EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
emergency situations.
On completion of this unit you should:
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WEDC designed and constructed to provide optimal raw water qualities and quantities, and how they can be protected from physical damage;
· know how pumps can be used in surface water abstraction;
· understand how submerged weirs can be used to raise water levels at intake points;
· be familiar with the potential impacts of emergencies on existing surface water intake structures, and the tasks involved in the repair and rehabilitation of such facilities; and
· be familiar with the arrangements that can be made for users to safely collect water directly for surface water sources in the early stages of an emergency response.
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
5.1
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5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.4
Introduction ....................................................................................... 5.3
Siting and protecting intakes........................................................... 5.3
Bulk intakes....................................................................................... 5.3
Single point intakes ............................................................................................... 5.4
Subsurface infiltration wells and galleries.......................................................... 5.10
Weirs ................................................................................................................... 5.17
Rehabilitation of existing intake structures.......................................................... 5.18
Individual collection........................................................................ 5.19
Figure 5.1. The problems caused if the pipe inlet is too near the surface or
Figure 5.2.
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Figure 5.3. Intake using a side channel and screen................................................................ 5.7
Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.5.
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Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.10. against the end of the pipe.................................................................................... 5.8
A pumping unit mounted on a floating platform .................................................. 5.10
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Figure 5.11. Infiltration well made of concrete rings sunk in the river bed.............................. 5.14
Figure 5.12. Infiltration well using a pipe with screened intake............................................... 5.15
Figure 5.13. Bank side infiltration gallery ................................................................................ 5.15
Figure 5.14. Temporary weir made of sand bags ................................................................... 5.17
Figure 5.15. Water supply intake on a small stream destroyed by floods .............................. 5.18
Figure 5.16. Examples of water collection platforms............................................................... 5.19
Figure 5.17. Support rail around water collection platform ..................................................... 5.20
Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
As we have seen in Unit 4, surface water sources such as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds, can be good sources of water in emergency situations. In this unit we will look at how intake structures can be used to abstract water from these sources.
Intake sites should be selected where sufficient quantities of water can be abstracted without adversely affecting downstream users: the techniques we have studies in Unit
4 should be used for assessing surface water quantities; those described in Unit 2 can be used to investigate downstream use.
Siting should also consider water quality: intakes should be located upstream of potential sources of microbiological and chemical pollution (Unit 3). When ponds, lakes, or reservoirs are used attention should be given to assessing the risk of algal blooms, and where possible avoiding sources where such a risk is present (Unit 3).
The catchment area above intake works should be protected from contamination, by controlling upstream activities:
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· bathing, clothes washing, and animal watering should take place downstream of intake works;
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WEDC surface water, and other water intakes.
Abstraction sites should, as much as possible, be selected in locations where water A
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Bulk surface water intakes should be designed to reliably supply sufficient quantities of good quality raw water. This can be achieved by designing intake works that allow the abstraction of water with low sediment loads, at periods of low and high flow, and that are protected from physical damage. In practice this involves:
· positioning inlets at depths that allow water to be abstracted throughout the year;
· using channels or subsurface structures to direct flows, allowing lower intake velocities (and consequently sediment loads) and inlets to be physically protected; and
· using screens to reduce the intake of large sediments.
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
We will now to look at how these techniques are incorporated into two kinds of surface water intake structure and at how pumps can be used in surface water intakes.
Design
Depth of inlet
Inlet pipes should be positioned:
· at least 0.3 m below the surface of the water, in order to protect the inlet from floating debris and, when pumping, to avoid the creation of vortices that result in air being entrained into the intake pipe; and
· at least 0.3m above the source’s bed to reduce the intake of sediments (Figure
5.1).
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Figure 5.1. The problems caused if the pipe inlet is too near the surface or too close to the source bed
Where water levels are not sufficient to meet these criteria, they can be raised by constructing a temp subsurface weir or dam – discussed later.
