UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS
lADUAL
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDMDUAL LEVEL AND
ITS IMPACT ON lOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST
LECTURERS IN UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)
DAZAH
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
SESI PENGAlIAN 2008-2010
Saya, Jade Cheah Lei-TI mengaku membenarkan tesis sarjana ini di simpan di
perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan berikut:
1. Tesis adalah hak milik Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk
tujuan pengajian sahaja.
3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan
pertukaran institusi pengajian TInggi.
4. TIDAK TERHAD
Penulis: Jade Cheah Lei-TI
Alamat: The NBR Cottage,
P.O. Box 670,
89507 Penampang,
Sabah, Malaysia.
Penyelia: Dr. Balvinder Kaur Kler
Tarikh: 28 July 2010
Catatan: Tesis dimaksudkan SEBAGAI TESIS ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana
secara penyelidikan atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan
penyelidikan atau laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM)
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDIVIDUAL
LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON lOB
PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)
lADE CHEAH LEI-TI
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of Master
of Business Administration
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH
2010
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations,
excerpts, equations, summaries and references, which have been duly
acknowledged.
~~
17 JUNE 2010
JOE CHEAH LEFri
PE2008-8203C
)
ii
CERnFICAnON
NAME
JADE CHEAH LEI-n
MATRIC NO.
PE20088203C
TITLE
OCCUPAnONAL STRESS AT INDMDUAL LEVEL AND
ITS IMPACT ON JOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST
LECTURERS IN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)
DEGREE
MASTER IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRAnON
VIVA DATE
29TH JUNE 2010
DECLARED BY
1.
SUPERVISOR
DR. BALVINDER KAUR KLER
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, my outmost thanks go to God for granting me the wisdom, strength
and the opportunity to contribute to the upliftment of our knowledge about
Occupational Stress at Individual Level and its impact on Job Performance through
this study.
I acknowledge and thank my supervisor, Dr. Balvinder Kaur Kler for her
patience, encouragement, endless advice, stimulating suggestions and support in
all time of research and writing of this report; I would not have come this far
without her. The experience, and knowledge that I have gained from this study
have indeed helped me understand the true meaning of perseverance.
I would also wish to express my gratitude to UMS' DS45 lecturers who were
willing to take some time off their heavy schedule to participate in the survey.
Without their help, it would have been impossible for me to finish this work.
In addition, to my lecturers, classmates in this MBA program, I thank you all
from the bottom of my heart for all the help you have given especially in terms of
sharing your knowledge, information, and resources in our studies together. What I
gained from this course was beyond my expectations whereby more doors of
opportunity has been opened to me.
A special thank you goes out to two MBA graduates (my seniors), Mr. Roger
Beliku and Mr. Rameshar Rajah for all the support and encouragement that was
given to me. It was a big motivation for me to maintain a positive attitude and keep
moving forward despite the hurdles faced.
Finally, to all my family and friends, there are no words which are able to
express my love and gratitude for all that they have done for me. Without their
encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible for me to finish
this report. I would particularly like to thank those who never advised me to quit.
They had more faith in me than could ever be justified by logical argument
Thank you and God bless.
JADE CHEAH LEI-TI
29TH JUNE 2010
IV
ABSTRACT
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AT INDIVIDUAL LEVEL AND ITS IMPACT ON
lOB PERFORMANCE AMONGST LECTURERS IN
UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SABAH (UMS)
This study aims to determine the immediate factors in occupational stress at
individual level that impact job performance amongst lecturers holding the post of
DS45 at Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The objectives of this study were
achieved by examining the relationship between job perfonnance (dependent
variable) and five factors identified as independent variables which include working
condition, resources and communication, workload, work-relationship with the
Dean, and work-relationship with colleagues. Results from the online questionnaire
collected from 228 respondents were analyzed using the multiple regression
analYSis. The analysis revealed that 31.1 percent and 45.1 percent of the variance
were explained by model 1 and model 2 respectively, with working condition,
workload, work-relationship with the Dean, and work-relationship with colleagues
(total four factors) significant. Although the relationship between dependent
variable and independent variables when regressed together produced an
acceptable result, further research should be done in order for this model to be
proposed as a general model for developing a framework regarding occupational
stress at individual level and job perfonnance among university lecturers. It is
hoped that this study has contributed to studies in this field and played its part in
paving the way for future studies to identify a more sustainable and replicable
model, hence aSSisting the higher education industry to face the challenge of the
21 st century.
v
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti faktor-faktor stres peketjaan pada tahap
individu yang mempengaruhi prestasi peketjaan di kalangan pensyarah university
yang memegang gred DS45 di Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) secara langsung.
