THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARMENT OF POLICY, PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
ADVANCED COPY FOR
OEM 201:EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
By
Ngonge,G.R; Malingumu, W; Ngirwa, C.C & Makiya, R
LECTURE ONE
1.0 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
When studying the course educational management and leadership we wish to
begin with an understanding of the concept ‘educational management and
leadership’. Alongside the concept we will introduce you to some terminologies
which are commonly employed when studying management and leadership in
organizations. You should remember that educational management and
leadership is just a part of the broad field of Management of organizations. In
studying educational management and leadership a number of terminologies
from business, management and human resources will be brought into play.
Thus metaphors of more important terms will be given in the subsequent
lectures.
Interpretation among various terms in relation to the concept of
educational management and leadership will briefly be given. Therefore
objectives for this lecture will be as hereunder stated.
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1.Give the meaning of management, administration, educational
management, educational administration, educational leadership
and its scope
2.Differentiate management from administration
3. Give interpretation and meaning of educational management
and educational leadership
4.Describe the relationship between management and
administration
1.1 Management and Administration
The term management originated from an Italian word maneggiare means
handle. It has been defined by various scholars and writers of organizational
behavior as:
…that function of an enterprise which concerns itself with the direction and control
of the various activities to attain the business objectives. Management is essentially
an executive function; it deals particularly with the active direction of the human
effort (William Spriegal, in Bose, 2003:3).
Okumbe (1999) defines management as the process of designing, developing,
and effecting organizational objectives and resources so as to achieve
predetermined organizational goals.
Bose (2003) supports Okumbe by stressing that management is the function of
getting things done through people and directing efforts of individuals towards
a common objective.
The two definitions put emphasizes on the role of getting people’s work
efficiently with resources towards organizational objectives. The main purpose
of a manager therefore is to design, direct and control organizational tasks
towards successful performance. This calls for individual skills and abilities to
manage
others.
administration.
Closely
related
to
management
we
have
the
term
Administration is the ability to mobilize human and material resources
towards achievement of organizational goals. Nwankwo (1981) in his own view
describes administration as the careful and systematic arrangement and use of
human
and
material
resources,
situations
and
opportunities
for
the
achievement of specific objectives. Beach (1975) support the statement by
adding that administration is a part of management which is concerned with
the installation and carrying out of the procedures by which programs, plans
and targets are laid down and communicated, and the progress of activities
regulated and checked against them.
From the above definitions one may get confused on what are the differences
between the term management and administration. Administration may be
defined as a process of coordinating human and material resources in order to
achieve organizational goals. Administration deals with gathering, processing,
and communicating information. Practically, everybody working for an
organization participates in the administrative activities. Even those who do
not hold any managerial position participate when receiving written or oral
instructions and reporting back on the outcome of their work. Those who have
managerial positions complete much more administrative activities, for
example, they are engaged in planning of various processes, and assigning
resources to various units of the organization.
Activity
1. using your own words define the terms management and administration
2. Explain why every employee is considered to participate in the
administrative activities of an organization?
1.2 The relationship between Management and Administration
Management and administration may seem the same, but there are differences
between the two. Administration has to do with the setting up of objectives and
crucial policies of every organization. What is understood by management,
however, is the act or function of putting into practice the policies and plans
decided upon by the administration.
Management is really a subset of administration, which has to do with the
technical and routine running of an organization’s operation. Management
deals with the employees. Administration is above management, and exercises
control over the finance and licensing of an organization.
Therefore, you can see that these two terms are distinct from one another, each
with their own set of functions. Both these functions are crucial, in their own
ways, to the growth of an organization
Differences between management and administration can be summarized as
follows:1. The function of management is putting into practice the policies and plans
decided upon by the administration
2. Management is an executive function, while administration is a
determinative function.
3. Management makes the decisions within the confines of the framework set
by the administration
4. Administrators are mainly found in government, military, religious and
educational organizations while management is used by the business
enterprises.
5. Management is a middle level activity, whereas administration is the top
level
Activity
1. using your own words define the terms management and administration
2. Find out what are other differences between management and
administration taking into considerations of the education organization
structure in your country
1.3 Educational Administration
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2011) defines educational administration as a
discipline within the study of education that examines the administrative
theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and
educators in particular.
Okumbe (1999) defines educational administration as a process of acquiring
and allocating resources for the achievement of predetermined educational
goals.
The
field
ideally
distinguishes
itself
from
administration
and
management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational
philosophy.
Schools or colleges comprise certain personnel i.e. teaching and non-teaching
staff as well as the students. These human resources in the school or college
work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and
financial resources in order to achieve the objectives of the school/college.
Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004) define school administration as the scientific
organization of human and material resources and programs available for
education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve
educational goals. In this case the term educational administration can
synonymously be used with the term school administration.
1.4 Leadership has been described as the process of social influence in which
one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a
common task. Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal". The
leader may or may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have
produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior,
power, vision and values, charisma and intelligence, among others. A leader is
a person who guides others toward a common goal, showing the way by
example, and creating an environment in which other team members feel
actively involved in the entire process. A leader is not the boss of the team but,
instead, the person that is committed to carrying out the mission of the
Venture for example a school.
What is the difference between management and leadership? It is a question
that has been asked by many people and also answered in different ways. The
biggest difference between managers and leaders is the way they motivate the
people who work or follow them, and this sets the tone for most other aspects
of what they do. Leadership is about getting others to follow while management
is about delivering results. Detailed information about theories of management
and leadership will be studied as we go along in the fore coming lectures.
Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the meaning of educational management,
educational
administration,
educational
leadership,
and
educational
organizations. We have highlighted on the differences between management
and administration, and between leadership and management.
Review Questions
1. Distinguish the terms administration and management
2. What are the differences between educational management and educational
administration?
3. Drawing examples from education sector give the relationship between
administration and management
4. What is the difference between management and leadership?
References/Further Readings
Akinwumi, F & Jayeoba, A.O (2004). Principles and Practice of Educational
Management. Ibadan: Bash-Moses Printing Co.
Beach, D.S(1975). Personnel: the management of people at work, 3rd Edition,
macmillan New York
Bose, D. C. (2003). Principles of management and administration. New Delhi,
Prentice Hall.
Nwanko, J.I (1982). Educational Administration: theory and practice :
Vikas Pub. House, New Delhi
Kimani, G.N (2010). Educational Management, Open Educational Resources by the
African Virtual University; OER@AVU
Okumbe, J.A (1998). Educational Management. Theory and Practice, University
of Nairobi Press, Kenya
LECTURE TWO
2.0 EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AS ORGANIZATIONS
Similar to other organizations education institutions like schools and colleges
must be well organized. The management and leadership success depend
largely on how the institution is organized. This lecture will introduce you on
what is organization, types of organizations and their characteristics. The
lecture will also introduce you the concept of organization structure,
organization chart and educational organizations. Furthermore the lecture will
give highlights on bureaucratic theory of organizations as proposed by Max
Weber.
Therefore lecture objectives will be as hereunder stated.
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1.Define the term organisation
2.Explain types of organizations and their characteristics
3.Elucidate features that makes educational institutions
organisations
4.State the influences of informal organisations on formal
organisations
4.Describe organizational structure and organizational chart of
educational organizations
5. Explain strengths and weaknesses of Max Weber’s bureaucratic
theory on organizations
2.1 Organization
An organization is a social unit of people systematically structured and
managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis.
For example a school is an organization for it is comprised of people who are
systematically organized to realize collective goals. All organizations have a
management structure that determines relationships between functions and
positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, and authority to
carry out defined tasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and
are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries.
2.2 Characteristics of Organizations
Organizations have the following characteristics:
a) Organizations consist of a group of individuals.
b) Organizations are dynamic.
c) Organizations have specific activities which are conducted under the
direction of a leader.
d) Organizational output is the result of collective effort.
2.3 Types of Organizations
There are two types of organizations. These are formal and informal
organizations.
2.31 Formal organizations
Formal organizations are characterized by planned structure and represent the
patterns of relationship that exist among the components of an organization.
Characteristics of formal organizations
Formal organizations have the following specific characteristics:
•
•
•
•
Well defined rules and regulation
Determined objectives and policies
Status symbol
Limitation on the activities of the individual
•
•
Strict observance of the principle of co-ordination
Messages are communicated through scalar chain
2.32 Informal Organizations
Informal organizations consist of the unofficial and unauthorized relationships
that occur between individuals or groups within the formal organization.
Informal organizations occur in order to:
a) Satisfy a social need.
b) Create a sense of belonging.
c) Perpetuate cultural values of a group.
d) Communicate and pass information.
Characteristics of informal organizations
• Development of Standards of behavior
Informal organizations generally develop its own laws, taboos and beliefs about
what is right and wrong behavior or conduct.
• Pressures to conform
Informal groups tend to exert pressures upon which its members conform to.
• Informal leadership
Leaders in informal organizations emerge from groups through persuasion and
influence.
2.4 Influence of informal organizations in management of formal
organizations
The presence of informal organizations helps the management of formal
organizations. Informal groups form a channel through which certain
information
can
be
passed
to
workers.
This
additional
means
of
communication can sometimes be very effective. It may also provide a means of
social satisfaction. It is not possible for organizations to provide all means of
satisfaction. Informal groups can serve as additional source of satisfaction for
formal group members.
1.5 Educational Organizations
Educational organizations refer to a group of individuals located in a specific
place or institution whose purpose is to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes
to students or pupils in order to achieve pre-determined educational objectives
or goals. Such organizations include schools, colleges, training institutes and
centres as well as universities (Kimani, 2010).
1.7 Organizational structure
Organizational structure is the hierarchical arrangement of lines of authority
communication, rights and duties of an organization. Organizational structure
determines how the roles, power and responsibilities are assigned, controlled,
and coordinated, and how information between the different levels of
management.
A structure depends on the organization’s objectives and strategy. In a
centralized structure, the top layer of management has most of the decision
making power and has tight control over department and divisions. In a
decentralized structure, the decision making power is distributed and the
departments and divisions may have different degrees of independence. Well
designed organizational structures will produce efficient communication
channels and encourage fast, clean decisions
1.8 Organizational Chart
Visual representation of how a firm for example a school intends authority,
responsibility, and information to flow within its formal organizational
structure. It usually depicts different management functions (finance, human
resources and marketing etc.) and their subdivisions as boxes linked with lines
along which decision making power travels downwards and answerability
travels upwards. The following diagram shows an example of an organizational
structure of a private school
Activity
1. Attempt to draw an organizational structure of a named education
institution
1.9 Bureaucratic Theory of Organizations
1.91Bureaucratic Theory was developed by a German Sociologist and political
economist Max Weber (1864-1920). According to him, bureaucracy is the most
efficient form of organization. The organization has a well-defined line of
authority. It has clear rules and regulations which are strictly followed.
According to Max Weber, there are three types of power in an organization:1. Traditional Power,
2. Charismatic Power, and
3. Bureaucratic Power or Legal Power.
1.92 Features of Bureaucratic Organization
The characteristics or features of Bureaucratic Organization are as follows: i) There is a high degree of Division of Labor and Specialization
ii) There is a well defined Hierarchy of Authority.
iii) It follows the principle of Rationality, Objectively and Consistency.
iv) There are Formal and Impersonal relations among the member of the
organization.
v) Interpersonal relations are based on positions and not on personalities.
vi) There are well defined Rules and Regulations. There rules cover all the
duties and rights of the employees. These rules must be strictly followed.
vii) There are well defined Methods for all types of work.
viii) Selection and Promotion is based on Technical qualifications.
ix) Only Bureaucratic or legal power is given importance.
1.93 Criticism of Bureaucratic Organization.
Bureaucratic organization is a very rigid type of organization. It does not give
importance to human relations. It is suitable for government organizations. It is
also suitable for organizations where change is very slow. It is appropriate for
static organizations. Bureaucratic organization is criticized because of the
following reasons:i)Too much emphasis on rules and regulations. The rules and regulations are
rigid and inflexible.
ii)No importance is given to informal groups. Nowadays, informal groups play
an important role in all business organisations.
iii) Bureaucracy involves a lot of paper work. This results in lot of wastage of
time, effort and money.
iv) There will be unnecessary delay in decision-making due to formalities and
rules.
v) Bureaucratic model may be suitable for government organisations. But it is
not suitable for business organisations because business organisations believe
in quick decision making and flexibility in procedures.
Vi)Too much importance is given to the technical qualifications of the
employees for promotion and transfers. Dedication and commitment of the
employee is not considered
Vii)There is difficulty in coordination and communication.
Viii)There is limited scope for Human Resource (HR).
Summary
In this lecture we have covered the concept organization this includes what is
an organization, types of organizations, their characteristics as well as the
influence of informal organizations in management of formal organizations like
schools. Organisational structure and organizational chart as they are used in
educational institutions have also been discussed. The last part of the lecture
gives main ideas about the bureaucratic theory on organization by Max Weber.
Review Questions
1. What are the major characteristics of organizations?
2. Explain the different forms of organizations
3. Why informal organizations do exist in education organizations like
schools?
4. Attempt to explain why it is important to have a well carefully
designed organisational structure for your education institution
5. Describe the influence of informal organizations on formal
organizations
6. What are the main features of Bureaucratic Organizations?
7. Explain strengths and weaknesses of Max Weber’s bureaucratic
theory on organizations
References/Further Readings
Akinwumi, F & Jayeoba, A.O (2004). Principles and Practice of Educational
Management. Ibadan: Bash-Moses Printing Co.
Bates, T. (2000). Managing technological change: strategies for college and
university leaders. San Francisco, EUA: Jossey-Bass.
Beach, D.S(1975). Personnel: the management of people at work, 3rd Edition,
macmillan New York
Nwanko, J.I (1982). Educational Administration: theory and practice :
Vikas Pub. House, New Delhi
Kimani, G.N (2010). Educational Management, Open Educational Resources by the
African
Virtual University; OER@AVU
Okumbe, J.A (1998). Educational Management. Theory and Practice, University
of Nairobi Press, Kenya
Schein, E. H. (1988). Organizational psychology. 3rd ED. Englewood Cliffs,
Prentice- Hall Inc.
Schermerhorn, J.R., J. G. Hunt and R. N. Osborn (1991). Managing
Organizational Behaviour. 4th Ed. New York, Chichester, Brisbane,
Toronto, Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/articles/manager_leade
r.htm 0n 02/12/2011:
LECTURE THREE
MANAGEMENT THEORIES
3.1 Introduction
Management on one hand refers to the skilful or resourceful use of human and
non human resources for the achievement of organizational goals. A theory on
the other hand refers to a coherent group of tested general propositions,
commonly regarded as correct, that can be used as principles of explanation
and prediction for a class of phenomena. Therefore management theories are
general propositions that can be used as principles of explanation and
prediction in the course of getting organizational objectives achieved through
people. This lecture will provide a general description of management theories
together with their implications in the management of education institutions.
Management is associated with the role of getting people’s work efficiently with
resources towards organizational objectives. The main purpose of a manager
therefore is to design, direct and control of organizational tasks towards
successful performance. This calls for individual skills and abilities to manage
others. This lecture will instruct the concept and theories of management, and
its (management) endeavors in organizations.
At the end of this lecture a teacher trainee should be able to:
1. Give the meaning of a theory.
2. Examine various management schools of thoughts.
3. Compare and contrast management theories.
4. Identify the contribution of each management theory.
5. Mention five major management functions.
3.2 Management Theories
There are many theories of management. They are grounded from management
perspectives towards achieving organizational goals. In this lecture we give
examples of three grand theories of management. These are Scientific
Management by Fredrick Taylor; Human Relations by Elton Mayo; and
Administration by Henri Fayol. Each theory will be associated with their
effectiveness in organizational activities and employee performance. You may
use the recommended references to learn more on contemporary management
theories.
3.21
Scientific Management (Frederick Taylor, 1856-1915)
Frederick defined scientific management as a “means knowing exactly what
you want men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way”.
He learned deficiencies in old way of working, where resources were lost
through poor productions. Thus, he advocated a systematic (scientific,
analytical)
way
of
making
people
work
on
organizational
activities
(management) (Bose, 2003). According to Bose scientific management relies on
identification of a task and effective ways of accomplishing it. This can be
accomplished through observations, objective analysis and innovations.
Taylor posited important management skills: breaking a big task into subtasks
for effective performance; systematic selection of workers and training; and
maximum production. However, he emphasized productions and seemingly
overlooks other organizational activities such as finance and accounting. He
has been also criticized for his autocratic management principles as
dehumanizing workers. On his words:
…to work according to scientific laws, the management must takeover and
perform much of the work which is now left to the men; almost every act of
the workman should be preceded by one or more preparatory acts of the
management which enable him to do his work better and quicker than he
otherwise could (Taylor in Bose, 2003, p. )
In summary, Taylor’s scientific management relies on five major principles
(Bose, 2003).
I. Replaced rule of thumb method by scientific management.
Management
decisions
are
grounded
from
the
data
out
of
scientific
investigation (experiment, data collection and analysis) of a problem.
II. Scientific selection and training.
Qualified workers on a specific task are selected by a respective department.
These are trained to become trainers of specific job-related skills.
III. Cooperation between workers and management.
Taylor believed on the cooperation as tools of people to fit in the scientific
management structure.
IV. Maximum output
Scientific
management focused
on
effective-maximum productions.
The
importance of workers, management and society at large would be pertinent in
the production success.
V. Equal division of responsibility
Taylor believed that through cooperation, each group (i.e. workers &
management) would work efficiently. Management would perform their
management tasks (science & instructions) and workers perform labour.
Taylor’s theory is still relevance and being used by management practitioners
in organizations.
3.22 Human Relations (George Elton Mayo 1880-1949)
Unlike classical theorists (Taylor & Fayol) (classical), who emphasized
management of job and physical resources, Mayo (neo-classist) focused on
human and social aspects of organizations. Human relations approach focuses
on human dimensions of work (conflicts and group dynamics) and employees’
motivation towards effective performance. Human relations theorists viewed
employees as a resource that needed to be developed but not as machines like
in classical times.
Mayo
examined
(e.g.
Hawthorne
studies)
informal
grouping
and
relationships, patterns of informal relationships, informal leadership and
patterns of communications of organizations. He found out that leadership
skills based on human relations determined employee effective performance.
They also learned that organizations are social systems that can be well
managed through psychological principles and behavioral sciences. This school
of thought is still relevant and being used by management practitioners. Mayo
was criticized for ignoring other management tasks such as economic and
technological factors in organizations.
3.23 Administrative management theory (Henri Fayol 1841-1925)
Henri Fayol is known as ‘Universalist’ and the father of process management
school of thought. He posited fourteen principles of management.
1. Division of work. This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labour'.
Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient.
2. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this
right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is exercised.
3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the
organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear
understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's
rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules.
4. Unity of command. Every employee should receive orders from only one
superior.
