivovichev).
Research interests: museums management, general questions of mineralogy.
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Nadezhda Erysheva
Bachelor of Geology, Geological faculty of St. Petersburg State University (specialization in gemology).
Currently Master student, doing her investigation on morphological characteristics of diamonds from
the collection of the Department of Mineralogy of Saint-Petersburg State University. Nadezhda also
works as a chief gemologist in a private company.
Menahem Sevdermish
Menahem Sevdermish D.Litt. FGA (1974) is an internationally recognized authority on gem
commercialization, the processing of gemstones.
In 1975, he founded the first Gemological Institute of Israel. In 1978 Menahem invented the Carmel cut
which became the flag cut of the Israeli Gem cutting industry, and was the basis for many diamond
cutting styles. He authored “The Dealer’s Book of Gems and Diamonds” widely acknowledged in the
gemological world and trade.
As a result of decade of research into the future of gem industry, Menahem and his team has
developed the revolutionary “Gemewizard”, a unique color communication, grading and trading and
pricing system for gems and diamonds. Approved by the GIA Education and used by many institutions
in the trade including AGTA Gemeshare trading platform. A unique Market place from miners, dealers,
retailers and consumers, merging into social media and other industries such as the fashion industry.
Helena Calvo del Castillo
Gratuated in Chemistry and PhD in Earth and Environmental Sciences in the Universidad Autónoma de
Madrid, Helena Calvo del Castillo currently wotks in the interdisciplinary research group led by Dr.
Strivay in the Centre Européen d’Archéométrie de la Université de Liège, which she joined in 2007.
Being her main research area Archaeometry, her activity has enrolled in the framework of two projects
of the Belgian Science Policy (BELSPO) which deal with Non-destructive Analyses of Cultural Heritage
Objects and the study of pigments in artworks (long-term role and fate of sulphides in painted Works of
art).
Graduated in Gemology in the school of the Société Belge de Gemmologie in Brussels (S.B.G.) and the
F.E.E.G. en 2012, and having obtained the Diamond Grading Diploma by HRD Antwerp, Helena is since
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then a member of the Management Board of the S.B.G. as well as of its board of volunteer teachers and
is delegate of the F.E.E.G. in the S.B.G. since 2013.
Adrián Andrada Chacón
Graduated in Chemistry in the Complutense University of Madrid (2012), and Master in Chemical
Science and Technology (2013). During his education received a grant for research collaboration and
started his investigation in the High Pressures group in the Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of
Chemical Sciences of the Complutense University, where is doing his PhD thesis currently, with a grant
by the Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness.
His investigation field is focused on the study of substances in conditions of extreme pressure. For that,
diamonds and other gems like moissanite and sapphire are frequently used in high pressure cells
(Diamond Anvil Cella, DAC). His investigations also dial with application of Raman and X ray diffraction
techniques.
Valentín García Baonza
Full Professor in Physical Chemistry in the Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
Research resume:
Honors, Awards and Committees: 1999 EHPRG Award - European High Pressure Research Group
(EHPRG), EHPRG: Scientific Committee 2002-2005, 2008-2011, 25th AIRAPT‐53rd EHPRG Meeting
Chairman 2015
Thesis: 7 Ph. D. Thesis & 15 Ms. Thesis directed since 1999.
Scientific publications: 85 in ISI ranked journals, 8 book chapters and 5 reviews.
Conferences: 25 invited conferences and about 80 conference communications.
Recent R&D Projects: Grupo UCM de Altas Presiones: Determinación de Parámetros Termodinámicos y
Espectroscópicos (Director), Matter at High Pressure Program (MALTA-Consolider, National
Coordinator), Chemistry at High Pressure Program (Coordinator).
Research Lines: High Pressure Techniques, Equation of State Models, Spectroscopy (Raman,
Luminescence, IR & VIS-UV)
Reviewer of more than 20 scientific journals, FP7 program, ANEP, MICINN & ANECA.
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Victor Tuzlukov
Victor Tuzlukov was born in 1964 in Siberia. The range of his interests is very diverse – travelling,
photography, sport, and literature. His philosophical tales were awarded at the international literary
contest “The Golden Feather of Russia”. Several photo-exhibitions took place in different Russian cities.
Victor began to facet gemstones on 2000. He is a member of US Faceters Guild since 2006. He
participated in different national and international faceting competition and won the International
Individual Faceting Championship in Australia on 2010, where he set new world record – 299.17 points
from 300. On 2012 Victor judged the International gemcutting competition in Hong Kong.
Victor has graduated from Moscow branch of the GIA with the diploma of Graduate Gemologist. On
2010 he founded the Russian Faceters Guild and provided International Faceting Competition
«RUSSIAN OPEN’ 2012». Nowadays he is engaged in faceting of top-quality gemstones and creation of
exclusive faceting designs.