Objektif untuk kajian ini dicapai dengan menganalisis perhubungan antara prestasi
ketja dengan faktor-faktor yang telah dikenalpasti iaitu suasana ketja, sumber dan
komunikasi, beban tugas, hubungan pensyarah dengan Dekan, dan hubungan
pensyarah dengan rakan seketja. Hasil daripada pemantauan online yang dikutip
daripada 228 responden dianalisiskan dengan menggunakan analisis 'multiple
regression~ 1a menunjukkan bahawa 31.1 peratus dan 45.1 peratus varians dapat
dipenuhi oleh model 1 dan model 2 masing-masing, dengan suasana ketja, beban
tugas, hubungan pensyarah dengan Dekan, dan hubungan pensyarah dengan
rakan seketja, (jumlahnya empat faktor) didapati signilikan. Walaupun
perhubungan antara pembolehubah begantung dan pembolehubah yang tidak
bergantung apabila diuji bersama memberi hasil yang diterima, penyelidikan lanjut
harus dijalankan sekiranya model ini ingin dicadangkan sebagai model am bagi
tujuan pembangunan rangka ketja berkaitan stres di peketjaan pada tahap individu
dan prestasi ketja. Adalah diharapkan bahawa kajian ini dapat memberi sumbangan
kepada penyelidikan dalam bidang ini, dan memainkan peranan dalam membuka
jalan untuk kajian-kajian untuk mengenalpasti model yang lebih lengkap dan
sempuma pada masa hadapan, dan selanjutnya membantu industri pengajian
tinggi menghadapi cabaran-cabaran sengit di abad ke-21 ini.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE
DECLARA110N
CER11FICA110N
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UST OF FIGURES
UST OF TABLES
UST OF APPENDICES
x
xi
xii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCllON
1.0
Overview of Higher Education Industry in Malaysia
1.1
Problem Statement
1.2
Research Objectives
1.3
Scope of Study
1.4
Significance of Study
1.5
Operational Definitions of Key Variables In This Study
1.5.1 Job Performance
1.5.2 Working Conditions
1.5.3 Resources and Communication
1.5.4 Workload
1.5.5 Work-Relationship with the Dean
1.5.6 Work-Relationship with Colleagues
1.6
Organization of the Report
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
2.1
Conceptualization of Stress
2.2
Job Performance in an Organization
2.3
Occupational Stress at Individual level
2.4
Factors Intrinsic to the Job
2.4.1 Working Conditions
2.4.2 Resources and Communication
2.4.3 Workload
2.5
Interpersonal Relationships at Work
2.5.1 Work-Relationship with the Dean (Boss)
2.5.2 Work-Relationship with Colleagues
2.6
The Link between Occupational Stress and Job Performance
2.7
Summary
CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0
Introduction
3.1
Research Framework
3.1.1 Dependent Variable
vii
1
2
4
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
10
12
14
15
16
17
19
19
21
21
23
24
24
26
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.1.2 Independent Variables
Research Hypotheses
Research Design
Unit of Analysis
Sampling Design
3.5.1 Location of Study and Population
3.5.2 Sampling Technique
3.5.3 Sampling Size
Instrument Design
3.6.1 Questionnaire
3.6.2 Control Measures
Data Collection Method
Data Analysis Method
Summary
26
27
28
28
28
28
30
30
31
32
34
35
36
37
CHAPTER 4 : ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Introduction
Profile of Respondents
Normality Test Analysis
4.2.1 Dependent Variable and Independent Variables Normality
Reliability Test Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis
4.4.1 Multiple Regression Model-l: Factors Intrinsic to the Job
4.4.2 Multiple Regression Model-2 : Interpersonal Relationships
at Work
Hypotheses Testing
Summary
38
38
41
41
42
44
44
45
46
48
CHAPTERS : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Introduction
Recapitulation of the Study
Discussion of Rndings
5.2.1 Factors Intrinsic to the Job
5.2.2 Working Condition
5.2.3 Resources and Communication
5.2.4 Workload
5.2.5 Interpersonal Relationships at Work
5.2.6 Work-Relationship with the Dean
5.2.7 Work-Relationship with Colleagues
Implications of the Study
Limitations of Study
5.4.1 This study is strictly present oriented, no future oriented
elements
5.4.2 Umited scope of study
5.4.3 Length of questionnaire and accuracy of respondents'
feedback
Suggestions for Future Research
Conclusion
Vlll
51
Sl
53
57
57
58
59
59
60
60
61
62
63
63
63
63
65