Inlets can be correctly positioned using a number of techniques including: suspending the inlet from a float; securing the inlet in a rigid structure such as a bucket or crib;
Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES using rigid pipe work; or in freezing conditions, suspending the inlet through the ice
(Figure 5.2).
Suspending the inlet from a float has the advantage of allowing the inlet height to be automatically adjusted with changes in water level. In deep water, such as lakes it also allows the upper level of water (which will often have lower levels of sediments) to be accessed. Floating inlets should be securely anchored to the bed and bank of the water source. A variation of this technique is used when a floating pontoon is used to support a pump (see later in this section).
Securing the inlet in a perforated bucket, drum, crib, or concrete ring filled with coarse stones allows the inlet to be protected against physical damage and can provide coarse screening around the inlet reducing the intake of debris and detritus.
Inlets can also be positioned using rigid pipe work secured to the bank or bed; a technique which is likely to be more applicable for longer term installations.
Use of side channels
Inlets can be positioned in a side channel offset from the main body of water, or in a pond or tank fed by the channel. Side channels can be used to reduce the velocity of the water around the inlet, and in doing so allow water with lower sediment loads to UNIT by removing it from the main watercourse (Figure 5.3).
WEDC is extremely sandy or porous. Where coarse screening using stones is combined with
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Screening
· a coarse/primary screen positioned before/around the inlet
· a fine screen/strainer over the end of the inlet pipe.
A coarse or ‘primary’ screen is used to remove larger floating and suspended debris.
In conventional intake works bar screens (grates, often set at an angle) are often used for primary screening. In and emergency a coarse screen can be improvised using stones positioned around the inlet (Figure 5.2).
Alternatively the open end of the inlet pipe can be fitted with a prefabricated strainer to act as a coarse screen (Figure 5.4).
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Figure 5.2. Simple arrangements of pump suction inlets
Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
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Figure 5.3. Intake using a side channel and screen
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Figure 5.4. A prefabricated inlet strainer for a suction pipe
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
A fine screen can be made by securing finewire mesh over the end of the inlet pipe.
When plastic pipe is used, the wiremesh can be heat welded across the end of pipe by placing a square of mesh onto a hot heating plate, and then pressing the end of the pipe against the screen and heating plate (Figure 5.5). Alternatively the inside of a prefabricated inlet strainer can be lined with fine mesh.
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Figure 5.5.
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Pumping from single point intakes A higher ground.
WEDC pumping efficiency. Make sure the inlet point is easy to access for cleaning.
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Different kinds of pumps can be used to draw water from inlets but most commonly centrifugal pumps will be used (Units 11). These are able to draw water from up to 7m below the pump (although pump performance will become inefficient at height differences greater than 3m). Where the pump can be securely positioned within this height range the pump can be mounted on the surface, with the suction pipe connected to the inlet: (Figure 5.1).
Where the height difference between the water surface level and the pump inlet is greater than 0.7m, submersible centrifugal (or other) pumps, positioned in the water, can be used (Figure 5.6).
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EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
Positioning surface mounted pumps
Surface mounted pumping units can be positioned by the side of the water source, or on a platform/pontoon floating on top of the water.
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When positioned by the side of the water source, on a bank for example, a firm section of land should be chosen, and one that is not liable to be flooded. The pumping unit can be mounted on a wooden pallet, or a more permanent concrete foundation can be installed (Unit 11).
Pumps and pumping units can also be mounted on a floating platform/pontoon
(Figure 5.7), an arrangement that will reduce the height between the pump and the inlet, and in doing so increase pump efficiency. Where such an arrangement is used the floating platform should be securely anchored, and the mooring ropes, and pump’s delivery pipe must be long and well secured to allow for changes in water level and, when used on a stream or river, increased flow rates.