5. Unity of direction. Each group of organizational activities that have the same
objective should be directed by one manager using one plan.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests of any
one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the
interests of the organization as a whole.
7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.
8. Centralization. Centralization refers to the degree to which subordinates are
involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralized (to
management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is a question of proper
proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralization for each
situation.
9. Scalar chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks
represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain.
However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be
allowed if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed.
10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. High employee turnover is inefficient.
Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that
replacements are available to fill vacancies.
13. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert
high levels of effort.
14. Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the
organization.
He sees management as the series of functions that cut across different
organizational activities. He also believed in one administrative science as
effective across organizations (universal). According to Fayol organizational
activities are of six kinds:
I. Technical activities concerning production
II. Commercial activities of buying and selling
III. Financial activities intended to seek optimum use of capital
IV. Accounting activities concerning final accounts
V. Security activities relating to protection of property
VI. Managerial activities (in Bose, 2003).
Fayol emphasized learning of management tasks/functions (forecast, plan,
organize, command, coordinate, and control). He posited major management
functions,
organizational
activities,
and
worldwide-general
management
principles. These are still useful in management of organizational tasks (e.g. in
managing change). However, Fayol has been criticized for his top down view of
management.
In summary the management theories contributed the foundations of
management functions that have been used in today’s organizations. At least
each school of thought has its own unique contribution. For instance, Taylor’s
systematic selection and training contributed important manager’s role of
staffing and training of employees. While, Mayo’s human relations is also
important in staffing, directing and organizing. Altogether, are used to manage
various organizational activities. There are five major management functions:
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
Summary
In this lecture you have learnt that management focuses on attaining
organizational efficiency and effectiveness through people. In the process
managers design, direct and control various activities that have to be
performed by people as they interact with other resources. The lecture has
further explained grand management theories. It has made you realize that
none of the school of thought is insignificant. The former theories had been the
foundation of the later. Besides, the weakness of the former was the strength of
the later. Eventually, each theory has its unique contribution in getting people
work effectively. The theories have posited five major management functions:
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. These are explained
and exemplified in chapter three that follows.
Activity
1. Briefly, explain the meaning of management.
2. With relevant examples, discuss two contrasting theories of management.
3. Assuming that you are a head of school, which management model would
you employ in attaining teachers’ motivation to work?
References
Bose, D. C. (2003). Principles of management and administration. New Delhi,
Prentice Hall.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
Martin, J. (2005). Organizational behavior and management.3rd Ed. Italy, G.
Canale & C., Thomson Learning
Schermerhorn, J.R., J. G. Hunt and R. N. Osborn (1991). Managing
organizational behaviour. 4th Ed. New York, Chichester, Brisbane,
Toronto, Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LECTURE FOUR
MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS
4.1 Introduction
If a manager would have asked: ‘what do you intend by all management
functions?’ The short answer could be: ‘to achieve desired organizational goals’.
That is what really defines organizational effectiveness. Worthwhile, managers
do plan, organize, staffing, direct and control all organization activities,
materials and human resources towards attaining organization goals. Like any
other disciplines, management employs knowledge and skills from other
disciplines like psychology and sociology to make organization life conducive
for employees’ wellbeing and effectiveness. This lecture therefore, aims to
familiarize you with the major management functions and their implications to
organizational effectiveness.
At the end of this lecture a teacher trainee should be able to:
1. Describe with vivid examples each of the management functions.
2. Explain the role of a manager in each of the management
functions.
3. Create a management function cycle showing the management
endeavours.
4. Discuss management role in achieving organization effectiveness.
4.2 Hierarchical Level of Management
Levels of management show managerial positions (authority status) within the
organization. Before we analyse five major functions of management is
important that you understand authority systems in an organization (figure
3.1). We have arranged the authorities from the most powerful to the less and
their managerial roles. Generally, the role of management is to connect all
levels towards goals accomplishment.
Level
Top Management Team
(Executives/CEO; Board
chairperson, Deputes)
Middle management
(Operational managers)
Front line Management
(Supervisors, Heads of
Departments)
Managerial roles
Delegate, vision, coach, empower, account the organization
performance, set goals, strategic plans and policies.
Advisors, informants, motivators, coordinators, executers,
unit planners, solve immediate problems, build teams.
Motivate employees for good performance, informants,
instructors, assign tasks, coacher,
Figure 3.1 Levels of Management.
4.2.1 Top Management Team: Normally, these are from two different higher
levels of
management at
an institution. These
individuals hold
high
authorities/position within the organization. They set long term goals and
channels the entirely organization towards achieving them. In this regard, they
have to account for the status of an organization performance. Unlike other
management levels, these individuals can be appointed from within or outside
the organization and they hold higher level of expertise (e.g. visionary,
entrepreneur, education).
4.2.2 Middle Management: These are next to the top management team.
They manage/handle top management goals to their units/faculties. Middle
managers set unit goals to simplify the management of top management goals.
They are also expected to motivate their frontline managers towards achieving
organization goals. Like their names “middle”, they are informants of both top
and frontline managers. They are also good advisors of the top managers on
how well to manage the organization.
3.2.3 Frontline Management:
These are key actors of management of employees or workers of the products or
services that are provided by an organization. These managers interact more
with the employees than other levels of management and thus they are good
informants of workers problems to middle managers. In most cases they are
promoted from the group of frontline workers in organizations. Having learnt
the management systems now you can easily follow the analyses of
management functions.
4.3 The Functions of Management
Management theorists posited five major functions of management. Namely:
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling (figure 3.2). The
functions will be analyzed in relation to the managers’ roles in attaining
employees’ efforts towards organizational goals. Thus, they complement and
interrelate to one another to meet the desired goals. For instance, managers
analyze goals and set plans for achieving the goals. Yet, the plans are effective
only if managers direct, organize and control employees’ activities when
affecting the set plans. You can’t also do all mentioned functions without
considering appropriate/qualified employee (i.e. staffing).
Planning
Staffing
Controlling
Organizing
Directing
Figure 3.2 Five functions of Management
4.3.1 Planning
Planning is a heart of management in organizations. It forecasts and correctly
predicts the most appropriate practices that will lead to the desired
organization goals. Thus, it forecasts the sequence of organizational activities
for goals accomplishment. Through this function, managers put forward what
to do, when to do it and how to do it. In this regard, it also determines other
managerial functions towards achieving organizational goals. Eventually,
managers execute problem solving and decision making roles. It ensures
appropriate utilization of organizational resources. Besides, it encompasses
expertise (e.g. wide knowledge, intellectual) to execute planning endeavors.
4.3.2 Organizing
This is basically about assembling materials, financial and human resources in
mutual pull ready for accomplishing organizational goals. The main purpose is
to make sure that organizational structures are well equipped with all
resources and that they work collaboratively towards organizational goals.
Managers are therefore executing:
•
Define activities.
•
Arrange activities in their respective groups.
•
Set duties.
•
Delegate and engender responsibilities.
•
Ensure harmonious relationship between authorities (departments) and
accountabilities (job position).
4.3.3 Staffing
Its name comprises its main role that is to manage human resources in an
organization. It makes sure that in all the time an organization structure is well
equipped with enough and competent employees. The main roles of managers
are therefore to:
•
Recruit, select qualified employees and place them in their appropriate
job position.
•
Ensure effective training and development of employees.
•
Ensure effective remuneration and motivational packages.
•
Ensure effective employees performance appraisal.
4.3.4 Directing
This element ensures good organizational performance by:
•
Putting into action preparatory
organizing and staffing).
•
Triggering employees’ actions.
•
Communicating, influencing, and motivating employees in their actions
to organization’s goals achievement.
managerial
functions
(planning,
In summary, directing perform coordination purposes of the human and
material resources. It aims to inspire people’s work efficiently towards
organizational goals.
4.3.5 Controlling
This function can simply be called monitoring, evaluation and correction of
organization practises towards desired performance. It focuses on reviewing the
organization performance with reference to plans and actions of employees.
Through controls, decision can be made on whether to review the plans and or
ways of executing work in a particular organization. Yet, the aim is to work on
the deviations of performance towards accomplishment of organizational goals.
To do all these managers execute the following:
•
Set standards of employees’ performance.
•
Measure employees’ performance.
•
Measure the deviations between the standards and the performance.
•
Correct the deviations in plans and actions.
4.4 Organizational Effectiveness
As far as all managerial functions are well executed then organizations achieve
desired goals (i.e. organizational effectiveness). Thus, the dimension of
organizational effectiveness is in anyhow revealed by the organizational status
at achieving the set organizational goals. Yet, inability to accomplish desired
goals indicates organizational ineffectiveness and vice versa.
Organizational effectiveness has been mainly associated with management
functions due to the following reasons:
• Managers who plan effectively ensure correct course of actions that lead
to the achievement of desired goals.
• Managers, who sufficiently coordinate all organizational resources and
activities, ensure efficiency towards attaining organizational goals.
• Besides,
manning
all
organizational
structures
and
ensuring
motivational factors embrace employees’ good performance towards
organizational goals.
• Again, managers ensure achievement of the desired goals through
executing plans, guiding and influencing people to work efficiently
towards attaining organizational goals.
• Yet, managers who set and measure performance criteria are able to
identify performance deviations and correct them accordingly. In the
context they ensure future organizational development and effectiveness.
Summary
This lecture has described five major functions of management. It has in the
first place posited levels and the role of management. Further, we described
with vivid examples, the five major functions of management. You have learnt
that they are interdependent and complement one another to the extent that
they make a complete cycle. Managers plan what, when and how to do
activities. They also need to organize by setting and assigning activities to
employees.
Managers
ensure
organization
structures
are
appropriately
manned. Managers have the duty to make people work effectively by motivating
them and influencing them. This is directing. Surprisingly, you learnt the way
controlling lead to planning through reviews and corrections. Finally, in this
lecture we briefly explained the connection between managerial functions and
organizational effectiveness. It basically centered at the extent to which leaders
are able to manage organizational activities and achieve desired organizational
goals.
Review Questions
1. With vivid examples, explain each of the five management functions.
2. Describe at least three managerial roles of top managers in educational
organizations.
3. Briefly, substantiate the interdependence of management functions in
attaining organizational goals.
4. “Management is a process by which managers create, maintain and operate
purposive organizations through coordinated and cooperative human efforts”.
Explain this statement.
References
Bose, D. C. (2003). Principles of management and administration. New Delhi,
Prentice Hall.
Koontz, H.; O’Donnell, C. & Weihrich, H. (1986). Essentials of management.
4th Ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
LECTURE FIVE
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Having studied theories of management and managerial functions for
organizational effectiveness in lecture two and three respectively, you are now
in position to use knowledge gained in explaining principles of management in
education. In this lecture, we are going to learn about the principles of
management in education.
Henry Fayol (1841-1925) is the founder of the
fourteen principles that are currently used by various organizations such as
military, political, philanthropic and other organizations including education.
For better understanding of the principles of management in education, I
would urge you to read the theories of management. The foremost task we
have is to thoroughly read the given references for widening and sharpening
our understanding and knowledge on the lecture on focus.
UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(i)
Identify, describe and give examples on the principles of
educational management;
(ii)
Exemplify the application of principles of management in
education settings.
5.2 Contextualization of principles of management
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the fourteen principles of
management. To start with, we need to ask ourselves the following questions,
why Henry Fayol (1841-1925) developed the principles of management? Are the
principles of management applicable in education context? Thus, we need to
evaluate our organizations’ managers on the use of the fourteen principles for
the purpose of confirming the relevance of the principles on today’s globalized
and changing world. The following are the principles.
i)Division of work Or work specialization
This principle stresses on specialization of workers on various fields which
results in efficient use of resources and increase productivity. This principle is
applicable to both managerial and
technical functions. Looking in our
education organizations we can determine how the works and responsibilities
of individuals reflects their specializations. As far as the principle is concerned,
may you identify and list down specialization areas in your school, college, or
any education instruction without leaving out those who are working under
non-teaching education institutions such as ministries, ward district and
regional education offices. After you have listed out, why do you think that you
have those specializations in your office?
ii) Authority and responsibility
Authority means right to give order or command. Responsibility is the
obligation to achieve the objective. responsibility comes with authority. The
questions here is why responsibilities comes with authority? Give some
examples of various authority in your office.
iii) Discipline
Here, we need to ask ourselves, what is discipline? Why, do we need to be
disciplined? What we need to take into account is that, organizations has a set
of activities to be done with specific goal to be achieved by the organization
and individual. Thus, Discipline is absolutely necessary for smooth running of
organization. Without discipline means that, there will be a lot of confusions
and conflicts within organization hence misbehaving and mistreatment of
people. people are human beings who need to be respected. In organization
Discipline means following rules, regulations, policies and procedures by all
employees of the organization. There must be clear and fair agreements for
observing rules and regulations and also punishment for disobedience and
indiscipline.
iv)
Unity of command
This principles emphasizes the necessity of the number of bosses to which an
employee need to report to. This means that we have to know where do we
report and to whom do we report. As an employee you should receive orders
form one supervisor only to avoid possible confusion and conflict i.e. one
worker should not be under control of more than one supervisors. It avoids
mistakes and delays in getting work done.
v)
As
Unity of direction
we
are
going
through
these
principles,
what
comes
in
is
the
interconnectedness of the principles. Means that, an organisation is always
using this principles not in discrete manner. The most important to this
principle is that all the activities must be aimed at one common objective. the
activities should be organised such that there should be one plan and one
person in charge. This enables directions of efforts towards attainment of one
goal.
vi)
Subordination of individual
The interest of one employee or group should not be given importance over the
interests and goals of the organisation. At this level, the organization members
should work hard to achieve both individual and organizations goals. May we
ask ourselves a question, are we sacrificing our interest for the best of the
organization or for ourselves? Why did you join the organisation that you are
working with today?
vii)
Remuneration
Compensation and methods of compensation should be fair to both the
employee and the employer. Exploitations of the employees of any kind must be
avoided. The focus here is on the benefits of the organization and employees.
Are we really satisfied with what we are given and signed in our contract? What
about the pension scheme that you are working with, what about other
allowances, and tax relief, are they fair to us and organisation? Does
remuneration alone guarantee fairness? Take your time to clear doubts on
answering the questions on this paragraph by evaluating the applicability of
this principle to you as employee and as employer to the existing system in
your country.
viii) Centralization
The centralisation of authority and power to some extent is necessary where is
most feasible otherwise there should be decentralisation of authority and power
for smooth functioning of the organisation. A balance between both must be
achieved. The objective is the optimum use of the capabilities of the personnel.
ix) Scalar chain
A (scale) hierarchical chain of authority extends from the highest to lowest rank
of the organization and defines communication path. However horizontal
communication is also encouraged as long as the manager in the chain is kept
informed.
x) Order
Is principle of arrangement of things and people. Everything should occupy its
proper place i.e. everything should be in order. Due to good organization and
selection the right person should be in the right place. Order leads to creation
of sound organization with efficient management. Good organizations remove
confusion.
xi) Equity
Employees are human being. Employees’ loyalty and devotion should be
treated with kindness and justice. Organisation’s run best when managers are
fair with their management. Because time is required to become effective in
new jobs, high turnovers of the employees should be avoided. Instability ( high
turnover) is the symbol of weak management. Ask yourself if there is high or
low turnover in your organization, do you think the situation can be changed
or managed?
xii) Stability of tenure of personnel
Stability of tenure of the personnel in the organization increases efficiency of
the employees and it is a symbol of the sound organization.
xiii) Initiatives
Managers must encourage subordinates to take initiatives. It is the result of
creative thinking and imaginations and helps in formulating, planning also its
execution. Does the manager in your organization encourages and creates
environment for initiative and creativity? As we can reflect on the conditions
that we are working, it is true that we can be able to evaluate the level at which
our boss encourages, accepts and creates conducive environment for
subordinates’ creativity?
xiv) Espirit de corps
Means spirit of cooperation. Since union is strength, harmony and teamwork
are essential. This is prerequisite for better performance and effective
organization. We need to assess the level of team working in our schools,
colleges and other offices. Is there integration of members? Is this encouraged
by our leaders, or first line boss?
5.3 Uses/applications of principles of management
in education context
As we have seen in lecture two on the theories of management, the principles
were developed by the engineer. The aim of the principles is to successfully
help manager in organisations avoid possible confusions and conflict that will
be cause by mistreatment and lack of respect. Any organisation need to know
that all resources are to be effectively and sufficiently utilized with respect
including human beings. To help smooth running of various organisations, the
principles were put in place. The following are some of the applications of the
principles in any organisation. For example, people as resources if are abused
they may decide to leave the organization or develop anger and mistrust among
themselves or with their leader hence confusion and conflict that leads to
inefficiency of the organization, individuals and less satisfaction to customers.
the principles can be used in executing the following functions and activities:
•
Decision making
•
Change and organization
•
Skills can be used to improve the basic effectiveness of the manager
•
Understand that management can be seen a variety of activities which
can be listed and grouped
UNIT SUMMARY
In this Unit, we discussed the fourteen principles of management
as developed by Fayol. We have discovered that as you walk
through the Unit you will find that the principles are not discrete
in nature as they connected. Thus, even its execution need to be
evaluated as a whole. As we have also noted that, the
management theories is the base of the principles. For smooth
running of the organization, you have to understand them first so
as to enable you embark in its applications. I therefore, advise you
to read and understand this Unit as a foundation to you as
employee or employer.
Review Questions
1. Basing on the unit notes and what you have read from various
literature, assess the relevance of the principles of management in
education as per your context.
2.Give more examples of the applications apart from those given in
the unit
3.Critically analyse the level of execution of the principles in your
origination?
4.Reflecting on your context, is there an importance of
centralization and decentralization of power? If given chance, what
would you have suggested on the situation?
5. Give examples on how horizontal communication works in your
organization
FURTHER READINGS
Armstrong, M. (2007). Employee Reward Management and
Practice London:Prentice Hall.
.
Burke, R. (2006). Project Management: Planning and Control
Techniques. Ontario, Canada: John Willey.
Gupta, R. (1990). The Process of Management. Barelly: V.K.
Publishing House.
LECTURE SIX
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
6.1 Introduction
Many concepts could have been discussed in the field of organization behavior
but few have received tremendous volume of research as leadership. The term
is about social influence or showing light to others. It has been associated with
individual (i.e. leader) ability to motivate others (i.e. followers). It involves
setting vision/new direction, initiates activities and influences others (e.g.
employees) towards accomplishing that vision. Thus, organizations require
good visionaries for their developments. However, good visions are not
accomplished unless there is effective social influence of others. This chapter
teaches you the grand theories of leadership. We will not discuss all theories.
We shall center our analyses on the earliest theories, as they illustrate
contrasts in leadership perspectives. Beforehand, we briefly present you with
the general understanding of the concept leadership, and qualities of a leader.