Mikko Åström
Mikko Åström is gemologist FGA (with distinction), laboratory technician and IT entrepreneur having
more than 20 years of experience as a gemologist, head of the diploma courses of Gem-A teaching
center at Helsinki and author of gemological articles, books and course materials.
He has worked extensively in the field of gemological spectroscopy, designing and inventing UV-VISNIR, Raman, PL, FTIR and other advanced laboratory instruments.
Alberto Scarani
Alberto Scarani is goldsmith on 5th generation, gemologist GG, appraiser of the Chamber of Commerce
and Registered Expert of the Tribunal of Rome. Vice-president of the Scientific and member of the
Ethic Committees of Assogemme on behalf of which he has taken many gemological lectures in events
like VicenzaOro fair. Jewelry & gemology author and journalist, he has published a number of articles
on Vioro, PreziosaMagazine, Rivista Gemmologica Italiana and others.
Gemological instrument builder running an historical workshop established in Rome in 1945, he’s even
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the precious metals instructor of the International Gemological Institute (IGI) of Antwerp and AGA
Accredited Senior Gemologist.
Since 2006 he is the Co-Administrator of Gemologyonline.com, the world most renowned non-profit
forum for the exchange of gemological ideas. With Mikko Åström he founded in 2012 the M&A
Gemological Instruments, a company specialized in advanced gemological instruments manufacturing.
Gonzalo Moreno Díaz-Calderón
Graduated in Geological Sciences from the UCM, Gemologist by IGE, IGE&Minas Manager, Professor of
Spanish Gemological Institute, coauthor of gemology textbooks of IGE, author of interactive
environmental educational exhibitions.
Óscar R. Montoro
FORMATION:
- PhD in Chemical Sciences in the Universidad Complutense de Madrid “Spectroscopic Study of Natural
Resins Analogues Formation”. Apt-Cum Laude. 2013.
- Research work in the program Doctorate in Advanced Chemistry, “Study of Grafit under uniaxial
pressure”. Distinction. 2010
- Thesis in Chemical Sciences with Distinction. 1999
- Graduate in Chemical Sciences in the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 1998
OTHER ARCHIEVEMENTS:
- COLLABORATION GRANT associated with the scientific research project PB95-0412, obtained for
ACADEMICAL MERITS. 1997
SCIENTIFIC WORK EXPERIENCE:
- Project Investigation and Technological Transference Manager. 2008-to present.
- Auxiliary lab technician. Department of Scientific Direction of L’Oréal Hispania. 1998.
OTHER WORK EXPERIENCE
- He has worked in international companies such as Accenture, Indra, Santander Bank and Santander
Investment Bank, BBVA (International values), Barclays Bank (International values), L’Oréal and
Andersen Consulting.
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Mercedes Taravillo
FORMATION:
- PhD in Chemical Sciences in the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 1999.
- Graduate in Chemical Sciences in the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 1993.
- Post-doctoral stay as Research Staff Member in the Physics and Advanced Technologies Directorate/H
Division. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, University of California (Department of Energy of
USA)
CATEGORY:
- Professor at university since 2007.
OTHER ARCHIEVEMENTS:
- Participation in 17 research projects.
- More than 50 scientific articles published.
- More than 50 contributions to national and international congresses.
Svetlana Yanson
PhD in Geology, Mineralogy department, Geology faculty, Saint-Petersburg State University.
Research interests: mineralogy of lazurite deposits, information technologies and databases.
Deputy Director of the Resource Center of Microscopy and Microanalysis Saint-Petersburg State
University.
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ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
President: Jesús Yanes López
Secretary of the Congress: Gonzalo Moreno Díaz-Calderón
Coordinator Scientific area: Juan Cozar Cuello
Coordinator Educational area: Egor Gavrilenko
Coordinator Trade area: Jesús Yanes López
FEEG Symposium: Egor Gavrilenko, Cristina Rzepka de Lombas
Jewelry Design contest: Mónica Encinas Pérez
Institutional Relations: José María Reguera-Sevilla Pérez
Comunication: Enrique Marcos Alonso, Violeta González-Palencia
Logistics: Marian Jaén Arjona, Jose María Domínguez
Cultural program: José María Reguera-Sevilla Pérez
Web and Social networking: Cristina Rzepka de Lombas, Anthony Cáceres Escobar
Instituto Gemológico Español
C/ Alenza, 1
28003 Madrid
Tel./Fax: +34 914 414 300
info@ige.org
www.ige.org
TECHNICAL SECRETARIAT
VIAJES EL CORTE INGLES
División de Congresos, Convenciones e Incentivos
C/ Princesa 47
28008 Madrid
ige2014@viajeseci.es
Phone: +34 91 204 26 00
Fax: +34 91 547 88 87
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