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
In freezing conditions the pumping unit can be positioned on the bank, and the inlet placed through the ice. Alternatively if the ice is strong enough, the pump can be mounted on the ice, and the power unit on the bank Figure 5.2
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Figure 5.7. A pumping unit mounted on a floating platform WEDC
Additional measures should be taken in freezing conditions to protect equipment from the cold including:
·
· above the ground; removing
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around the pumping unit, and raising the unit
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· raising pipe work above the ground/ice (on wooden blocks for example) at a gradient that will allow pipe work to be drained when not in use.
Infiltration well and gallery intake structures (Figure 5.8) typically have two components:
· a collector well – in the bank of the water source; and
· an inlet – a well or gallery of perforated pipe work buried in the source’s bank or bed.
Although often involving longer construction times than the rapid installation intake designs described above, such structures have the advantage of being able to access
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Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES subsurface flows, which can allow water to be abstracted from apparently dry ephemeral watercourses, and, in freezing conditions, from water sources where the source is frozen above ground.
We will now look in more detail at the collector well and inlet components of infiltration wells and galleries.
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Figure 5.8.
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Collector well A
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In some cases water can be pumped directly from the inlet without the need for a collector well for example screened infiltration inlets (see later in this unit)
Although similar to a shallow well positioned in the bank of a surface water source
(sometime called a ‘riverside well’), a collector well differs in that it is connected to the source by a manmade inlet/conduit. However where bank soils have high levels of hydraulic conductivity (i.e. are made up of coarse sand or gravel), simple wells without manmade inlet/conduit structures, can be sunk (Figure 5.9).
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Figure 5.9. Hand dug well close to river bank drawing water from the aquifer connected to the river
Infiltration inlets
Sand and gravel filled trench inlet
When a sand and gravel filled trench (Figure 5.10) is used:
· a trench is dug between the source and the collector well;
· the trench is then backfilled with coarse sand to allow basic filtration to take place
the sand can be graded into coarser gravel closer to the collection well, in order to minimise siltation inside the well.
Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK
EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
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Figure 5.10. Infiltration trench filled with sand and gravel that, where necessary, temporary trench supports are used – Appendix 21 of Davis excavations.
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Precast concrete rings can be sunk into the bed of a water source (Figure 5.11) techniques for the fabrication and sinking of rings are covered in Unit 6. Rings positioned below the bed should ideally be porous, and graded layers of sand and gravel placed in the base of the bottom ring to reduce the intake of sediments (to prevent damage and encourage the intake of water that has been filtered by the river bed). The top of the rings should be sealed with a concrete cover. Alternatively the column can be extended above the top of the flood water level.
A connector pipe or sand/gravel filled trench can be used to transmit flows to a collector well, alternatively water can be pumped directly from inside the concrete rings.
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Figure 5.11.
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Borehole screen inlet surface water sources, and have been used particularly successfully to access sub inserted by manual excavation or drilling techniques such as hand auguring. The A
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Water can be abstracted from the inlet by connecting the suction side of a surface mounted centrifugal pump.
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EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
Figure 5.12.
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Figure 5.13. Bank side infiltration gallery
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
Infiltration galleries
The inlet surface area, and therefore yield, can be increased by developing infiltration galleries – sections of perforated or loosely jointed pipe laid in the source’s bank
(Figure 5.13) or bed (Figure 5.8).
Galleries in the bank can be constructed throughout the year, and should be used where the hydraulic conductivity of river bank soil is high i.e. in clay and silt free sand and gravel. Test excavations and drilling can be used to assess bank soil type, and select optimum sites.
Where the hydraulic conductivity of the bank soil is low, infiltration galleries can be constructed in the beds of ephemeral sources when water levels are low.
Construction is unlikely to be feasible at other times of year, or in perennial watercourses.
Borehole screen, slotted, drilled or open jointed pipe can be used for the infiltration gallery’s pipe work. The principles described in Unit 6 for borehole intake design can be used for designing an infiltration gallery, these include:
· analysis of the soil to see if an artificial gravel pack is required (it may be possible to use the sediments of the river bank/bed if these sediments are too small and UNIT sediments);
· selection of screen slot size ; and
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· establishing a diameter and length of intake pipe where, in order to reduce head m/s for the known slot size and design abstraction rate .