At the end of this lecture a student teacher should be able to:
1. Give the meaning of leadership.
2. Explain the characteristics of a leader.
3. Identify the scope of leadership.
4. Examine various leadership theories.
5. Identify the contribution of each leadership theory.
6. Differentiate managers from leaders.
6.2 An Overview of Leadership
6.2.1 The Concept of Leadership
It is a psychological process of influencing followers in order to attain common
goals.
Thus, an individual (i.e. a leader) should hold abstract quality of
inspiring others and gaining their support in achieving organizational goals.
Besides, a leader should have followers. There is no leadership without
followership. In this regard, you should carefully analyze dimensional context
of leadership. Managers tend to have subordinates due to their position in the
organization. But, leaders gain followers only through exercitation of influential
qualities.
6.2.2 Characteristics of a Leader
Leadership has been associated with the individual qualities to influence
others. Thus, to identify characteristics of a leader then we analyze the
leadership qualities.
•
A leader guides followers and activities in achieving common tasks.
•
An individual inert influential power.
•
An individual gains groups of followers.
•
A leader initiates policies, objectives and objectives for other in attempts
to attain organizational goals.
•
A leader motivates and coordinates followers’ efforts to achieve common
goals.
•
Leaders act like a ‘chameleon’. They change their styles according to the
working situations.
•
Leaders should also be social, tolerant, exercise openness, and self
confidence.
•
Current research has also posited ‘ethics’ as important value of a good
leader (i.e. leader who is fair and cares others).
6.3 Leadership Theories
Leadership phenomenon passed through different development of theories.
Basic perspectives of a leader and his performance on others differentiate one
theory from the other. In this part we present few grand theories of leadership.
The grand theories are “Great Man” and “Trait” theories, and we will explain
the “Behavioral” theory of leadership.
6.3.1 Great Man Theory (1840s)
This is the earliest theory of leadership. It encompasses special attributes of a
person to be elected/ appointed as a leader. A leader was seen as being born
not made. Thus, they are exceptional and hold qualities to lead others. The
theory based on the views that leaders should maintain good relationship with
others through personal integrity, be influential by ensuring dominance and
the need for influence. Besides, suitable situations determine great leaders.
However, this theory was criticized due to the fact that, the so called great
leaders resulted from actions and situations they have experienced. Thus, they
are socially made.
6.3.2 Trait Leadership Theory (1930s – 1940s)
This is also among the earliest leadership theories. It extended the earlier belief
that a leader is born or made with ability to influence others. In this regard,
levels of individual abilities such as creativity, sense of responsibility and
intelligence determine a good leader. Moreover, the trait theorists studied
individual physical, mental and social attributes to identify common features of
leaders. Thus, the attributes grounded from various studies in leadership. The
aim was to relate these features to leadership success and use them in
selecting good leaders for a position in a particular organization. This theory
activated many studies and theory developments of leadership.
6.3.3 Behavioral Leadership Theory (1940s - 1950s)
To extend the traits’ attributes (i.e. physical, mental and social), behaviorists
focus on leader’s behaviours in attaining organizational goals and employees’
behavioral maintenance. They used factor analysis to study causes and effects
of leadership behaviours on followers. Researchers from the university of
Michigan and Ohio State University put forth important elements of leader’s
behaviors. They have found out two main leadership behaviors. First, was the
employees centered (human relations- oriented) leader behaviors, these leaders
emphasized developing employees’ motivation and wellbeing. Second were
production-centered (task-oriented) leader behaviors, these emphasized on
getting things done with little attention to people’s affairs and motivation. They
confirmed that leaders are made and not born. Besides, on the basis of this
theory many researches and perspectives have posited various leadership
focuses and behaviours.
6.3.3.1 Managerial Grid
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1991) posited a behavioral leadership model
that also clarified leaders’ behavior in different environment. It is based on the
view that leader behaviors are dynamic, thus, a need of training. The scholars
measured leader’s concern for people and task and put the results on a 9position grid (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Managerial Grid.
The horizontal axis represents leaders who focus on production (task-oriented),
and the vertical axis represent leader who consider employee wellbeing.
Key of the Grid:
(1, 1): impoverished style. This represents leaders who don’t emphasize either
of task or people wellbeing. They maintain their positions as they fear to be
blamed for organizational faults. Thus organizations run short and there are no
developments.
(1, 9): Country clubs. These are leaders who emphasize wellbeing of employees
(people oriented) and put little attention to production. Hence, they end up with
mutual relationships but low production.
(9, 1): produce or perish style. Leaders of this group put more emphasis on
production as oppose to employee affairs. They set rule and punishments. They
exchange wages with employee performance. These are known as autocratic
leaders.
(5, 5): middle-of-the road style. These are leaders who give little concern to task
and people. Thus, being half-half lead to unsuccessful to either of the two.
(9, 9): team style. Leaders of this nature emphasize both task and employee
wellbeing. They build teams, and thus attain teams’ citizenship and
commitment.
Behavioral leadership theorists posited two main behaviors: production or task
oriented and employee concern or people oriented leadership behaviors towards
accomplishing organizational goals. The scholars have been criticized for their
general view of human behavior. Human behavior differs across tasks and
culture. Leadership theories that have presented will enlighten you in the
analyses of other contemporary leadership theories. The theories are such as
contingency theory (1960s), transactional theory (1970s) and transformational
leadership theory (1970s). You need to read the recommended references for
your deep understanding of leadership theories. In the next part we instruct
the differences between a manager and a leader.
6.4 Different Between Management and Leadership
Students and researchers of organizational behaviours, frequently use the term
management and leadership interchangeably. This is wrong. The terms differ
mainly in their endeavors (Table 6.1).
Table 6.1: The differences between management and leadership
Management
A manager should be a leader.
It aims at attaining organizational
goals.
It focuses on the management
functions (planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, and controlling.
It formulates policies that used to
manage organizational endeavours.
It is connected with the organizational
structure.
Leadership
A person can be a leader but not a
manager.
Based on individual goals. These can/not
correspond with the organizational goals.
Found in directing. This is one of the
management functions.
It aims to achieve goals by designing
activities.
It can also work in absence of
organizational structure.
The analysis of the functions of management is of good reference in your
exercises to distinguish a manager from a leader. Besides, factors that are
presented in table 6.1 are only examples of the ways that can be used to
identify the differences.
Summary
In this lecture you have learned that leadership is about setting directions and
influencing others to follow towards achieving organizational goals. You have
also learned various characteristics of a leader. Through this lecture you have
also being enlightened on the three earliest leadership theories. Remember, you
have been given a task to advance your understanding by reading more
contemporary theories of leadership. The lecture has further made you realize
that management and leadership differs.
Review Questions
1. Briefly, explain the meaning of leadership.
2. Briefly explain three characteristics of leadership.
3. What is leadership? Enumerate the qualities of a good leader.
4. Write short notes on the following concepts of leadership:
a) Trait leadership theory.
b) Situational leadership theory.
5. Differentiate managers from leaders. (Discuss at least six factors).
References
Blake, R. & McCanse, A. A. (1991). Leadership Dilemas: Grid Solutions. Houston, TX:
Gulf Publishing.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th
Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
Martin, J. (2005). Organizational Behavior and Management.3rd Ed. Italy, G.
Canale & C., Thomson Learning
Schermerhorn, J.R., J. G. Hunt and R. N. Osborn (1991). Managing
Organizational Behaviour. 4th Ed. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto,
Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LECTURE SEVEN
PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP TO ORGANIZATION EFFECTIVENESS
7.1 Introduction
Participative leadership is also referred to democratic. It focuses on the ways
leaders share power with their followers and in decision making. Employees’
participation in organizational processes has been a critical issue in many
countries. Most of the organizational problems and ineffectiveness have been
associated with leaders by pass of people participation in decision making.
Thus, people loose sense of ownership of most of decisions made by leaders in
organization endeavors. That causes organizational ineffectiveness. In many
countries workers participation has been legislated. This lecture will familiarize
you with the concept of participative leadership, and its influence in attaining
organizational effectiveness.
At the end of this lecture a teacher trainee should be able to:
1. Define the concept of participative leadership.
2. Explain different ways in which employees are involved in decision
making.
3. Discuss the role of participative leadership in achieving organization
effectiveness.
7.2 Participative Leadership
This is one of leadership approach that focuses on guiding, empowering,
consulting and involving employees in decision making. It insists on gaining
employees inputs and potentials in decision making. Participative leaders
delegate powers though maintain control of their goals. They emphasize
dialogue with their followers. In this regard, they gain reach inputs and derive
valuable decisions. Participative leaders promote employees motivation, trust
and sense of ownership of organizational decisions. They also maximise
employees’ best performance in organizational tasks.
7.3 Participative Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness
Most researchers in organizational behaviours have associated participative
leadership with organizational effectiveness. They asserted that among other
things teams participation revealed organizational effectiveness. However, for
participative leaders to attain organizational effectiveness, they should ensure
that all levels are also effective. Since, the failure in one level may affect other
levels of the organization. But the task seem difficult to most of leaders. It calls
for leadership effectiveness before the organization.
Huang, Shi, Zhang and Cheung (2006) did a study in Chinese public
organizations to learn the effect of participative leadership behaviours in
attaining employees’ empowerment and organizational commitment. They have
found out that participative leadership was related with organizational
commitment.
However, some researchers contend that it is not in all contexts that
leaders employ participative leadership. There are other situations like when
there are urgent tasks or employees’ preference that require centralization of
power (autocratic). Moreover, societal culture influences leadership style. Thus,
Schein (1988) contend that there is no best leadership style that is appropriate
in all situations. To assert the best leadership approach one should be specific
on the nature of task, context and people personalities (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: The precondition for the choice of leadership style
The nature of Task
People’s
personalities
Contextual Factors
Summary
Leadership
In this lecture you have learned that participative leadership reflects leaders’
practices of democratic behaviours in organization processes. The lecture has
further made you realize that participative leadership is a driving force towards
arriving organizational brilliant performance. This is due to its focus on
employees’ empowerment, involvement in decision making that lead to their
motivation and commitment to organizational tasks. You need to read more
research works. They posit new perspectives of participative leadership
behaviors and its effect to organizational processes and endeavors. However,
there is a new perspective of the adverse outcomes of participative leadership
(Read Yukl, 2012) in the writings of organizational behaviour.
Review Questions
1. Briefly, explain the meaning of participative leadership.
2. With relevant examples, discuss different environments where participative
leadership behaviors would influence organizational effectiveness.
References
Bates, T. (2000). Managing technological change: strategies for college and
university leaders. San Francisco, EUA: Jossey-Bass.
Boonstra, J. J. (2005). Dynamics in organizational change and learning:
Reflections and new perspectives. Chichester: Wiley.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
Schein, E. H. (1988). Organizational psychology. 3rd ED. Englewood Cliffs,
Prentice- Hall Inc.
Schermerhorn, J.R., J. G. Hunt and R. N. Osborn (1991). Managing
Organizational Behaviour. 4th Ed. New York, Chichester, Brisbane,
Toronto, Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LECTURE EIGHT
LEADERSHIP STYLES
8.1 Introduction
There is a focus that comprises leadership approaches. The intention of a
leader should be to accommodate others and organization needs rather than of
their own desire (self serving leader). Of importance, organizational context,
task and people’s needs at hand guide leaders’ choice of leadership style. In
this regard, flexibility is crucial in attempt to create harmonic working
environment. In all cases however leaders should practice styles that will
motivate employees, lead to harmonic organizational climate and culture. In
this lecture you will learn about various leadership styles and their effect on
employees and organizational performance.
At the end of this lecture a teacher trainee should be able to:
1. Mention three leadership styles.
2. Explain three factors that determine leadership style.
3. Examine leadership approaches that influence employees’
motivation and effective organizational performance.
8.2 Leadership Styles
Leadership has been defined as the process of influencing others towards
achieving organizational goals. There are many approaches that leaders use in
their attempt to exercise their influences. When we were analyzing the concept
of leadership we insisted that a person would not be identified as a leader, if
doesn’t have followers. Moreover, the act of following relies on followers’
willingness to engage in the leader’s paths. In this regard, force cannot be a
way of deriving willingness aspect. An individual who prefers force would never
be a leader as he/she looses followers.
Kurt Lewin organized a research group to study leadership behaviours. They
came out with three major leadership styles. Namely: authoritarian, democratic
and laissez-fair leadership styles. In the literature of organizational behaviour,
you may also find other approaches of leadership (e.g. Bass’s, 1985
transformational, transactional leadership) but when analyze their qualities,
they all lies in the former styles. For instance, ‘transformational leaders’
provide support, and consider others in their endeavours. These are democratic
leaders’ behaviours in nature. Having being enlightened with this overview, the
next part will focus explicitly on leadership styles.
8.2.1 Autocratic (Authoritarian) Leadership Styles
It is concerns with leaders who focus on task objectives and organization goals.
They direct what to do, when to do it, and ways in which the tasks will be
accomplished. Power distance between leaders and followers can easily be
seen.
Leaders have all the power of making decisions with no consultation
from the followers. They regard themselves as knowledgeable than their
subordinates/followers. Thus, they arrive at un-trusted, unsupportive/poor
decisions. They insist on controlling all organizational activities. They are seen
as bossy and dictators. Lewin’s research learnt the easiest for democratic
leaders to change into authoritarian than the latter to democratic.
8.2.2 Participative (Democratic) Leadership Style
This style focuses on group motivation. The leaders guide their followers and
involve them in decision making. They gain wealth contributions from their
followers. Although they insist on participation but they retain their focus in
the process of decision making. However, the work group is less productive
compared to the first group.
8.2.3 Delegative (Laissez-faire) Leadership Style
This style focuses on delegating power to subordinates. Leaders of this nature
do not guide their subordinates. Subordinates are free to decide when, what
and how to perform their activities. They have all the power to make decisions.
On the contrary, they are not cooperative, too demanding and dependent. This
style leads to poor motivation and undesired results.
Researchers and organizational behaviour practitioners have asserted
that there is no single style that fits all situations. In this manner, leaders
should learn subordinates’ attributes situational factors and the nature of the
task to choose an appropriate leadership style.
Summary
This lecture has taught you three major leadership styles: autocratic,
democratic and laissez-faire. We have briefly analyzed each style to familiarize
you with nature of the style, leaders and subordinates behaviors. The lecture is
further insisting for the teacher trainees to analyze working environment in
educational organizations with reference to the learnt styles. What do you are
the most practiced leadership style in Tanzanian secondary school? Are they
influenced by the nature of teachers or tasks? Enjoy your exercises. This will
makes you gain deep understanding of the topic.
Review Questions
1. Discuss three styles of leadership.
2. Differentiate autocratic from democratic style of leadership.
3. Briefly explain four characteristics of a democratic leader.
References
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New
York:
Free Press.
Blake, R. & McCanse, A. A. (1991). Leadership dilemas: Grid Solutions.
Houston, TX:
Gulf Publishing.
Bose, D. C. (2003). Principles of management and administration. New Delhi,
Prentice Hall.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th
Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
Martin, J. (2005). Organizational behavior and management.3rd Ed. Italy, G.
Canale & C., Thomson Learning.
Schein, E. H. (1988). Organizational psychology. 3rd ED. Englewood Cliffs,
Prentice- Hall Inc.
Schermerhorn, J.R., J. G. Hunt and R. N. Osborn (1991). Managing
organizational behaviour. 4th Ed. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto,
Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LECTURE NINE
FUNCTIONS AND TASKS OF MANAGEMENT
9.1
INTRODUCTION
In lecture 5, we discussed about the principles of management. We had a
discussion on how we can contextualize the principles by identifying functions
of the principles. Also, in our discussion we covered some activity given and
answered questions through brainstorming on the topic. In lecture 9, we are
going to examine the functions and tasks of management in education context.
In this Unit, we can start by asking ourselves the following questions: What are
the functions and tasks of management in schools, colleges, and other
educational institutions? and when are the functions applied in education
settings?
UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
i. Identify and describe functions and tasks of management in
education; and
ii. Critically analyse the application of functions and tasks of
management in education context.
9.2
CATEGORIES OF MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
For the purpose of this lecture, you need to note that management as a
discipline plays a significant role in executing changes over time, production
knowledge, and provision of skills and techniques. For better understanding
and developing skills for managing education institution you need to ask
yourself the following questions:
•
•
•
How will the resources be managed?
How will the functions of management be categorized?
Why do we need to learn functions of management?
Here, we will discuss the functions of management.
You should note that,
functions need to be contextualized (element processes) for effective and
efficiency communication and decision making in education organizations.
The important management functions can be categorized into four major
functions. These are planning, organizing, leading and controlling (Bagad,
2009).
Planning/Purveyance (forecast/plan)
Under this part, you need to know that in forecasting for the future you need to
be critical. Here, we will start by defining planning, planning is the
management function that involves setting of goals and deciding the best
method to achieve them. Planning is the most important and basic activity of
management. The functions also includes considering what must be done to
encourage necessary levels of change and innovation. Planning provides a
basis for other major functions of management: organizing, leading, and
controlling. Manager with his subordinates set the required goals, establishes
policies, standard methods, develop program strategies and schedule to achieve
the goals.
The plan must be flexible so that it can be modified due to change in working
environment and new information. Based on the functions, there are two types
of planning the broad approaches for achieving them.
i)
Strategic planning which addresses long range
goals and addresses;
and
ii) Operational planning which focuses on short range objectives and the
specific means used to obtain them and on the managerial activity of
decision making.
It is worth noting that, poor plans may result to distortion or failure of
organization. For the organization to flourish, we need visional plan. As you go
through other functions, ask yourself, am I a good planner? How many times
have I been cooperative to my colleagues, community, leaders and partnering
with other organizations or institutions in establishing, reviewing and
analyzing sound plans? When are supposed to have strategic and operational
plans?
Organizing
Organizing is the management function that focuses on allocating and
arranging human and non-human resources so that plans can be carried out
successfully. Different tasks must be assigned to different people and their
efforts must be coordinated.
Before you embark on the more clarification on this function, make sure that
really you understand what is required for you to successfully coordinate the
efforts of people. This function involves coordination of tasks and various ways
to accomplish them, e.g., the question is what the education tasks that need to
be coordinated? In management process organizing provide valuable tool for
promoting innovation and facilitating needed changes.
Organizing is also concerned with building, developing and maintaining of
working relationships. E.g. teams, build up the structure, both of material
and human, of the undertaking.
Leading
Is the management function that involves influencing others to engage in the
work behavior to achieve organizational goals. Leading involves communication
with others, providing direction and motivating people. This function also
includes encouraging the necessary levels of charge and innovation. In the
process of leading, the manager strives to meet the need of the people with the
objective of the company. May you give out three good examples of employee
and organizational objectives?
The leader must also recognize the need for cooperation and combined efforts
for survival and growth of the firm. Hence a leader maintains good balance
between individual motivation and cooperative efficiency.