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
67
80
ix
UST OF FIGURES
Page
Rgure 2.1
Rgure 2.3
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.5.3
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
A Model of Stressors, Stress and Outcomes
The terms used by Ivancevich et at (2008) and, Jackson
and Rothmann (2006)
Theoretical Research Framework: Occupational stress at
individual level impacting job performance amongst lecturers
in University Malaysia Sabah (UMS)
Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula to determine sampling size
Differentiation of Job Performance (task and contextual)
between Factors Intrinsic to the Job and Interpersonal
Relationships at Work
Theoretical Research Framework: Occupational Stress at
Individual Level and its Impact on Job Performance among
Lecturers in University Malaysia Sabah (UMS)
x
9
13
25
31
53
56
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3.5.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2.1
Table 4.3
Table 4.6
Total Academic Staff According to Employment Grade
as of March 2010
Demographic Profile of the respondents (Lecturers
holding DS45 grade in Universiti Malaysia Sabah)
Summary of Normality test on dependent variable and
independent variables
Summary of Reliability Test Analysis Results
Summary of the Findings from Hypotheses Te$ting
Xl
29
39
42
43
49
UST OF APPENDICES
Page
APPENDIX 1.0 : Permission Letter
APPENDIX 2.0 : Questionnaire
APPENDIX 3.0: Total Responses Received
APPENDIX 4.0 : Frequencies for Profile of Respondents
APPENDIX 5.0 : Normality Test Analysis
APPENDIX 5.1 : Normality Test for Dependent Variable and Independent
Variables
APPENDIX 6.0 : Reliability Test Analysis
APPENDIX 6.1 : Reliability Test for Job Performance
APPENDIX 6.2 : Reliability Test for Working Condition
APPENDIX 6.3 : Reliability Test for Resources and Communication
APPENDIX 6.4 : Reliability Test for Workload
APPENDIX 6.5 : Reliability Test for Work-Relationship with the Dean
APPENDIX 6.6 : Reliability Test for Work-Relationship with Colleagues
APPENDIX 7.0 : Multiple Regression Modell-Factors Intrinsic to the Job
APPENDIX 7.1 : Residual Statistics
APPENDIX 7.2 : Normal P-Plot of Regression Standardized Residual
APPENDIX 7.3 : Scatterplot
APPENDIX 7.4 : Model Summary
APPENDIX 7.5 : ANOVA
APPENDIX 7.6 : Coefficients
APPENDIX 8.0 : Multiple Refression Model 2-Interpersonal Relationships at
Work
APPENDIX 8.1 : Residual Statistics
APPENDIX 8.2 : Normal P-Plot of RegreSSion Standardized Residual
APPENDIX 8.3 : Scatterplot
APPENDIX 8.4 : Model Summary
APPENDIX 8.5 : ANOVA
APPENDIX 8.6 : Coefficients
xii
80
81
92
93
96
96
101
101
101
102
102
103
103
104
104
104
105
105
106
106
107
107
107
108
108
109
109
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0
OVerview of Higher Education Indusby in Malaysia
As an industry, higher education plays a significant role in the economy. The higher
education industry provides a competitive force of the marketplace in which this
industry affects almost all of us albeit as students, parents, employees, employers,
and citizens of scientific, medical and technological research. Higher education
industry provides not only education but with it the essential facilities and
Infrastructures for lectures such as lecture rooms, conference facilities, research
centre, and laboratories in which are equipped with presentation eqUipment such
as LCD projectors, OHP projectors, internet connectivity and sound system.
The industry and its activities are closely linked to a country's economy even
though it is a complex and diverse industry as it combines a dominant public sector
of state universities and also the private sector of universities, community colleges,
and polytechnics that educate a majority of all students. Significantly, not only are
lecturers associated with higher education industry but other parts of the
professional services industry are well closely linked to the higher education
industry such as the finanCial, administrative, security and transportation, and
medical professions. Therefore, higher education is too important to be left out of
the marketplace as it is increasingly being relied upon to solve economic and social
problems.