A a 100mm diameter infiltration pipe gives a yield of 1 litre/minute/meter of infiltration pipe. This is equivalent to 6m³/10hours/10meters.
It is recommended that pipes are:
· positioned between 0.5m and 1m below the source’s bed; and
· buried on 0.3m of gravel media
Trench width is recommended to be about twice the depth of the pipe (giving widths of around 1.6m). When more than one pipe is laid in parallel in the source’s bed, the pipes should be laid at least 3m apart to reduce interference (Davis and Lambert,
2002).
An example of an infiltration gallery design is given in the SelfAsessment Questions for this Unit.
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EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
Further reading: Davis and Lambert (2002), Infiltration galleries, p.216218.
Submerged weirs positioned below a stream or small river intake, can be used to increase the depth of water at the intake site, and reduce the flow velocity above the weir, allowing heavier solids to settle out of the water (Figure 5.14).
Temporary weirs can be constructed from dense impermeable media such as rocks, boulders, sandbags, or gabion baskets. Woven fabric sacks, made from materials such as hemp or jute, filled with a dry concrete mix (1:6:8, cement:sand:gravel) and sewn shut can also be used: the sacks can be placed directly in the water; the sacking will hold the concrete mix in place until it sets; the weight of the bags will allow them to mould themselves together so that they interlock solidly (Jordon, 2000).
Care must be taken when raising the water to level that land upstream of the weir will not be flooded even during periods of high flow. Consideration should also be given to the downstream impacts of structural failure.
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Figure 5.14. Temporary weir made of sand bags
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EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES
Existing surface water intake structures can be damaged or destroyed in emergencies, reducing the capacity, or rendering inoperable, the supply systems that are dependent on them (Figure 5.15). Structurally damaging disasters such as floods, landslides, earthquakes and volcanic activity are particularly likely to cause damage to intake works. Intake screens and inlets may be broken, blocked or buried by debris; foundations may be eroded or destroyed, causing structural damage such as cracking, subsidence or collapse to intake structures.
Temporary rapid installation intakes, such as the ones that we have studied above, can be setup in parallel with damaged ones, in order to supplement, or substitute supplies, while cleaning, repair and reconstruction takes place.
Blockages should be cleared, and where possible structural damage made good.
Foundations and protective structures may have to be strengthened. Longer term rehabilitation should consider the causes of damage, and evaluate the possibility of relocating and/or redesigning intake structures to take account of the damage that has been caused, and the vulnerability that has been exposed.
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Figure 5.15. Water supply intake on a small stream destroyed by floods
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UNIT 5: SURFACE WATER INTAKES EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLY
Direct contact between users and surface water sources should be minimised in order to reduce the risk of source contamination. Ideally this should be achieved by developing water supply arrangements such as those previously described. However in the initial stages of an emergency response, and in situations with a low density of affected users, people may collect water directly from surface water sources. When this is the case, collection areas should be designated as soon as possible and structures such as platforms, steps and ramps constructed so that users can collect water without coming in direct contact with the water source Figure 5.16
As we have seen, water collection points should be carefully located with consideration given to water quantities, quality, the risk of physical damage, and the impact of collection from these points on downstream users.
Collection platforms can be constructed using a number of materials such as sand or concrete filled bags, wood, or stone. Consideration should be given to the possibility of fluctuating water levels floating platforms can be used in these situations. The needs of physically vulnerable users (children, elderly, disabled, pregnant women etc.) should also be considered through such measures as providing a handrail for safety and support (Figure 5.17).
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Figure 5.16. Examples of water collection platforms
In crowded situations water point supervisors may be needed to manage access.
Supervisors can also be used to conduct bucket chlorination in order to disinfect collected water (Unit 8).
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Figure 5.17.
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Edition 1.1 GJM © WEDC Loughborough University UK