Controlling
This is the management function that aims at regulating the organizational
activities so that the actual performance meets the expected objectives and
standards of company. For regulating organizational activity the manager’s
need to monitor ongoing activity, compare the results with standards and take
corrective action.
The following figure gives a summary of management functions and tasks
Planning
Involves determining and setting
objectives. During the planning
process it is decided
Organizing
Involves decisions on how the
business activities will be carried out
and who will be responsible
Management Tasks
Leading
Involves the directing, guiding,
supervising and motivating employees
to perform their
Control
Relates to the means to regulate
all activities- determining
whether every action is
UNIT SUMMARY
The lecture has exposed you to four major categories of
management namely planning, organizing, leading and
controlling. It has also discussed about tasks under each
category of the management functions. For effective and
efficiency communication and decision making in education
organizations, management functions need to be contextualized
Review Questions
1. In your perusal to other resources, did you gate other
functions of managements apart from those in the unit?
2. Give more examples of the on how the education
organization can be successful in implementing the
management functions.
FURTHER READINGS
Armstrong, M. (2007). Employee Reward Management and
Practice London:Prentice Hall.
.
Burke, R. (2006). Project Management: Planning and Control
Techniques. Ontario, Canada: John Willey.
Gupta, R. (1990). The Process of Management. Barelly: V.K.
Publishing House.
Bagad V. S. (2009). Principles of management. Shaniwa Peth:
Technical publication pune.
LECTURE TEN
Educational Management and Leadership Skills
10.1 Introduction
The application of management and leadership theories and practices to the
educational institutions constitutes what we call educational management and
leadership. The previous lectures dealt with the meaning of management and
leadership, management and leadership theories, the functions and tasks of
managers and leaders in educational institutions. In this lecture management
and leadership skills are reviewed accordingly. Though there are many
leadership and management skills, leaders like heads of schools or college
principals should adopt skills that can make them perform their work
effectively and efficiently. School heads and college principals are from time to
time being engaged in both management and leadership tasks. This lecture will
expose you to different leadership skills necessary for the executions of your
daily tasks as head or employee of an education institution or organization.
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to.
1.Distinguish and eplain management and leadership skills
necessary in educational institutions
2.Identify five dimensions of effective pedagogical leadership in
schools.
3.Describe the three essential management skills categories
4.Classify levels at which management skills can be learned
5. Explain the relationship between the three sets of management
skills and between the three levels of the management skills pyramid
6.Outline and explain the leadership and management skills that are
considered most significant in managing an educational institution
Okumbe (1998) posits that Management, on one hand has been defined as the
process that constitutes planning, controlling, coordinating and motivating on
the other hand, Leadership seen as the process of encouraging and helping
others to work willingly towards organizational objectives. In addition, to
fulfilling numerous roles like planning, organizing, coordinating etc, effective
educational managers and leaders in any organization whether large or small
need a number of specific skills to succeed. Effective principals create
conditions that ensure the school is focused first and foremost on effective
teaching and learning. Robinson (2007) identifies five dimensions of effective
pedagogical leadership in schools. These are:•
•
•
•
•
establishing and communicating learning goals and expectations
strategic resourcing allocated to priority teaching goals
direct involvement by leaders in planning, coordinating and evaluating
teaching and curriculum
promoting and participating in teacher learning and development
ensuring an orderly and supportive environment so that teachers and
students can focus on teaching and learning.
Robinson (ibid) makes clear that underlying each of the dimensions is the need
for positive relationship skills (relational trust), and the interrelationship of
each dimension with the others. The five areas are ones that can make a
difference to student outcomes. They provide five very clear areas for school
leaders to focus on. Management is a skill that can be learned.
10.2 Essential Management Skills
Katz (1955) has categorized the three essential management skills as technical,
human/interpersonal, and conceptual.
10.2.1Technical Skills
The ability to use the knowledge, methods, and techniques of a specific
discipline or field is referred to as a technical skill. A technical skill is to have
knowledge and be competent and proficient in a specific work or activity.
Department heads and team leaders in schools are examples of people with
technical skills — they are recognized as experts in their disciplines and are
presumed to have the ability to supervise others.
These skills are more important at lower level management since these
managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organizational work..
10.2.2 Human/Interpersonal Skills
A human skill is one that enables you to develop the ability to work with
people. These abilities are the ones that we recognize as the ones that help us
to get along with people, to communicate and work with the team. They are the
essential abilities in every human activity, in order to get the most of the
groups you work with. Because managers deal directly with people, this skill is
crucial. Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their
people.
They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and
trust. These skills are equally important at all levels of management; low level
(first line) management, middle level management and top level management.
All theorists in educational management and leadership stress on the need for
school administrators/managers at all levels to take care of the human side of
the enterprise. Excellent schools and excellent leaders provide warm,
nurturing, caring, trusting, and challenging environments. In this view,
effective principals are cheerleaders, facilitators, coaches, and nurturers of
champions. They build their organizations through people.
10.2.3 Conceptual Skills
A conceptual skill is one that enables us to understand and better decide the
actions and measures that have to be taken in a particular field of work.
Conceptual Skills are the skills managers must have to think and to
conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills,
managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the
relationships among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits
into its broader environment. These skills are most important at the top level
management.
Katz (1955) posits that the level of importance of each set of skills (technical,
human and conceptual) was directly correlated with the level that the person
has in the organization. The relationship between the three types of skills can
be described using the figure below
Three Skill Approach
Technical
MANAGEMENT
LEVEL
Top Level
Management
Mid Level
Management
Supervisory
Management
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Human
Conceptual
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
MID
HIGH
MID
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
Source: Adopted from Katz (1955)
The higher someone is in the organization, the less technical skills are required
to fill the position, in the same manner more conceptual skills are required. On
the other hand, the lower the position in the organization more technical skills
and less conceptual skills are required. A very interesting observation from the
diagram is that human skills are always required no matter the level or the
position in the organization.
10.3 Levels of Management Skills
There are three levels at which management skills can be learned. Level 1 is
the basic skills any beginning manager must master. It is the foundation of the
management skills pyramid which shows the skills a manager must master to
be successful and shows how these management skills build on each other
toward success. These four basic skills are plan, organize, direct, and control
Planning
Planning is the first and most important step in any management task. It is the
most often overlooked or purposely skipped step. While the amount of planning
and the detail required will vary from task to task, to skip this task is to invite
sure disaster except by sure blind luck.
Organize
A manager must be able to organize teams, tasks, and projects in order to get
the team's work done in the most efficient and effective manner. As a beginning
manager, you may be organizing a small work team or a project team. These
same skills will be required later in your career when you have to organize a
department or an institution. Clearly, there is a lot of overlap between planning
the work and in organizing it. Where planning focuses on what needs to be
done, organization is more operational and is more focused on how to get the
work done best. Remember, that it is not easy to organize things once. With
constant changes in resources, goals, and external factors you will usually
need to reorganize to adjust for them.
Direct
Directing is the action step. You have planned and organized the work. Now
you have to direct your team to get the work done. Start by making sure the
goal is clear to everyone on the team. Do they all know what the goal is? Do
they all know what their role is in getting the team to the goal? Do they have
everything they need (resources, authority, time, etc.) to do their part?
Pull, don’t push. You will be more effective at directing the team toward your
goal if you pull (lead them) rather than push (sit back and give orders) .You
want to motivate teaching and non-teaching personnel in your school/college
and assist and inspire them toward the organizational goals.
Control
In the steps above, you have planned the work, organized the resources to
make it happen most efficiently, and directed the team to start work. In the
control step, you monitor the work being done. You compare the actual
progress to the plan. You verify that the organization is working as you
designed it. If everything is going well, you do not need to do anything but
monitor.
Level 2 is the team building skills any developing manager must master. It is
the next level of the management skills pyramid which shows the skills a
manager must master to be successful and shows how these management
skills build on each other toward success. There are three categories of team
management skills anyone must master to have any success in a management
job. These are motivation, training and coaching, and employee involvement.
Motivation
The most fundamental team management skill you must master is motivation
of your team and of the individual members of the team. You can't accomplish
your goals as a manager unless your team is motivated to perform, to produce,
to deliver the results you need. Motivating each of the individuals on your team
requires recognition on your part that each team member's motivation needs
are different. And motivating the team requires a different approach from
motivating the team members.
Training and Coaching
Regardless whether you spend a few hours or a few months orienting new
employees, there is a cost. New Employee Orientation (NEO) can save you
money in the long run if you take the time to properly train new people. Cross
training is training someone in another activity that is related to their current
work. It is good for managers, because it provides you more flexibility, which
saves money in labor costs. It is good for the employees too. It lets them learn
new skills, makes them more valuable, and can combat worker boredom. You
have to let people make mistakes if they are going to learn. The trick is
knowing when to step in and when to hang back and let them try on their own.
Employee Involvement
All the training we do as managers, all the motivation we attempt, all that
positive feedback and morale building are all aimed at one thing. If your
employees are not involved, you won't get their best performance. If you don't
get their best, everything they do will cost you more than it should have. It
might be in a high error or rework rate. It might be in an innovative new idea
that they didn't share with you. Whatever the issue, it will cost you. So how do
you get your employees engaged and committed? As educational leader you
need to devise best way of engaging your employee in all organizational
endeavors right away from planning stage.
Level 3 is where the developing manager must master personal development. It
is the next level of the management skills pyramid which shows the skills a
manager must master to be successful and shows how these management
skills build on each other toward success. There are two areas of personal
management skills you must master to be successful as a manager. These are
self management and time management. We discuss these in detail below.
Self management
By this point in your development as a manager, you are good at assigning
work to your employees and coaching them through the difficulties so they can
produce their best work. You know how to motivate them and discipline them.
You have built them into a team. But are you as good at managing yourself as
you are at managing others? Do you stay focused on the tasks that are truly
important and not just urgent? Do you do your job the best you are able?
Time Management
If you have learned nothing else in your management career, you have learned
that there is never enough time to do all the things you feel need to get done.
That is why it is critical to your success as a manager that you be skilled at
managing time.
10.4 Management Skills Pyramid
To be successful, there are many skills a manager needs to master. The
pyramid structure is used to show the increasingly difficult management skills
you must master at each level and to also display how these management skills
build on each other to help you achieve success in your management career.
Each level of the Management Skills Pyramid is listed below and has previously
been discussed in more detail.
Source: Adopted from Reh.F.John, 2009
Summary
In this lecture you have learned the five dimensions of pedagogical skills
which are:- (i)establishing and communicating learning goals and
expectations (ii)strategic resourcing allocated to priority teaching goals
(iii) direct involvement by leaders in planning, coordinating and
evaluating teaching and curriculum (iv)promoting and participating in
teacher learning and development (v) Ensuring an orderly and supportive
environment so that teachers and students can focus on teaching and
learning.
You have also learned the three sets of management skills namely
technical, human/interpersonal and conceptual and how they are
related. The three levels at which management skills can be learned have
been identified as level 1-the basic skills (plan, organize, direct and
control); level 2- team building skills (involvement, training and coaching
and motivation) and level 3- personal development (self management and
time management). The three levels forms management skills pyramid.
Questions for Review
1.What type of managerial skills do you think contribute most to
school success?
2.Identify different managerial skills that you consider most important
in educational management and give an example to each.
3.Discuss, why educational managers/leaders opt to use different
skills in human resource management
4.“Leadership skills and styles are the same”. Comment
5.Idendify the skills needed for effective leadership of today’s
organizations
6.There is no question that leadersip skills are changing in the new
environment and the organizational context. There is general agreemet
among all analyses of leadership that “it is much more difficult to lead
in difficult times than in good times”. With vivid examples discuss this
statement.
7.“The ability to influence others and cause them to move in a
particular direction is a highly important skill in leadership. In fact,
leadership is often defined as the ability to influence others to do
something they might not have done without the leaders persuasion”.
Discuss
8.Enumerate the five dimensions of pedagogical leadership skills
9. Dicuss the three levels of the management skills pyramid in
management of a named school
References/Further Readings
Katz, R.L. (1955). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 33 (1),
33-42
Okumbe, J.A (1998). Educational Management. Theory and Practice, University
of Nairobi Press, Kenya
Reh, F. John 2009a. Management Skills Pyramid. WWW-document.
http://management.about.com/od/managementskills/a/ManagementSkillsPyramid.htm. Referred
09.01.2013
Robinson, V. (2007). “School Leadership and Student Outcomes: identifying what works and
why”. William Walker Oration. Published as part of the ACEL Monograph Series, No. 41,
October. http://www.educationalleaders.govt.nz (at 05:39 on 08/01/2013)
LECTURE ELEVEN
THEORIES OF MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
11. 0 Introduction
Developments in science and technology in the world today have increased
societal needs in all spheres of life. The needs however, have necessitated many
changes in organizations as they strive to save the society. The process has put
more pressures to organizational leaders as they would like to attain successful
changes. Researcher and other organizational practitioners have identified
various ways in which leaders would lead successful change in organizations.
These are theories of management of organizational change. There are many
change management theories but in this lecture we make a detailed analysis of
two grand theories. Beforehand, we explain the meaning of organizational
change, types and forces of changes in organizations.
At the end of this lecture a student teacher should be able to:
1. Define the term organizational change.
2. Explain types and forces of change in organizations
3. Describe the strengths and limitations of Lewin’s model of change
management.
11.2 What is Organizational Change?
Organizational change (OC) is a process of shifting structures, individuals,
processes and practices from an old state to a better state. It can be changes in
infrastructures, processes and or procedures. OC always aim at improving the
current ways of doing things. Leaders who lead changes are called “change
agents”. Their role is to make changes possible, by showing the future
direction/picture of the organization. In the following part we will briefly
identify different types of organizational change.
11.3 Types of Change
Changes in organizations are many and it depends with the nature of the
organization and the aim of the change project. Thus, we will identify few major
categories of changes in organizations.
•
Technological change: such as new processes, new methods (e.g.
computers, ICT in teaching), and new ways of communication.
•
Environmental changes, such as new buildings, new policies (e.g. class
size in teaching, new qualifications of workers, marking systems), and
new laws.
•
Strategic changes, such as new ways of marketing and promoting the
organization, attracting new customers, and reviewing motivation
systems.
•
Mission changes, such as setting new goals, initiating new services, and
new products.
•
Social and psychological changes of the work teams.
This part did not identify all changes; you may go on thinking and adding more
changes in their respective groups. In the next part we will briefly explain
sources of changes in organizations.
11. 4 Sources (drivers) of Change
The general aim of any organization would be to serve its customers, and that
is society. Besides, organization endeavours reflect society’s needs. Thus, any
change or development in society automatically poses challenges or new
thinking to the organization. In this regard, organizations may think of
inducing changes so as to meeting its survival in the business world. Or, to
meet their customers’ needs. These kinds of changes are regarded to be coming
from outside the organization, are called external forces.
Changes
and
developments
in
society
that
forces
changes
in
organizations are such as technological advancement, new business, economic
and demographic issues, social and political pressures.
In the process of adapting customers’ needs, organizations find
themselves in many managerial exercises. This include: reviewing organizationstructures, resources, policies, mission and other many units like technologies.
The aim is to see if the available resources or existing technologies, policies or
mission fits the new desired changes. If they do not fit the new projects, they
have to be changes by replacing or improving. This reshuffle and or review
processes upon the organizational structure, process, policies, technology and
resources are called internal forces.
11.5 Theories of Management of Change
11.5.1 Lewin Model
This is the earliest model of managing organizational change. It is concerned
with appropriate leaders’ management endeavors in leading changes. Lewin
posited three steps in the process of change: unfreezing, moving and refreezing.
Unfreezing involves detaching the status quo by increasing forces that direct
behavior from the status quo and suppress forces that restrict employees from
going out of the status quo. These can be achieved through motivation,
building trust and participation in decision process of change. Step two
(moving) involves encouraging employees to see the need for change and to look
at the problem in a new perspective. The refreezing involves reinforcing and
institutionalizing the new values and processes in the community traditions
through informal and formal procedures (Kritsonis, 2005).
11.5.2 Kotter Model
As it could be with other theorist, Kotter posited this model to be helpful in
attaining successful organizational change. The model consists of eight steps.
I. Establish a sense of urgency. This is concern with the creation of an
environment where employees feel dissatisfied with the current situation. This
can be done through discussion of crises and opportunities.
II. Forming a powerful guiding coalition. Covers building teams of fellow leaders
at low levels who would assist in guiding change in their units within the
organization.
III. Create a vision. It requires leaders to create a clear vision that will direct the
change initiatives and develop strategies for realization of that vision and
motivate employees.
IV. Communicating the vision. It is concern with communication through
various channels so that to make clear the new vision and strategies of
attaining it.
V. Empower broad-based action. This involves eliminating all obstacles that
undermine change initiatives, empower and encourage risk taking behavior by
employees.
VI. Generate short term wins. This requires employee motivation by showing up
that their efforts are valued, working and have impact on the change.
VII. Consolidating gains and producing more change. It concerns with ensuring
that structures, policies and procedures that are not fit with change, are
updated to reflect the change.
VIII. Anchor new approaches in the corporate structure. This involves creation of
new norms and values consistent with change in the institutional traditions.
That is to institutionalize the change (Kotter, 1996).
Lewin and Kotter models have been helpful in managing change of various
organizations, though they have been criticized for being simplistic and
following steps.
We did not discuss all theories of managing change. We centered our
discussion on the grand and popular theories. Thus, we advise you to go for
further reading in the recommended and other books and research articles to
gain understanding more theories. We specifically, direct you to read: Rodger’s
model, Cumming’s and Worley’s model, Fullan’s model, and Ely’s model of
managing change.
Summary
In this lecture you have learned meaning, types and drivers of organizational
change. The lecture has further discussed two grand theories of management
of change.
Activity
1. Briefly, explain the meaning of organizational change.
2. Mention two types of organizational change in Tanzanian primary schools.
3. Describe two strengths and one limitation of Lewin’s model of change
management.
References
Bates, T. (2000). Managing technological change: strategies for college and
university leaders. San Francisco, EUA: Jossey-Bass.
Boonstra, J. J. (2005). Dynamics in organizational change and learning:
Reflections and new perspectives. Chichester: Wiley.
Cumming, T. G. & C. G. Worley (2001). Organization development and
change. 7th Ed.
South-Western College Publish, Ohio.
LECTURE TWELVE
MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
12.1 Introduction
Like weather, organizations change. Leadership approaches encompass
leadership behaviors that influence employees in the process of implementing
changes. Thus, leadership styles are also the basis of management of change.
They can either lead to the failure or successful management of organizational
change. Leaders’ effectiveness is seen among other things in their expertise to
plan, create vision and influence people’s motivation in the process of change.
This lecture discusses leadership processes in implementing change. With
reference to Tanzanian educational organizations, you are expected to be able
to analyze different roles of a leader in implementing changes.
At the end of this lecture a teacher trainee should be able to:
1. Examine various ways of managing organizational change.
2. Explain the role of leaders in managing changes.
3. Describe employees’ behaviour in the process of organizational
change.
4. Describe leadership styles that influence successful organizational
change.
5. Discuss management roles in achieving successful organizational
change.
12.2 Employees Behaviors in the Process of Organizational Change
Researches in organizational change management have associated employees’
positive attitudes towards change initiatives with its successfulness. Other
scholars have associated employees’ cynicism also with the failure of change
and ineffective leadership in implementing change. Moreover, other researchers
have noted that employees resist change if has negative impact to them. Yet,
other scholars have concluded that employees do normally resist changes even
if the change may bring promotions and better organizational life. It has been
extensively discussed by organizational psychologists that change its self poses
uncertainties to employees as they fear of failures to control the new ways.
Employees feel:
•
Threatened by change in job security.
•
Change organizational authorities.
•
New ways of doing things.
•
Losing psychological stability in the working environment.
•
Losing job motivation and autonomy.
Consequently, employees resist changes and develop adverse behaviors
towards the management processes. Employees develop negative beliefs of
being mistreated, unwanted, and humiliated. In this context, they lose job
motivation, become angry, anxious, complain, and or turnover. Despite of the
nature of employees and the change itself, managers may use effective
approaches to arrive at a motivated work group and successful organizational
change. In the next part, you will learn different ways that can lead to
employees’ motivation and successful change.
12.3 Approaches to Organizational Change Management
Researchers have posited various ways of managing successful organizational
change. The focus has been put on the ways leaders build positive feelings,
understanding, and willingness to support change initiatives. These behaviors
can only be achieved through leaders’ efforts to:
•
Effectively plan of the needed resources.
•
Communication persuasively about the need for change and the future
direction of the organization.
•
Involve people in decision making.
•
Train; induce meetings and workshops about change initiatives.
•
Encourage dialogues and discussions.
•
Encourage team work (cooperation) with other levels of management.
•
Encourage feelings of organizational identification.
•
Put in place rewarding systems.
In summary, leaders as change agents have a big role learning the changing
environment. In this regard, they identify employees’ response to the change
initiatives, and work upon them accordingly. They are also keen in ensuring
that people are motivated, work teams are committed and the change
initiatives are successful. Leaders are further advised to be listeners and
tolerant to employees who are affected by the change initiatives. They should
be more participative in their leadership so as give more room for employees’
inputs on the change initiatives. In the next part, you will learn appropriate
leadership style for successful organizational change.
12.5 Leadership Styles and Management of Organizational Change
Having learnt leadership approaches, you can easily identify the appropriate
one as far organizational change is concern. The main focus is to motivate
people by involving, communicating, encouraging and guiding them towards
successful change initiatives. Studying the organizational environment may
encourage leaders to force on people. Leaders may discover that teams intend
to or resist, thus fear of the failure. In turn, leaders may decide to force for
employees’ engagement into the change initiatives. Researches posit that force
has been associated with employees’ cynicism to change initiatives. Further,
employees’
resistance
has
been
associated
with
unsuccessful
change
initiatives.
Employees’ motivation to organizational change has been associated with
successful change initiatives. Besides, antecedents of employees’ motivation
are mostly derived by leadership practices including effective communication,
involvement of employees in decision making and training. These are in most
cases exercised by participative leaders. Participative leadership with reference
to transformational leadership has been recommended at developing motivated
work teams and readiness to change. It is also been significantly related with
successful organizational change. Thus, leaders should create participative and
harmonic organizational climate for employees’ freedom to contribute in the
change processes. They should also positively receive employees’ concerns on
the change initiatives. The views may be used to improve the change project
and leadership approaches.
In summary, organizations survival in the business world depends very much
on their capacity to adapt and successfully implement new changes. This
necessitates leadership effective traits in the process of inducing changes.
Additionally, leaders are called to improve their management capacity to
mobilize material and human resources towards the new changes. Since, it has
been argued that management or change differs across cultures. Teachers’
trainees are encouraged to read more on the change management literature
from different countries so as to enrich their understanding.
Summary
This lecture has taught the nature organizational change process. It has made
you realize employees’ behaviors in the process of organizational change and
their effect on the change initiatives. The lecture has further has further made
you recognized different ways leaders would manage for successful change.
Activity
1. Briefly, explain 5 approaches of managing change.
2. With relevant examples, discuss 3 roles of leaders in developing employees’
motivation in the process of organizational change.
3. Explain two factors for employees’ cynicism in the process of organizational
change.
References
Bauer, T. & Erdogan, B. (2010). Organizational behavior. Version 1. 1,
Flatworld Knowledge.
Boonstra, J. J. (2005). Dynamics in organizational change and learning:
Reflections and new perspectives. Chichester: Wiley.
Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco: JosseyBass/Wiley.
Hiatt, J. M. & Creasey, T. J. (2003). Change management: the people side of
change. 1st Ed. U.S.A., Prosci.
Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading change: why transformation efforts fail. Havard
Business Schools Press.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper & Row.
Tjosvold, D. & Wisse, B. (2009). Power and interdependence in organizations.
New York, Cambridge University Press.
LECTURE THIRTEEN
MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
13.1 Introduction
The primary goal of management is to ensure that system goals are optimally
achieved through the clear allocation of roles and resources, and through the
monitoring of organizational tasks. This lecture explores issues around the
organisation and management of educational resources, it starts by giving the
meaning of the concept of resource management in education settings. It gives
the categories of educational resources and highlights on the importances of
managing these resourses. Relationship among the various resources and their
influence on educational development are also discussed. It will furthermore
examine the extent to which the management for the school plays a role to
make sure that these resources are used effectively.
At the end of this topic students should be able to:
1.Define the term ‘resource’ and ‘resource management’ in education
2.Identify the various types of financial and material resources
available to schools and explain how they can be managed
effectively
3.Explain the influence of fiscal, physical and human resources in
the development of educational institutions
4.Explain the role played by the educational managers in the
managemnt of educational resources.
5.Describe strategies for managing educational resources
In economics a resource is defined as a commodity, service, or other asset used
to produce goods and services that meet human needs and wants. The
resources of an organization or person are the materials, money and other
things that they have and can use in order to function properly. Educational
resources can be defined as all physical and abstract things that are used to
meet educational purposes. In education settings resources include teaching
staff, non-teaching staff, school plant, furnitures, teaching and learning
materials,
money,
information
and
time.
Resource
management
or
management of educational resources refers to the efficient and effective
deployment for an organization’s resources when and where they are needed.
Such resources may include human, inventory and fiscal/financial resources.
In this respect, management of educational resources includes all the activities
the educational managers engage in educational institutions to make sure that
educational resources such as people, money, materials and machinery are
efficientily and effectively collected, coordinated and utilized to accomplish
organizational goals. To manage educational resources
organizing,
directing
and
controlling
of
means planning,
procurement,
development,
compensation and integration of resources.
13.2 Types of Resources
Agabi (2010) posits that educational resources may be classified into four main
categories as hereundermentioned:(a) Physical resources are things such as school plants, classrooms, offices,
recreational facilities and the entire school ground;
(b) Material resources are things like instructional aids, stationeries, education
plans, objectives and prescribed methodologies;
(c) Human resources (both teaching and non-teaching staff); and
(d) Financial resources are resources made up of all monetary input into the
education system directed towards the achievement of specified educational
objectives.
Agabi (ibid) furthermore points out that time and information are other
important resources which are usually forgotten in education setting. Time is a
vital complementary resource that is crucial in the effective harnessing and
utilization of the physical, material, financial and human resources in the
school system. All school system activities are carried out within a time frame
which may be limited to minutes, hours, days, months or even years. Time
mismanagement constrains the effective achievement of the objective for which
a particular educational resource is required. Maduagwu and Nwogu
(2006:64) posited that different tasks need to be allotted time and
emphasized the need for proper time management. In his study on
“Time
management and academic performance of students in teachers’ colleges in
Tanzania,’’ Chediel (1993) among other things, observed that as a result of poor
time management there were interruptions of colleges’ work routines including
delays of meals and other services. Effective resource management will be
difficult to achieve in any school or education institution where time is
disregarded. It is important to emphasize that time-frame for each activity of
any day; week, year, etc should be structured in the form of time-table.
Longman (2005) observes that information is another very important resource
that goes together with the use of other resources mentioned above, that it is
critical in the effective management of any organization. Information is defined
as “facts or details that tell you something about a situation, person or event”.
In order for the educational managers to make informed decisions on various
school/college matters adequate information is of paramount importance.
From the above discussion two broad classes of resources can be identified.
These are concrete and abstract resources.
a) Concrete resources
This category of resources include human resources, school plant facilities,
funding (financial resources), and instructional materials. Resources under this
group can be physically quantified and their effect on education achievement
measured in terms of their quantity and quality.
b) Abstract resources
The second category of resources consists of abstract resources. Resources
such as time and information can only be measured in terms of their effect on
job performance.
13. 3 The Role of Resources in Educational Management
In order to be able to achieve what the school or a college has been established
for, there are certain amounts and types of resources or inputs required.
Instructional resources provide a solid basis for conceptual thinking; increase
the propensity of the brain to retain information; make learning more
interesting; and take care of differences that may exist among learners.
Finance as a resource, plays a crucial role in the development of education.
Proper funding and a good supply of qualified teachers can greatly improve the
facility index of a school.
It should be noted that when we are talking about educational resources we
should focus at both quality and quantity. That quality and quantity provides a
basis for the assessment of the managerial abilities of an education manager.
This is because even the most resourceful manager requires a resource base
upon which to exhibit resourcefulness. For instance, a school principal in a
rural school with unfurnished classrooms, a large enrolment, poor supply of
instructional materials and a grossly inadequate number of trained teachers
cannot be said to have a good resource base. His counter part in a sub-urban
area, who is managing a school with a similar teacher-pupil ratio, well
furnished classrooms, and a regular and good supply of instructional
materials, has a better resource base. Efforts at resourcefulness may yield
better results for the latter because of an improved resource base
13.4 Educational Managers’ Role in the Management of
Resources
Good knowledge and the appropriate utilization of concrete and abstract
resources are vital in the achievement of effectiveness in resource management
in the school/college system, especially in the present context of global
economic crises and a consistent decrease in monetary allocation to education.
The school manager must be well informed of the existence of education
resources and know when to collect and use such resources. He/she should
also be able to adopt a classificatory method that is suitable to the level of
education at which he/she is operating.
The manager’s role thus includes the provision of appropriate guidance in
resource acquisition and distribution in line with education policies and
programmes for subordinate structural levels.
guide you for effective resource utilization:
The following ten points will
• Set objectives for using available resources
• Formulate plans for achieving the objectives
• Categorize activities into groups or departments
• Define tasks to be done
• Group the tasks into jobs
• Staff the jobs with people
•
Initiate work activities
•
Supply incentives to stimulate productivity
• Set up controls for measuring achievement of objectives and monitoring
performance; and
• Take remedial actions for unachieved objectives.
Emetarom in Agabi (2010) recommends that in the pursuance of the
accomplishment of the goals of education, the school principal who plans the
affairs of the school should be prudential by allocating available resources in
such a way and by using such methods that will lead to the realization of much
of the set objectives of the school in a concise time frame. The school head,
whose primary responsibility is the provision of functional managerial services,
is expected, in addition to planning the daily activities of the school, to allocate
available education resources vis-à-vis education time.
Summary
In this lecture we have gained knowledge on what is a resource in education
settings. Two broad classes of resources can be identified. These are concrete
and abstract resources. Concrete resources in education can be classified into
(a) Physical resources are things such as school plants, classrooms, offices,
recreational facilities and the entire school ground; (b) Material resources are
things like instructional aids, stationeries, education plans, objectives and
prescribed methodologies; (c) Human resources (both teaching and nonteaching staff); and(d) Financial resources are resources made up of all
monetary input into the education system directed towards the achievement of
specified educational. The second category of resources consists of abstract
resources. Resources such as time and information can only be measured in
terms of their effect on job performance. The manager’s includes the provision
of appropriate guidance in resource acquisition and distribution in line with
education policies and programmes for subordinate structural levels
Review Questions
1. The objective of human rosource management in an organization is to
attain maximum individual development, desirable working
relationships between employees and effective moulding of human
resources as contrasted with physical resources. Explain.
2. What do you understand by the term human resource? How it is
different from other resources?
3. “Human resource is a staff function but a line responsibility”.
Comment and outline the major functions of human resource
management in education.
4. Critically, examine the importance of resources in development of
educational organizations.
References
Agabi, C. O. (2010). Prudential Approach to Resource Management in Nigerian
Education: A Theoretical Perspective. International Journal of Scientific
Research in Education. 3(2), 94-106.
Chediel, R.W.(1993). Time Management and Academic Performance of Students
in Teachers’ Colleges in Tanzania’’ .Unpublished M.A(Ed), Dissertation
University of Dar es salaam.
Maduagwu, S. N. and Nwogu, U. J. (2006). Resource Allocation and
Management in Educational. Alakhia: Chadik Printing Press
LECTURE FOURTEEN
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION ORGANISATIONS
14.1
INTRODUCTION
In this lecture we are going to learn about conflict and conflict management in
education organisations. In our discussion we will start by defining conflict and
conflict management, analysing types and sources of conflict in organizations,
identifying functions of conflict in education organizations.
UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(i)Define conflict and conflict;
(ii)Analyse types and sources of conflict in education context.
(iii)Identifying sources of conflict in education organisations
(iv)Identifying and analysing strategies for conflict managment
14.2 DEFINITION OF CONFLICT AND CONFLCIT MANAGEMENT
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the conflict and conflict
management. To start with, the concept of conflict will be defined. In defining
the concept, you need to read and understand various stands of writers in
conflict.
Wall and Callister
(1995) contends that
the conflict literature is
mountainous; so extensive, in fact, that the references for it, even if singlespaced, would exceed the pages and pages. Because conflict has been with us
for a long time and since early literary times people have been writing about it.
The following are definitions of conflict as quoted from various writers:a) Conflict
i. Conflict is the result of the collision of principles between people where
each party attempts to become supreme over the other party (Crocker,
2007, p. 513).
ii. Conflict is an awareness on the part of the parties involved in the
discrepancies’,
incompatibilitible
wishes,
or
incompatible
desires
(Boulding, 1963).
iii. Conflict
is
defined
as
an
interactive
process
manifested
in
incompatibility, disagreement, or difference within or between social
entities (i.e., individual, group, organization, etc.). Calling conflict an
interactive state does not preclude the possibilities of intraindividual
conflict, for it is known that a person often interacts with oneself.
Obviously, one also interacts with others
As we are going through the definitions from various writers we can now define
conflict using our own words that fits our context. On your own time while
reading this lecture, try to write down all important elements in defining
conflict; define it using your own words. Having gone through what we the
important elements and defined the conflict, let us turn our attention to the
definition of conflict management.
b) Conflict management
Conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the negative
aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict at a level
equal to or higher than where the conflict is taking place. Furthermore, the aim
of
conflict
management is to enhance
learning and
group
outcomes
(effectiveness or performance in organizational setting) (Rahim, 2002, p. 208). It
is not concerned with eliminating all conflict or avoiding conflict. Conflict can
be valuable to groups and organizations. It has been shown to increase group
outcomes when managed properly (e.g. Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000; Bodtker
& Jameson, 2001; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979; Khun & Poole, 2000; DeChurch &
Marks, 2001).
14.3 Types of conflict in educational organization
There are three main types of conflicts that have been identified which are
common in education organization. To mention them, intrapersonal conflict,
interpersonal and group conflict. We will start by defining the types of conflict.
a)
Intrapersonal: conflict within the individual for example, a person who
cannot make decisions
b)
Interpersonal: conflict among two or more individuals (for example, an
argument between a boyfriend and girlfriend, or between a student and her/his
teacher, or child and parent, or between friends/colleagues).
c)
Group conflict which is divided into two subcategories as: one
Intragroup: conflict within a group for example, between members of the same
work , or team or faculty, or school. Two Intergroup: is conflict between two or
more groups (for example, between two different faculties, or between students
and the school faculty, between the university and the university).
14.4 Sources of conflict in educational organization
i) competition for scarce resources;
ii) drives for autonomy or the need to develop self identity; and
iii) goals divergence as a result of differences in opinion.
14.5The role of conflict in educational organization
Although the notion of conflict can have a negative connotation, the premise of
conflict does not necessarily lead to negativity; rather, conflict is indistinct in
this aspect, until the effect of the conflict can be observed in its finality.
Further, the ultimate product of conflict is subjective, as each side may or may
not view the ending of differences as either positive or negative as related to
their own agenda (Crocker, 2007 p. 521). Conflicts serves many functions in
organizations. Here are but a few;
i) Conflict establishes identity, through conflict, individuals and groups
clearly establish their positions on issue;
ii) Conflict serves as a safety valve to hold the group together;
iii) Conflicts increases group cohesion;
iv) Conflict spurs needed change;
v) Conflict taste the strength of individual and group;
vi) Conflict mobilize energy;
vii) Conflict causes competition to improve performance; and
viii)
Conflict enhances communication
14.6 Styles of handling conflict in organizations
Here we need to know that there are various styles of conflict management
which will depend on the opponent parts. That, one of the part may be having
high concern on herself because the issue is more of more benefit to part A
than Part B and the vice versa is true. Thus, this leads to two categories of
concern that is high concern and low concern regardless of the group A and B.
Starting with, the following are the styles of managing conflict, that is
competing style( high concern for self and low concern for others), avoiding
style (low concern for self and low concern for others), obliging style (low
concern on self and high concern on others), the compromising styles
(immediate concern on self and immediate concern on others), and the
integrating style (high concern on self and high concern on others) (Morris et al,
1998, Patterson 2003; Greenleaf 2002; Irving 2005; Joseph 2006). Here are the
explanations of each style as cited from (Rahim, 2002).
i)
Integrating: high concern for self and others
This involves collaboration between the parties, i.e., openness, exchange of
information, and examination of differences to reach a solution acceptable to
table, face the real issue, uncover the conflict, bring the whole thing into the
open” (Follett, 1940, p. 38). Prein (1976) suggested that this style has two
distinctive elements: confrontation and problem solving. Confrontation involves
open and direct communication which should make way for problem solving.
As a result, it may lead to creative solutions to problems.
ii)
Obliging: low concern for self and high concern for others
This style is associated with attempting to play down the differences and
emphasizing commonalities to satisfy the concern of the other party. There is
an element of self-sacrifice in this style. It may take the form of selfless
generosity, charity, or obedience to another person’s order. An obliging person
neglects his or her own concern to satisfy the concern of the other party. Such
an individual is like a “conflict absorber,” i.e., a “person whose reaction to a
perceived hostile act on the part of another has low hostility or even positive
friendliness” (Boulding, 1962, p. 171).
iii)
Dominating: high concern for self and low concern for others
This style has been identified with win-lose orientation or with forcing behavior
to win one’s position. A dominating or competing person goes all out to win his
or her objective and, as a result, often ignores the needs and expectations of
the other party. Dominating may mean standing up for one’s rights and/or
defending a position which the party believes to be correct. Sometimes a
dominating person wants to win at any cost. A dominating supervisor is likely
to use his position power to impose his will on the subordinates and command
their obedience.
iv)
Avoiding: low concern for self and others
It has been associated with withdrawal, buck-passing, sidestepping, or “see no
evil, hear no evil, speak no evil” situations. It may take the form of postponing
an issue until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a threatening
situation. An avoiding person fails to satisfy his or her own concern as well as
the concern of the other party. This style is often characterized as an
unconcerned attitude toward the issues or parties involved in conflict. Such a
person may refuse to acknowledge in public that there is a conflict which
should be dealt with.
v)
Compromising: intermediate in concern for self and others
It involves give-and-take or sharing whereby both parties give up something to
make a mutually acceptable decision. It may mean splitting the difference,
exchanging concession, or seeking a quick middle-ground position. A
compromising party gives up more than a dominating but less than an obliging
party. Likewise, such a party addresses an issue more directly than an
avoiding party, but does not explore it in as much depth as an integrating
party. Additional insights may be gained by reclassifying the five styles of
handling interpersonal conflict according to the terminologies of the game
theory.
14.7 Situations where each style is appropriate
Having seen the styles, let us turn our attention to the situations under which
each style is appropriate:
•
Integrating
a. Issues are complex.
b. Synthesis of ideas is needed to come up with better solutions.
c. Commitment is needed from other parties for successful implementation,
d. Time is available for problem-solving.
e. One party alone cannot solve the problem,
f. Resources possessed by different parties are needed to solve their common
problems.
•
Obliging
a. You believe that you may be wrong.
b. Issue is more important to the other party.
c. You are willing to give up something in exchange for something from the
other party.
d. You are dealing from a position of weakness,
e. Preserving relationship is important.
•
Dominating
a. Issue is trivial.
b. Speedy decision is needed.
c. Unpopular course of action is implemented.
d. Necessary to overcome assertive subordinates.
e. Unfavorable decision by the other party may be costly to you.
f. Subordinates lack expertise to make technical decisions.
g. Issue is important to you.
•
Avoiding
a. Issue is trivial.
b. Potential dysfunctional effect of confronting the other party outweighs
benefits of resolution,
c. Cooling off period is needed.
•
Compromising
a. Goals of parties are mutually exclusive.
b. Parties are equally powerful.
c. Consensus cannot be reached.
d. Integrating or dominating style is not successful.
e. Temporary solution to a complex problem is needed.
UNIT SUMMARY
In this lecture various definitions for the term conflict have
been given. The three main types of conflict identified are
intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal and group conflict.
Sources of conflict in educational organization
i) competition for scarce resources;
ii) drives for autonomy or the need to develop self
identity; and
iii) goals divergence as a result of differences in opinion.
The role of conflict in organizations include
1.Conflict establishes identity, 2.through conflict individuals
and groups clearly establish their positions on issue;
3.Conflict serves as a safety valve to hold the group together;
4.Conflicts increases group cohesion; 5.Conflict spurs
needed change; 6.Conflict taste the strength of individual
and group; 7.Conflict mobilize energy; 8.Conflict causes
competition to improve performance; and Conflict enhances
communication. Styles and situations of handling conflicts
have also been discussed in detail.
Review questions
1. What is conflict in management?
2. Identify types of conflict that are prevalence in your
organization
3. Explain how you will manage named type of conflict in your
organization. Explain why have you chosen such a style to
manage the conflict
4. How does conflict emerge in educational organization?
5. Describe the role of conflict in education institutions
.
FURTHER READINGS
Follett, M.P. (1940). Constructive conflict. In H.C.Metcalf & Hart,
L.B. (1991). Learning from conflict: A handbook for trainers
and group leaders (2nd ed.). Amherst, MA: Human Resource
Development.
Lee, C.-W. (1990). Relative status of employees and styles of
handling interpersonal conflict: An experimental study with
Korean managers. International Journal of Conflict
Management, 1, 327–340.
Mitroff, I.I., & Featheringham, T.R. (1974). On systemic problem
solving and the error of the third kind. Behavioral Science, 19,
383–393.
Prein, H.C.M. (1976). Stijlen van conflicthantering [Styles of
handling conflict].
Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie, 31, 321–346.
Rahim, M.A. (1983a). Measurement of organizational conflict.
Journal of General
Psychology, 109, 189–199.
Rahim, M.A. (1983b). A measure of styles of handling
interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26,
368–376.
Rahim, M.A. (1983c). Rahim Organizational Conflict InventoryI. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Rahim, M.A. (1983d). Rahim Organizational Conflict InventoryII, Forms A, B, & C. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Rahim, M.A. (1983e). Rahim organizational conflict
inventories: Professional
manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Rahim, M.A. (1992). Managing conflict in organizations. New
York: Praeger.
Thomas. K.W. (1976). Conflict and conflict management. In
M.D.Dunnette (Ed.),
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.
889–935). Chicago:
Rand McNally.
Ting-Toomey, S., Gao, G., Trubisky, P., Yang, Z., Kim, H.S., Lin,
S.-L., & Nishida, T. (1991). Culture, face maintenance, and
conflict styles of handling interpersonal conflict: A study in five
cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2,
275–296.
Wall, J. A. Jr. and Callister, R.R. (1995). Conflict and Its
Management. Journal of Management. 21, 515. doi:
10.1177/014920639502100306
LECTURE FIFTEEN
ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND CULTURE IN EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The word culture is so philosophical that it embraces many concepts within
and outside society. Originally, the concept of culture has developed from
anthropology society. There are those groups of people who regard culture as
an implicit in social life. Culture is what naturally emerges as individuals
transform themselves into
social
groups as
tribes,
communities, and
ultimately, nations. Another group of people are those who see culture as an
explicit social product arising from social interactions either as an intentional
or unintentional consequence of behaviour. Symington (2004) argues that
culture comprises knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs and capabilities,
and habits acquired by a man as a member of society. Sinha (2000) suggests
that culture consists of totality of assumptions, beliefs, values, social systems,
physical artifacts and behaviour of people, reflecting their desire to maintain
continuity as well as to adapt to external demands. The areas that are
discussed in this lecture include the meaning of organizational climate and
culture, determinants of culture, forces that affect organization, factors that
maintain and transmit organizational culture and the roles of culture in the
organization.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture a student teacher should be able to:
1. Define the terms organizational climate and culture.
2. Identify the determinants of culture.
3. Explore the nature of the forces that affect the organization.
4. Identify factors that maintain and transmit organizational
culture.
5. Examine the role of culture in school organization.
15.2 CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE
There is no single definition of organizational culture that has emerged in the
literature. The topic has been studied from a variety of perspectives ranging
from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology. The term has been
defined differently by various scholars such as Atkinson in Mullins, (2007),
Luthans (2005), Griffin (2000) and Rousseau (1990). Atkinson in Mullins,
(2007) explains organizational culture as reflecting the underlying assumptions
about the way work is performed; what is acceptable and not acceptable; and
what behaviour and actions are encouraged and discouraged. Luthans (2005)
defines it as the shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, norms and work
routines that influences how members of the organization relate to one another
and work together to achieve organizational goals. Griffin (2000) maintains it as
a set of values that helps its members understand what the organization
stands for, how it does things, and what it considers important. Rousseau
(1990) sees it as the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by
people and that control the way they interact within and outside the
organization. What these descriptions suggest is a set of value systems that are
equally shared by all members, take a long time to evolve and, are sustained
over a long period of time.
Organizational climate according to Mullins (2007), relates to the prevailing
atmosphere surrounding the organization, which influences the attitudes that
members of the organization bring to bear on their work performance and
personal relationships. The extent to which employees accept the culture of the
organization will have a significant effect on climate. Organizational climate is
therefore, characterised by the nature of the people-organization relationship
and the superior-subordinate relationship. These relationships are determined
by interactions of organizational goals and personal goals, organizational
structure, the styles of leadership and the behaviour of the people.
In management literature organisational culture is same as organisational
climate as both refers to the patterns of beliefs, assumptions, values,
behaviours, and expectations that develop from social interactions within the
organization. But, Rousseau (1990) differentiated between the two terms as
follows: organisational culture is a macro phenomenon which refers to the
patterns of beliefs, values, and behaviours reflecting commonality in people
working together whereas organisational climate is a micro phenomenon which
refers to the psychological environment in which behaviour of organisational
members occurs. Culture describes what the organization is all about while;
organizational climate is an indication of the employees' feelings and beliefs of
what the organization is about.
15.3 DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Typically, organizational culture develops and blossoms over a long period of
time. Its development is the function not only of one factor but many factors in
combination. Several literatures explain essential factors that determine
culture in a certain organization. These factors include values, norms,
attitudes/beliefs,
traditions,
Organizational
location
and
Organizational
founder. Proper or improper working of these factors depends on the
organizational commitment. That means when organizational members share
an intense commitment to such factors a strong organizational culture exists.
When organizational members are not strongly committed to a shared system
of values, belief etc. organizational culture is weak. The following are the
determinants:
Values: These are abstract ideas or guiding principles that influence the
thinking and actions in the organization. They talk on lifelong goals or
objectives which organizational members trying to achieve in life and how they
want to achieve. Therefore, values are the ways in which school managers
assess certain traits, qualities, activities or behaviours as good or bad,
productive or wasteful. As such, they reflect a person’s sense of right and
wrong or what “ought” to be. Values influence attitudes and behaviours and
determine the authenticity and acceptance of stated organizational ideas. They
might be reflected in such things as the school’s motto and mission. “Equal
rights for all”, "Excellence deserves admiration", and “People should be treated
with respect and dignity” are representative of values.
Norms: Are the explicit or implicit rules or guidelines specifying what
behaviours are acceptable within a society or group. Norms are shared ways of
thinking, feeling, deciding, desiring, and acting which are observable in
regularly repeated behaviours (Luthans, 2005). Norms are standard accepted
forms of behaviour in an organization that differ across time and between
geographical areas. School managers and leaders use norms they promote in
schools to determine and shape the school culture and encourage employees to
adopt such norms to support their commitment in the working place. Eg.
Attitudes: These can be defined as positive or negative evaluation of people,
objects, events, activities or ideas. According to Luthans (2005), attitudes refer
to the collection of feelings and beliefs that school managers and leaders have
as a whole. They tend to capture school leaders' or managers' feelings and
thoughts
about
their
jobs
and
organizations.
As
such
they
lead
to
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Attitudes are learned through
imitation and modelling. They enable us to express who we are and what we
believe in. Unlike the personality, attitudes are expected to change as a
function of social influences for example, the change of behaviour or belief.
Traditions: These are repetitive significant events such as celebrations, special
awards, retirement etc. The term tradition refers to beliefs, customs or ways of
doing something that has existed for a long period of time among a particular
group of people. These events inject predictability into the organizational
climate and are basic means of perpetuating cultural values. They highlight
what is held in high esteem in the organization.
Organizational location: Organizational location is a very essential factor for
determining the nature of culture. According to Mullins (2007), geographical
location and the physical characteristics can have a major influence on the
nature of corporate culture. Whether an organization is located in a quite rural
or city can influence the types of customers and the staff employed. It can also
affect the type of services provided and opportunities for development.
Organizational founder:
The founder's personal characteristics play an
important role in determining organizational culture. Traditionally, they have
vision of what the organization should be and are constrained by previous
customs or ideologies. Luthans (2005) and Mullins (2007) argue that top
executives can have considerable influence on the nature of corporate culture
for example, when they hire employees they tend to be attracted to and choose
those whose personalities are similar to their own. Similar employees are more
likely to stay with the organization while those employees who are dissimilar in
personality might be hired but; they are more likely to leave the organization
over time.
15.4 FACTORS THAT MAINTAIN AND TRANSMIT ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE
Culture is transmitted to and sustained in an organization in a number of
forms. The following are some of the factors as suggested by Mullins (2007).
These include the process of socialization, the values of the founder,
ceremonies and rites, stories and language, and rituals.
Socialization: Over a time organizational members learn from one another
which values are important and which norms specify appropriate and
inappropriate behaviour. Organizational socialization according to Luthans
(2005), is the process by which new employees learn an organizational values
and norms and acquire the work behaviour necessary to perform job effectively.
Most schools have some kind of rigorous training program to help new
employees and students learn and internalize values, norms and behave in
accordance with them. They are introduced to the culture through socialization
and must learn to accept it, rather than question it. Those who do not accept
the culture are encouraged to leave.
Values of the organizational founder: Educational leaders and managers are
founders and creators of a particular culture in an organization. Organizational
founders can have profound and long lasting effects on organizational culture
Luthans (2005). There are terminal and instrumental values that have a
substantial influence on the norms, and standards of behaviour that develop
overtime within the organization within which subordinates can imitate the
style of the founder and, in turn transmit their values and norms to others.
Terminal values signify what an organization and its employees are trying to
accomplish while instrumental values show the way in which the organization
and its members achieve organizational goals.
Ceremonies and rites: The common ways that organizations use to transmit
cultural norms and values to their members are rites of passage, integration
and enhancement. The ways in which an organization prepares people for
promotion or retirement are rites of passage. Rites of passage determine how
individuals enter, advance or leave the organization (Luthans, 2005). Rites of
integration refer to the share of activities and reawaken feelings of membership
in the organization. Rites of enhancement refer to public recognition for an
employee’s accomplishments that are reinforced and motivate commitment to
values and norms.
Stories and language: Stories whether fact or fiction according to Luthans
(2005), can reveal kinds of behaviours that are valued by the organization and
kinds of practices that are frowned on. Stories contain narrative of events
about
the
organization’s
founders,
reactions
to
past
mistakes,
and
organizational coping. On the other hand, Language is a principal medium of
communication in any organization. The organization's specific words or
phrases that people use to frame and describe events provide important clues
about norms and values. Language encompasses not only spoken language but
how people dress, the offices they occupy, and the degree of formality they use
when they address one another. Casual dress reflects and reinforces
organizational culture.
15.5 FORCES THAT AFFECT ORGANIZATION
The surrounding environment is a critical to an organization’s stability and
survivability. Success or failure of any organization either profit or non-profit
making, large or small depends on the internal and external environmental
forces in which it operates. These forces are likely to have the greatest impact
on the future of the school. Internal forces on one hand consist of conditions,
things, events, or situations that occur inside the organization and that can
help or weaken the school. These include owners of the organization,
employees’ morale, nature of the students, school facilities and equipment,
technological capacity, financial constraints, school policies and management
systems. External forces are those kinds of situation, or events that occur
outside the organization they are beyond the control of the school these include
economic, demographic and social-cultural dimensions, suppliers, customers,
and the influence of other institutions (competitors).
15.6 THE ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
The word culture is something that can determine success or failure of the
organization or that can make the organization survive or perish. Culture plays
a major role in shaping organizational behaviour as follows:
1. The pervasive nature of culture in terms of how things are done and
common values, beliefs, and attitudes will therefore have a significant
effect on organizational process such as design of structure, group
behaviour, motivation and job satisfaction, management control etc.
2. It defines the boundaries between one organization and others as such it
conveys a sense of identity for its members.
3. Culture impacts most aspects of organizational life, such as how
decisions are made, who makes decisions, how rewards are distributed,
who is promoted, how people are treated, how the organization responds
to its environment etc.
4. Organizational values and norms are strongly influence the way
managers perform their functions: planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling etc.
5. Beliefs and knowledge facilitate the generation of commitment to
individuals or groups in the organization therefore, enhance the stability
of the social system.
6. Organizational culture has an impact on recruitment and retention as
individuals tend to be attracted to and remain engaged in organizations
that they perceive to be compatible.
UNIT SUMMARY
In this lecture the concept of culture, organizational culture and
climate, determinants of culture, factors that maintain and
transmit organizational culture, and the role of culture in a school
have been discussed. The word culture is seen as both what
naturally emerges in the social life and a product arising from
social interaction. It comprises knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
customs and habits acquired by the members of the society.
Organizational culture is the manners in which activities are
performed in an organization. Organizational climate on the other
hand, is something that is sensed rather than something that is
recognized cognitively. It manipulates the attitudes that members
of the organization bring to bear on their work performance. It
measures the extent to which the subordinates’ ideas are sought
and used, how much cooperative teamwork exists, the direction of
the communication flow, how are the subordinates involved in
decisions related to their work, etc. Climate and culture in the
organization are so closely intermingled none of them can stand on
their own.
Review Questions
1) Define organizational culture and climate
2) Assume, you are a school manager/administrator what ways are you
going to use for your employees to follow to achieve organizational
goals?
3) Critically, examine the significance of culture and state how it develops
in an educational institution
4) Culture can lead to organizational success or failure. Discuss
5) Explain the factors determining an organization’s culture
6) Clarify how culture is transmitted to employees in an organization
7) Discuss five factors that shape organizational culture and explain why
different organizations have different cultures.
8) Distinguish between values and norms and discuss how they are the
building blocks of organizational culture.
9) Explain the factors and means of maintaining an organization’s
culture.
REFERENCES
Griffin, R. W. (2000). Management. Krishan Nagar Delh: L.A.T.S.
Luthan, F. (2005). Organizational Behaviour. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Merilyn, H. Helms, D.B.A (2006). Encyclopedia of Management. New York:
Farmington Hill.
Morgan, C., King, R. &Bobnson, N. (1979). Introduction to Psychology. London: McGrowHill.
Mullins, L. J. (2007). Management and Organizational Behaviour. London:
Prentice-Hall.
Rousseau (1990). Quantitative Assessment of Organizational Culture. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Sinha, C, (2010). Cultural, Psychological and Typological Issues in Cognitive
Linguistics. Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Symington, N. (2004). Neouo-Psychoanalysis and Culture. London: Hogarth
Press.
Zimbardo (1999). Attitude. Accessed from http://www. Simplpsychology.org/attitudes html.
LECTURE SIXTEEN
RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
16.1 INTRODUCTION
This topic is based on the premise that all teachers and trainers have a
leadership role. It is designed to expand your knowledge and understanding of
educational leadership and management in practice. It will develop skills in
research, and teach you how to apply those skills to the investigation of a real
leadership and/or management situation, by undertaking a research project.
The aim of this topic is for you to learn to examine, test and apply the
theoretical
perspectives
and
knowledge
of
educational
leadership
and
management to areas of concern for professional practice.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture a student teacher should be able to:
1. Define the term research and differentiate it from educational
research
2. Explain the meaning and purpose of social science research
3. Describe steps to be followed by researchers when carrying out a
research.
In a nutshell the term research may be defined as a close examination of a
matter in a search for information or truth. Research is a term that leads to
much confusion. It has many meanings and when used in a scholarly context,
it has to be well-defined. Various scholars have tried to define the research
differently but focusing on the same thing. For example, Caesar (1998) defines
research as the process that involves acquiring and imparting of knowledge,
skills and values which society needs and utilises. According to the Webster's
dictionary (1913 + 1828) research is defined as "diligent search or inquiry;
scientific investigation and study to discover facts". In the broadest sense of the
word, the definition of research includes any systematic gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge and educational
research. Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid
standard protocol. These steps are broadly similar but may vary slightly
depending on the field of study. Standard English dictionary, the word
‘research’ implies an investigation into any matter which compels a human
mind with curiosity to discover it in a more comprehensible manner. This
investigation has to be carried out in a systematic manner if one wishes to
arrive at accurate results.
Educational research implies systematic application of research skills to the
study of educational issues like school discipline, students’ performance,
school-community relationship, etc. The purpose for studying educational
research is to orient student-teachers to understand the meaning of research
and its relevance in education; and evaluate education theories and
methodologies in practice.
Social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analysing and
conceptualizing human life in order to extent, correct or to verify knowledge of
human behaviour and social life. In other words, social science researches seek
to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena to clarify the doubtful,
and correct the misconceived facts of social life (Krishnaswami & Ranganatham
2006). Briggs and Coleman (2007) argues that social science researchers into
educational leadership and management are often seeking opinions, and
evidence of day-to-day practice from active participants in the field.
Social science researches form two main types of researches. These include
basic and applied or action research. Basic research addresses questions
which seek for more knowledge while action research is to solve practical
problems through the application of the scientific method (Gay, 1996). Applied
researches seek for information which addresses existing or operational
problems. However, these two types have branches which are based on their
application, orientation of principle researcher, the nature of data being
collected and related methods of data collection. It can either be quantitative or
qualitative research.
16.2 MAJOR STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
There are various stages of research development process. These variations
depend on the type of research, style and field of study orientation. Most
researches begin with identification of research problem, literature review, the
purpose of research, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Kothari (2010) had suggested seven steps of research process includes, the
definition of
the research problem, review of the literature, formulate the
hypothesis, design the research, collect data, analyse data, interpret data and
report. The steps generally represent the overall process; however they should
be viewed as an ever-changing process rather than a fixed set of steps.
i) Background of Research Problem
It is an explanation of the background to the problem, it shows precisely what
the problem is and what the social concerns are, it establishes the social
significance of the study, it shows the nature and scope of the problem. Before
jumping onto the second step the researcher must explain shortly on the
following: the reasons for interest in the topic that is statement of the Problem,
purpose or objectives, significance of research, theoretical framework and,
limitation and delimitations.
Statement of the Problem: This describes the reasons for interest in the topic as
per following questions in mind that if the research results have social,
educational or scientific value, if the research problem viable in the situation
and can find an answer to the problem. The statement of the problem provides
a framework for reporting the results and orients the reader to the significance
of the study and the research questions or hypothesis to follow.
Significance of research: This is the rationale of the study. It tells the reader
why the study is important; it indicates the reasons for the researcher's choice
of a particular problem.
Theoretical Framework: Babyegeya (2002) defines theory as a set of interrelated
concepts, assumptions and generalizations from which a set of laws that will
guide practice can be logically derived. The term “theorizing” denotes choosing
terms that connect your work to existing literature. It entails formulating
concepts and putting them into a logical systematic and explanatory scheme.
Conceptual framework tries to find connections between the concepts, it
comprises various theories that you will use to explain issues in your study. It
helps the researcher to determine what things and issues to measure, and
what statistical relationships to look for.
Research purpose and objectives: The research purpose presents the general
aim of wanting to do the research project while the objectives of the research is
to present the specific aims using measurable terms of the statements in order
for researcher to get the required data. Statements show activities researchers
do to reach the goal.
ii) Literature Review
This refers to a thorough study on different related books, articles, thesis and
other scholarly written materials to observe what other researchers have said
about the problem, what related researches have been done previously, what
type of findings have been produced, and what are the emerging gaps in the
body of existing researches. A review of the relevant literature enables the
researcher to acquaint him/herself with current knowledge in the field in
which the research is to be done, approaches of others and the outcomes of
such approaches. It enables the researcher to know the previous investigations
hence avoid the possibility of duplicating the findings. By knowing the
literature the researcher able to define the problem, and gain some insights
into, and suggest about research methods followed by others.
iii) Research Questions/Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is a tentative statement of the expected relationship
between two or more variables. It is a guess statement which plays a role of
giving direction to the researcher thinking about the possible outcomes of the
research basing on the reviewed literature and related theory. It is a predicted
answer to the problem. Normally, hypothesises are declarative statements,
clearly testable and indicative of the expected results. In educational research a
variable is an event, category behaviour, or attribute that expresses a construct
and has different values, depending on how it is used in a particular study. It
can be used to separate subjects, objects, or entities into two or more
categories. On the other hand research questions are used instead of
hypothesis especially in inductive researches to guide the study. The questions
orient the researcher to the immediate task: to develop a design to answer the
questions. Research questions may be descriptive, relationship or deference
questions whereby each type of question implies a different design (McMillan
and Schumacher, 2001).
Steps 4 and 5 which are research design and data collection see page----------
iv)Methods of Data analysis
Data analysis is a key tool in understanding the variations in the process and
in identifying improvement opportunities. Here the researcher explains in
details how the data will be organized, analysed, compared and interpreted by
using data analysis procedures that is either quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative analysis is where the tabulation and calculation of percentages,
graphs, and charts are to be carried out with the help of statistical package for
Social Science software programme (SPSS). Qualitative data analysis involves a
detailed description of the case study.
v) Report
In
this
the
researcher
should
make
summary,
conlusions
and
recommendations of the research findings with examples and quotation,
following the objectives that guided the data collected.
16.3 THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND
LEADERSHIP
To help students teachers develop new knowledge and experience for
carrying out any research including educational research in particular.
To raise the awareness of and encourage government decision and
policy-makers and education stakeholders to invest wisely in education.
To provide solutions to various problems facing the society.
To guide to the evaluation of future strategies to be adopted by the
leaders and managers in education for the promotion and provision of
quality education to the learners.
To generate knowledge on what actually educational managers and
leaders need to manage and lead educational institutions.
SUMMARY
Research refers to any systematic collection, measuring and
analysis of data, information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge of educational research. In this lecture various steps in
conducting a research in education were discussed as follows; the
definition of the research problem, review of the literature, the
formulation of the hypothesis, design the research, collect data,
analyse data, interpret data and give report. In the last section we
described the role of research in educational management and
leadership.
1. Review Questions
2. 1.Define the term research and differentiate it from educational
research
3. Explain the meaning and purpose of social science research
4. Describe basic steps to be followed by a social science
researcher when carrying out a research.
REFERENCES
Babyegaya, E. B. N. K. (2002). Educational Planning and
Administration. Dares-Salaam: The Open University of Tanzania.
Briggs, A.R. J & Coleman, M. (2007). Research Methods in
Educational Leadership and Management,
Sage
Publications,
London: England.
Krishnaswami, O.R and Ranganatham, M (2006). Methodology of
Research in Social Sciences. Himalaya Publishing House NewDheli,
India.
Kothari, R. C. (2010). Research Methodology: Methods and Technique.
New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.
McMillan, J. H. and Schumacher, S. (2001). Research in Education: A
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913 + 1828) retrieved
27/11/11 at 11:45 HRS http://machaut.uchicago.edu/websters.
LECTURE SEVENTEEN
METHODOLOGIES FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
17.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is the continuation of the previous lecture. The section describes
the methodological procedures, methods and the ethical issues the researchers
need to be aware of for conducting educational research.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture a student teacher should be able to:
1. Define research methodology, design, population and research
sample
2. Identify and explain different sampling procedures
3. Identify ethical issues or guidelines for educational researches
4. Develop research skills thereby improving analytical abilities in
relation to leadership and management issues that will help
improve future practice
17.2 METHODOLOGIES FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
A research methodology is the systematic study of methods that can be, or
have been applied by the researcher. It defines what the activity of research is,
how to proceed, how to measure progress, and what constitutes success. It
includes the research design, methods of data collection and expected
techniques of analysing data.
17.21 RESEARCH DESIGN
This is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is a
logical sequence, in which the study is to be carried out, constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measuring and analysis of data (Kothari 2004). Leedy
(1986) defined it as a careful set of plans developed by researcher that provides
criteria and specifications for the study. Research design includes the area of
the study, population, sample and sampling procedures as discussed in the
next pages. (Croswell (2003) identified three approaches to research design;
quantitative, qualitative and mixed approach.
17.22 Quantitative Approach: This is the approach in which the researcher
primarily uses post-positivists claims for developing knowledge that is cause
and effect thinking, reduction to variables, hypotheses, questions, use of
measurement and observation. In this approach the researcher employs
probability sampling to select respondents. The data collection methods rely on
random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse
experiences into predetermined response categories. Quantitative approach can
use experimental design strategy for testing hypotheses derived from theory
and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. In this case
postpositivists are philosophers who believe on positivism paradigm regarding
educational researches. The following are their claims:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The researcher and the subject of the study are assumed to be
independent; that is, they cannot influence each other.
Theories, hypotheses, and background knowledge held by the
researcher can strongly influence what is observed.
One reality exists thus it is the researcher's job to discover that
reality.
Objectivity is the standard to strive for in research; thus the
researcher should remain neutral to prevent values or biases from
influencing by following prescribed procedures rigorously.
17.23 Qualitative Approach: The inquirer uses strategies of inquiry such as
narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies and, case studies. Qualitative
approach mainly uses open-ended interviews and field observation to collect
detailed
information.
The
design
emphasizes
understanding
of
social
phenomena through direct observation, communication with respondents, or
analysis of texts. Researchers tend to base knowledge claims on constructivists
ideas. Unlike positivism constructivism developed the following ideas as
discussed by Mertens (1998):
i.
Reality is socially constructed by people active in the research
process.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Interviews, observation and document reviews are predominant.
Research is a product of the values of researchers.
The inquirer and the inquired are interlocked in an interactive
process; that means each influences the other.
17.24 Mixed methods approach: Is one in which the researcher tends to base
knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds that is problem-centred. It employs
mixed methods of inquiry that involve collection of both quantitative and
qualitative data simultaneously or sequentially.
In page 16 it is discussed that research design composed of the area of the
study, target population, sample and sampling techniques as elaborated here
under:
(i) The Area of the study: It indicates all possible areas that are supposed to be
included in the study. The area can be large or small depending on the
research approach. The researcher has to indicate the actual areas which can
be researched as not all the areas can be reached due to various limitations.
(ii) Population: The term population refers to the large group of people,
institution or things or elements that fit a certain specification. Franken and
Wallen (2000) argue that population is the group of interests to the researcher
from which possible information about the study can be obtained.
(iii) Population Sample: This is a smaller group of subjects drawn from the
population in which the researcher is interested for purposes of drawn
conclusions about the universe or population (Kothari, 2004). Frankel and
Wallen (2000) maintain that sampling is the process of selecting those
individuals who will participate or be observed or questioned as part of study.
Leedy (1986) adds that the results from the sample can be used to make
generalization about the entire population as long as it is truly representative
of the population. Hence, the use of sample helps the researcher to achieve the
same objectives with reduced resources.
(iv) Sampling Procedures: These are techniques engaged in identifying a
representative study area and study population. The strategies chosen for
selecting samples vary based on the logistics, ethics, and paradigm of the
researcher. Henry, (1990) in Mertens (1998) divides sampling strategies into
probability and non-probability sampling. The former the research knows the
exact possibility of selecting each member of the population while, the later the
chance of included in the sample is not known.
17.25 Probability sampling includes the following
(i) Simple random sampling: This is a strategy whereby each member of the
target population has an-equal and independent chance of being included in
the sample, that is has a known, non-zero probability of being included in the
sample. Random means that the selection can be done in a variety of ways. For
example, researcher can choose a sample by writing on small pieces of paper
the word “included” and “not included” then the researcher invites each
respondent to pick one piece of paper. Those who pick “included” form the
sample of the study. This strategy is simple however, according to (Mertens
1998), the method requires a complete list of the population something that
might not be available or that the sub-populations of interest might not be
equally represented in the population.
(ii) Systematic sampling: Mertens (1998) maintains for systematic sampling the
researcher will take every nth name off the population list. The common
procedure of selecting members for a sample population using this procedure
is simply to divide the total number of units in the general population by the
desired number of units for the sample population. The result of the division
serves as the marker for selecting sample units from within the general
population. For example, if you want to select a random group of 100 people
from a population of 5,000, the researcher would simply select every 50th
person. The advantage of this strategy is that the researcher does not need to
have an exact list of all sampling items.
(iii) Stratified Sampling: This type of sampling is used where the population
embraces a number of distinct categories i.e heterogeneous or dissimilar
populations. The frame can be organized by these categories into separate
"strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out
of which individual elements can be randomly selected. Heterogeneous, mean
those respondents who have different characteristics. For example, experienced
and new employed teachers represent a group of respondents who have
difference experiences on school life.
(iv) Cluster sampling: Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select respondents
in groups ('clusters'). Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by time
periods. For instance, if surveying households within a city, we might choose to
select 10 city blocks and then conduct a research in every household within
the selected blocks. Clustering can reduce travel and administrative costs as
researcher can make a single trip to visit several households in one block,
rather than having to drive to a different blocks for each household.
17.26 Non-probability sampling includes the following
(i)Purposeful sampling: According to Frankel and Wallen (2000), purposive
sampling is based on previous knowledge of a population and the specific
purpose of the research investigators for use in personal judgements to select a
sample. Purposive sampling is necessitated when the research is interested in
certain specified characteristics. It involves the selection of respondents who
give right information. The researcher selects samples with the goal of
identifying information-rich cases that will allow them to study a case in-depth.
(ii)Convenience sampling: This is a type which involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is
selected because it is readily available and convenient. According to Henry
(1990) in Mertens (1998), convenience sampling means, that the respondents
in the study were chosen because they were readily available. It may be
through meeting the respondent or including a respondent in the sample when
one meets them or chosen by finding them may be through phone, internet.
17.27 Methods/techniques of data collection
The main sources of data are primary and secondary sources. Krishnaswami
(2002) maintains that primary data are original sources from which the
researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected. They
are first-hand information collected through observations, interviews and
questionnaires while secondary sources of data containing data which have
been collected and compiled for other purposes such as already compiled
statements and reports.
Research methods provide a detailed explanation of research design and will
provide answers to many questions. For example, what type of design and
instruments
to
be
used
during
data
collection
and
its
analysis?
Methods/techniques of collecting data include specific instruments and
procedures to collect information (Merilyn, 2006). There are various ways and
techniques used to collect data. Data collection refers to the process of
obtaining information in a systematic way.
(i) Documentary review: This method entails data collection from written official
documents. Borg and Gall (1993), and Mertens (1998) maintain that
documents and records include the typical paper products like memos and
reports; computer files, tapes (audio and video), and other artifacts that crosscheck the consistency of the information collected through other methods like
questionnaires. The researcher cannot be in all places at all times, therefore,
documents and records give the researcher access to information that would
otherwise be unavailable.
(ii) Observation: Here the researcher observes respondents, situations or objects
using a steering observational scheme derived from the research objective that
has to be examined and monitored during observation (Verschuren and
Doorewaard, 1999). There are participant and non-participant observation. In
participant observation- the researcher undergoes the same experiences as the
society member, shares as intimately as possible in the life and activities of the
people in the observed setting. The researcher sees what is happening and
"feels" what it is like to be part of the group. Non-participant observation the
researcher is present in the setting but does not interact with respondents.
Observation method tends to eliminate subjectivity and bias during data
collection thus gives accurate information relating to what is happening. Apart
from that, there is always the chance that the observer is seen as an intruder,
which may jeopardise the quality of data to be gathered. Respondents may
behave in a different way than they usually would. The extent to which it is
possible for a researcher to become a full participant in an experience will
depend partly on the nature of the setting being observed (Kothari, 2004).
(iii) Questionnaire: Is an instrument that consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
There are open-ended and closed-ended questions. The former give more
freedom to the respondents to answer questions while the later limit the
respondents to specificity of the responses for purpose of quantification and
approximation of magnitude. This is an appropriate method in quantitative
research like survey as it allows the researcher to collect a lot of information
from large number of people within a very short of time and at a relatively low
cost (Kothari, 2004).
(iv) Interviewing: An interview is a scheduled set of questions administered
through oral or verbal communication in face-to-face relationship between a
researcher and the respondents. In the context of project Verschuren and
Doorewaard (1999), classified interviewing technique into two main categories;
interview and poll and these differ from each other in two aspects.
(a) The degree to which the interview has been pre-structured.
(b) The degree to which the research issue is open.
An interview is characterised by a limited degree of pre-structuring and an
open style of interviewing while a poll is characterised by a high degree of prestructuring and yes-or-no questions. In the case of open questions, the
interviewee is free to answer in any way he/she pleases. In the case of yes-orno questions, the interviewee has to tick one or several options known as
multiple-choice questions formulated by the researcher. There are individual
and group interview. The former one can either be conducted through
telephone or face-to-face variant while the later a number of people is brought
together for an interview and can respond to one another. Through interview
more information and in greater depth is obtained, it allows flexibility as there
is an opportunity to structure questions.
17.3
ETHICS
OF
RESEARCH
IN
EDUCATION
MANAGEMENT
AND
LEADERSHIP
When most people think of ethics, they think of rules or norms for conduct for
distinguishing between the right and wrong, acceptable and unacceptable
behaviours. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to
regard them as simple common-sense. The question is if morality is nothing
more than common-sense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and
issues in our society? Ethics in research are set of standards designed to guide
the proper conduct of the research activities. There are several reasons why it
is important to adhere to ethical norms in educational research. For example,
ethics promote research values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, human rights, compliance with the law, safety,
and respect, avoidance of error like prohibitions against fabricating and
falsifying. Since educational research is conducted in complex social settings
the researchers must observe ethical issues, at all levels of questions used,
selected samples, and use of information obtained from the respondents to
observe confidentiality. Issues in research touch on all stakeholders of
research, the respondents, the researchers, the funding urgencies and the
users etc. Given the importance of ethics for conducting research, it should
come as no surprise that educational researchers from many different
professional associations, government agencies, and universities should be
guided by codes in the various disciplines. The following are some of the ethical
issues to be aware of:
At the design stage, researchers must identify a significant problem or issue to
study that will benefit individuals being studied, make their research goals
clear to the members of the community where they undertake their research.
Before and/or during data collection the researcher should inform respective
authorities by writing a letter that identifies the extent of time, the potential
impact, and the outcomes for the research. It is unethical to collect data
without consent of the respondents and their respective leaders.
Researchers must be sure that the research does not harm those among whom
the research is done. They must minimize harms and risks and maximize
benefits; strive to promote social good; and respect human dignity, privacy, and
autonomy. Researchers need to respect research sites so that the sites are left
undisturbed after a research study. They have to be aware of their people’s
cultures and practices at the time they are collecting data.
Informants and respondents normally have a right to confidentiality, which
ensures that the source of information will not be disclosed without the express
permission of the informant. Researchers are responsible for taking appropriate
cautions to protect the confidentiality of both participants and data to the full
extent provided by law.
Regarding ethical issues in data analysis and interpretation researchers should
use aliases or pseudonym for individuals and places to protect identities. It is
unethical to quote the names of respondents without their consent. Croswell
(2003) argued that when the researcher analyses and interprets data, issues
emerge that call for good ethical decision. It is important for researcher to learn
whether the group would prefer to be named in the written report of the
research or given a fictitious name.
SUMMARY
The aim of this lecture is to introduce to you the meaning of research
methodology, design, population and sample. Research methodology
deals with systematic study of methods and the philosophical
assumptions underlying the research process. Research design is the
conceptual structure that constitutes the blue-print for the collection,
measuring and analysis of data. Various sampling strategies and the
ethical issues in conducting research in education were also discussed in
this lecture.
ACTIVITIES
1.Define the term research and differentiate it from educational research
2.Explain the meaning and purpose of social science research
3. Describe basic steps to be followed by a social science researcher when
carrying out a research.
4.Describe the sample population. With examples differentiate between
sample population and sampling procedures in research.
5.Critically, examine ethical issues employed in educational researches
REFERENCES
Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1998). Educational Research: An Introduction.
New York: Longman Inc.
Caesar, J. E. (1998). Educational Research. Statistics and Measurement. Kampala:
Makerere.
Croswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Quantitative,Qualitative and
MixedMethods Approach. London: Sage.
Frankel, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Kothari, R. C. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Technique. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.
Krishnaswami, O. R. (2002). Methodology of Research in Social Sciences.
New Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.
Leedy, P. D. (1986). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Merrill:
Prentice-Hall.
Mertens, D. M (1997). Research Methods in Education and Psychology:
Integrating Diversity with Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. London: Sage Publications.
Verschuren, P. and Doorewaard, H. (1999). Designing a Research
Project. Culemborg: LEMMA.
LECTURE EIGHTEEN
TEACHER SERVICE ORGANS
18.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses teacher service organs such as the Tanzania Teachers'
Union, the Teachers Service Department and the Parent Teacher Associations.
The lecture describes the Tanzania formal educational structure, the structure
of the organs, challenges, opportunities, strength and weaknesses.
OBJECTIVES
At
At the end of this topic student teachers should be able to:
1. Describe Tanzanian formal educational structure
2. Explain what is the meant by TTU, TSD and PTA organs
3. Examine the role of the TTU, TSD and PTA
4. Identify the challenges and opportunities of TTU, TSD and PTA
5. Assess strengths and weakness of the Organs
The United Republic of Tanzania realizes that the provision of quality education
is the ultimate goal of national development. It is through quality education,
Tanzania will be able to create a strong and competitive economy which can
effectively cope with the challenges of development and which can easily and
confidently adapt to the changing market and technological conditions
worldwide (ETP, 1995). Education system of Tanzania has three levels, namely:
Basic, Secondary and Tertiary. Basic level includes pre-primary, primary and
non-formal adult education. Secondary level has ordinary and advanced
education while Tertiary level includes programmes and courses offered by
non-higher
and
higher
education
constitutes the following structure:
institutions.
Education
in
Tanzania
In Tanzania mainland formal education has the following system: 2-7-4-2-3+
years meaning that 2 years of pre-primary education, 7 years of primary
education, 4 years of ordinary Level, 2 years of advanced Level and up to 3 or
more years of Tertiary Education while in Zanzibar is 2-7-3-2-2-3+ that means
three years of pre-school, seven years of primary education, three and two
years of first and second cycle lower secondary education respectively, two
years of advanced secondary education, and
three years or more of higher
education. (ETP, 1995). Kiswahili is the medium of instruction at primary
education while at secondary education is taught as compulsory subject and as
option at tertiary education.
Two ministries manage and co-ordinate the Education sector, namely Ministry
of Education and Vocational Training, and the Higher Education. The Ministry
of Regional Administration and Local Government manages Basic Education.
At primary and secondary levels quality assurance remains to be the
responsibility of School heads, Ward Education Officers and School Inspectors.
At Tertiary level, planning and service delivery are vested with the institutions
themselves through their governing boards. Nevertheless, co-ordination and
quality control is the responsibility of the Tanzania Commission for Universities
(TCU) and the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE).
18.2 TANZANIA TEACHERS UNION (TTU)
The Tanzania Teachers Union (TTU) is an association which grows almost on daily basis. Its
development is supposed to go alongside economic development brought in by globalization.
The main objective of TTU is to improve the life of its members economically and socially. TTU
was first registered on 1st November, 1993. Its registration was prompted by two issues:• Re-introduction of multi-party democracy which was abolished in 1965, which brought
back workers independent trade unions. According to the decision, the Parliament of the
United Republic of Tanzania (URT) enacted a law namely “The Organization of
Tanzania Trade Union” (OTTU) as the sole workers union.
•
The Dar-es-Salaam teacher’s strike of 1st October, 1993 demanded better improvement of
teacher’s welfare. During the strike it was found that teachers did not have the right
institution to fight for their rights, hence called for the need for the registration of TTU as
a trade union for teachers to bring back good working environment.
Teachers covered by the TTU include:
1. Nursery school teachers.
2. Primary school teachers.
3. Secondary school teachers.
4. Tutors in teachers colleges.
5. Tutors in community development colleges.
6. Officers offering teaching services in various public institutions?
7. Retired teachers.
8. Workers of TTU.
9. Stakeholders of TTU such as government, and its ministries and institutions
like Tanzania Education Authority.
STRUCTURE
TTU is duty bound to ensure that its activities are conducted basing on democratic principles.
The TTU structure includes:-from the top President, Vice President, Secretary General, Deputy
Secretary General, Treasurer, Seven zonal representatives (one from each zone and one
representative of disabled teachers), Regional chairperson, Regional Secretary, District
Secretary, Woman representative at the national meeting and Branch Secretary.
RESPONSIBILITIES
TTU depends on the following ethics to perform their duties these include: - Respect teaching
profession and ethics, hard work, defend teachers’ rights, accountability, team work, and
transparency. Its responsibilities include:
• Develop and protect teaching profession integrity alongside supervising high standard of
discipline.
•
Supervise, improve and protect teacher’s rights and officers in education institutions and
ensure attractive package and good working environment.
•
Ensure that teachers and employers adhere and implement accordingly rules and
regulations on labour issues, alongside contracts between the employer and teacher. TTU
discusses and consult with employers on the rights, employment benefits and other
related environment in the employment of teaching professionals etc
CHALLENGES
TTU is facing the following challenges which need to be dealt with, these
include:1. To educate its members on their rights and how to get them. This problem calls for TTU to
publish various publications for its members to sensitize them to know their rights.
2. Government small budget allocation for education sector in the country therefore, it is the
responsibility of TTU to make sure the government raises the budget.
3. Decreasing number of experienced teachers due to HIV/AIDS. Researches revealed that until
2005, Tanzania lost public service servants by 9.1 per cent which also affected TTU teacher’s
performance.
4. The 21st Century, is known for being a century for science and technology which also
brought in new different challenges including that of TTU in various areas:
a. Science and technology challenge teachers and leaders of TTU to go for further
training in order to cope with the current competitive environment.
b. TTU members must change to face the realities on the ground by offering their
services using science and technology.
STRENGTHS
However, TTU facing many challenges it did and still doing lots to make sure that its
members enjoy its fruits. TTU has offices and staff almost at each district and village
hence has the power to do the following:
1. Since the Union has extended to all districts, it has managed to run training for its leaders
from the national to district levels.
2. In collaboration with the Pan African Teachers Centre the Union offers training on the
teaching profession and defending quality education for all.
3. Since the establishment of the Union, it has built up the capacity to solve conflicts and
complains at the work place between the employer and the teacher or among teachers
themselves.
4. TTU is not only committed to the continuous improvement of the terms and conditions of
services but also deals with gender equity, social justice and unity of teachers of all
grades and qualifications.
5. The organ itself is a challenge to the government and the Ministry responsible for
education at large to make sure that teachers are given their rights as they are stipulated in
its constitution.
WEAKNESS
TTU fails to perform some of its roles not because of poor objectives or
inappropriate strategy, but because of its poor mechanisms established,
financial constraints, poor commitment, ignorance of some of its members on
their rights, corruption by some TTU members etc. Its weakness covers the
following areas:
1. TTU lacks legal and social mandate to work on its own because it is still
under the trade unions umbrella.
2. TTU fails to establish strong mechanisms to deal with teachers’
remuneration in terms of salaries, leave benefits, housing, transfer, and
retirement benefits.
3. A large number of teachers who join teaching profession are compelled to be members of
TTU so it does not give them freedom to join the Union voluntarily.
4. The Union has failed to identify the exact number of its members as most of them leave
employment at the same time they do not have identity cards despite being promised to
be given one on time.
5. Despite the fact that teachers contribute to the development of TTU, they are not
informed about the revenue collected and the expenditures.
18.3 TEACHER’S SERVICE DEPARTMENT (TSD)
Before independence, teachers in Tanganyika worked for different employees
under different terms of service. Teachers in government schools had terms of
service that were different from those in private schools (Babyegeya (2002).
After Independence teachers became aware for their rights they found it
necessary to have a unified teaching service system to cater for all teachers in
both counter parts. Article No. 6 of 1962 allowed the establishment of an
Executive Committee of Unified Teaching Service (UTS). UTS employed teachers
in the country by similar employment contracts and gave them equal services
in order to bring about unity between teachers employed by the government
and those employed by religious institutions. It also established pension
schemes basing on the same regulations for all teachers, issued guidance on
matters regarding ethics, discipline and promotion of teachers.
Unified Teaching Service (UTS) did a good job since it was established in 1962
but had also some shortcomings. UTS authorities did not care about teachers’
employment benefits such as travelling allowances, disturbance allowance and
salary review according to the teachers’ promotions. Due to UTS poor work
performance, the government found it necessary to establish a new institution,
namely ‘’Teacher’s Service Commission’’ in 1989. In short the Commission was
established by article No.1 of 1989 for the aim of the repealing article No. 6 of
1962 which established Unified Teaching Service (UTS). The TSC Act No.1 of
1989 identified the functions of the commission as; to employ, pay salaries,
effect promotions, deal with pension schemes and other benefits like annual
leaves, medical treatment, etc.
Twelve years later the government established Teacher Service Department
(TSD) by article No.8 of 2002 to replace the Teachers Service Commission act
No.1 of 1989. TSD is an independent governmental department within the
structure of the Ministry of Education. TSD is an independent body which is
mandated by the Ministry of Education
to employ, pay salaries, effect
promotions, deal with pension schemes and other benefits, supervises
discipline, annual leaves, medical treatment, offer teachers right status and
develop teachers academically and professionally. Legally the department offers
services to teachers in the following groups:
1. Teachers under the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
2. Teachers under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education.
3. Teachers under the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and
Children Affairs (these are teachers at Focal Development Colleges-FDA),
teachers under the Ministry of Labour and Youth Development-Technical
Colleges.
4. Teachers of primary and secondary schools, and
5. Teachers on secondment to various parastatal organizations, departments
and ministries.
18. 4 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF TSD
Teacher Service Department (TSD) is composed of the chairperson who is appointed by the
President of the United Republic of Tanzania and other five members appointed by the Minister.
The members are from the central and local governments, Ministry of Education and the
Organization of Trade Unions. The Chief Executive officer of the TSD is the Secretary who is
also appointed by the President. The Department is supervised by Deputy Secretary who has four
divisions as employment, and promotions, pension, research and statistics. At the regional and
district levels the Commission is supervised by Commission Secretaries. The TSD, committees
were established at regional and district levels to supervise and maintain ethics and discipline of
teachers, and keep records of open and confidential files.
18.5 TEACHER SERVICE DEPARTMENT (TSD) JOB DESCRIPTION
Teacher Service Department has the following roles to perform.
1. Employ and promote teachers through various grades according to the law.
2. Advise employers on who fits to be employed as a teacher.
3. Issue guidance to public institutions on the implementation of employment opportunities
basing on fair and just competition in accordance with the qualification required.
4. Lay down the teachers’ employment and the teaching service structure.
5. Formulate the professional code of conduct and discipline of teachers.
6. Advice President if needed be through the Central Establishment Department for public
servant on who fits for an employment which the President has the mandate to appoint.
CHALLENGES
1. The promotion of teachers has been based on the years of service rather than teacher's
performance in classroom practice.
2. The assessment of teachers' education programs leaves much to be desired, since they are
subjected to testing that does not promote the competences needed in the profession.
3. There has been indecision in determining the right kind of teacher conduct to be rewarded
or penalized as professional code of conduct has not a good motivator for professional
excellence.
TSD STRENGTHS
1. TSD is the only department which supervises discipline and offers training on teacher’s
ethics and upgrades teachers and appoints teachers for various responsibilities.
2. TSD since its establishment in 2002 has managed to open offices up to the district levels
which in turn enable the department to make follow up of teachers complains more
closely including claims for salary accumulation after promotion and pensions.
3. TSD is the only department which has the authority and power to employ and promote
teachers under the Ministry of Education.
4. The department reduces the delay of appointment and confirmation letters for teachers.
18.6 BENEFITS WHICH MEMBERS OF TSD ARE ENTITLED INCLUDE
The responsibility allowance for heads of schools and inspectors of schools, cost of burial of a
member of the service which include the coffin, grave, shroud, wreath, transport of the body to
place of domicile, getting loans, free medical treatment to members of the service, travel costs
and subsistence allowance to members when travelling on first appointment, on duty, or transfer
or termination of employment and retirement, etc.
WEAKNESS
TSD did and is still doing a good job since it was established but had also some
shortcomings as listed below:
1. Procedures on assessment of work performance for teachers do not have transparent
objectives which involve a servant in question hence create a room for biasness and
corruption.
2. TSD has been assigned on paper to promote teachers under the Secretary General but
unfortunately many teachers especially those in rural areas remain in one grade for so
long in such a way that even if he/she is upgraded is not paid the new accumulated salary
on time.
3. Due to poor salary payment system and lack of motivation plans to recognize those who
perform well, the department fails to control ghost workers and leaving teachers ending
up being paid low salaries which do not match with their ranks.
4. The department fails to effectively deal with discipline issues as some of the
misbehaviours committed by teachers are ignored simply, because there is a fear of losing
them.
5. TSD in collaboration with the Ministry of Education employs teachers who had finished
a teaching course program, and not necessarily with due reference to academic ability and
interest in teaching.
18.7 PARENT-TEACHER-ASSOCIATION (PTA)
PTA is a formal organization composed of parents and teachers that is intended
to facilitate parental participation in schools. The major functions of PTA
include;
1. Advance the education of the pupils of the school by providing and
assisting in the provision of facilities for education at the school.
2. Foster more extended relationships between staff, students, parents and
other stakeholders, and
3. Engage in activities which support the school and promote the welfare of
the pupils attending it.
In Tanzania this association is effectively active in some private schools. For
example, the Association of Parents of Deaf Children in Tanzania (UWAVIKA) in
Northern zone (Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Tanga).
ROLES OF PTA
In order to be effective in its work PTA has to perform its activities in a
hierarchy; from the top there is chairperson, vice chairperson, secretary
general, vice secretary, treasurer, and assistant treasurer. The Parent Teacher
Association (PTA) activities vary from school to school. However, it serves two
main roles;
1. To provide a means of communication and liaison between the school
administration and parents.
2. To fund raising and other activities to support the school.
CONSTRAINTS
Like any other organization PTA face the following setbacks; Lack of enough
funds to run the organization activities, some organizations do not have an
office to conduct their activities, lack of support from the donors and the
community. The researches show that the association of Parents and Teachers
are the most powerful influence on the child's life experience, especially on
educational outcomes. Reasonable efforts should be made by both private and
government schools to initiate wider involvement of parents and caretakers in
school matters, including in the formulation and implementation of school
rules. It is understood that more aware and more knowledgeable parents will
be better disposed to guiding and helping their children in doing what is
expected than parents who are completely ignorant of policies and processes
that operate at their children's school. To this effect, parent-teacher
associations (PTA) should be established as a matter of policy for all schools,
where some parents could be elected as “school representatives” within the
community.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have discussed the teacher service organs such as
Tanzania Teachers' Union, Teachers Service Department and Parent
Teacher Associations. In this lecture we were introduced to the Tanzania
formal educational structure, the role of the organs, Challenges,
opportunities, strength and weaknesses of the TSD and TTU. We noted
that the structure of Education in Tanzania include 2-7-4-2-3+ for
Mainland and 2-7-3-2-2-3+ for Zanzibar.
ACTIVITIES
1. Describe the term TSD and identify its objectives
2. Discuss the roles and the functions of TSD, PTA and TTU
3. With examples, explain how and the extent to which the stipulated
conditions of service are fulfilled by TSD
4. Identify TSD regulations which entail terms of employment,
discipline and conditions of service
5. Critically, examine the roles of TTU and TSD. With examples, give
their differences and similarities
6. Discuss the effectiveness of Parent-Teacher Association in schools
REFERENCES
Babyegeya, E.(2002). Educational Planning and Administration. Dar-esSalaam: OUT
C.W.T. (2009). Mwongozo wa Mafunzo ya Uongozi kwa Viongozi wa Matawi.
Dar-es-Salaam: CWT.
C.W.T.(2010). Mpango Mkakati wa Muda wa Miaka Mitano June, 2010 Hadi
Mei, 2015. Arusha: CWT
U.R.T.(1995). Education and Training Policy. Dar-es-Salaam: Ministry of
education and Vocational Training
U.R.T. (2004). Rejea za Sera, Sheria, Kanuni na Nyaraka Kuhusu Maswala ya
Ajira. Dar-es-Salaam:Tume ya Utumishi wa Umma.
U.R.T. (1989). Teachers’ Service Commission Act No. 1989. Dar- es-Salaam:
Government Printer.
United Republic of Tanzania (2002). The Public Service Act, No.8. Dar-esSalaam: Government Printer.
United Republic of Tanzania (2003). The Public Service Regulations Act, No. 8.
Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printer.
United Republic of Tanzania (2009). Standing Orders for the Public Service.
Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printer.