Access to higher education for all young people, regardless of their family
circumstances is a vital need-based element of the social mission (Turk, 2008;
MacGregor, 2009). However, higher education is not meant simply as a private
interest to each individual but it brings benefit to other people. Regardless of
ownership form whether it is a public university or private higher education
institute, this industry is about competition for the number of students the institute
has, which is sometimes viewed as part of the educational mission but sometimes
simply viewed as revenue sources to the country.
According to Noordin and Jusoff (2009), education is one of the most
important institutional organizations of a nation and as it oversees issues on
national agenda, its effective running depends firmly on its coordination in the
direction of societal expectation. The success of its' educational programs are
founded based on its important contributions of effort, involvement, and most
importantly on the overall academic staff professionalization.
In Malaysia, the higher education industry consists of four segments which
are the public universities, private universities, polytechnics and community
colleges. Currently, there are a total of 20 public universities, 345 private
universities, 27 polytechnics, and 59 community colleges established under the
Universities and Universities College Act (MOHE, 2010).
1.1
Problem Statement
The nature of work is changing at whirlwind speed and perhaps now more than
ever before, occupational stress poses a threat to the health of workers and, in
tum, to the health of the organizations (NIOSH, 1999). It is noted that stress is in
the eyes of its beholder whereby some employers would assume that stressful
working conditions are a necessity which might assist productivity and profitability
in today's economy. However, stressful working conditions could also lead to
decreased productivity if it is not handled properly.
Winefield (2000) stated that recent studies done globally on stress among
academic staff in higher education industry indicate that the phenomenon of
occupational stress in universities is increasing and widespread. In Malaysia, the
number of universities has increased tremendously over the past few years and as
this number increases, university academic staff may face more problems in their
job as management faces competitive pressure from other universities (Ahsan et al,
2009).
As institutions of higher learning and a high-level organization, universities
need to focus on the quality of management, teaching and learning. Ivancevich et
at (2008)
indicate that very few organizations are likely to escape the impact of
2
stress among its employees at the workplace. In a higher education industry, the
confrontational nature of educational lectures produces significant levels of stress
for the lecturers and the high levels of stress amongst lecturers could damage
productivity (Huda et al, 2004).
At the same time, there is also pressure from Malaysia's Ministry of Higher
Education in which they have established the Accelerated Programme for
Excellence (APEX) as they desire to have more of the country's universities to be
on-par with the best universities in the world. Generally, the world's well known
universities are divided into three groups which are APEX University, Elite University
and Competitive University (MOHE, 2010).
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) which is the second public university
established in Malaysia located in Penang became the role model for all universities
in Malaysia when it was recognized as an APEX University on 27tn August 2008 by
leading in all aspects of the higher education industry with its characteristics of an
APEX university such as excellent leadership, faculties, facilities, and student
academic excellence (MOHE, 2010). These days, most universities especially in the
public sectors strive to excel and be the next APEX University in Malaysia which
may cause the university academic staff to face plenty of stress that could affect
their satisfaction, physical or mental health and ultimately cause a significant
impact on the individual's job performance (Noordin and Jusoff, 2009; Ahsan et al,
2009).
In tandem with the aspiration in preparing Malaysia as a centre of
excellence for higher education, Ministry of Education, Malaysia (2001) stated that
it is recommended by the year 2005, 75 percent of the academic staff in local
institution of higher education must possess doctoral qualifications. According to
InsightSabah (2009), Colonel Professor Datuk Dr. Kamaruzaman Hj. Ampon, ViceChancellor to the ninth public university in Malaysia - Universiti Malaysia Sabah
(UMS) stated that the university is still a long way from achieving that mark due to
the university's performance that does not meet the criteria to be recognized as an
APEX university. This ultimately increases the intensity of the pressure on lecturers,
3
which leads us to the heart of this research, to identify the occupational stress at
individual level that impacts job performance amongst lecturers in Universiti
Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
This research examines the relationship between factors intrinsic to the job
and interpersonal relationships at work, and job performance amongst lecturers in
Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The next section presents the research objectives.
1.2
Research Objectives
The overall objective of the study is to determine the relationship between
occupational stress at individual level consisting of two independent variables
(Factors Intrinsic to the Job, and Interpersonal Relationships at Work) and job
performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). The specific
objectives are to determine:-
i.
The relationship between working conditions and job performance among
lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
ii. The
relationship
between
resource
and
communication,
and
job
performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
iii. The relationship between workload and job performance among lecturers in
Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
iv. The relationship between work-relationship with Dean and job performance
among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
v. The relationship between work-relationship with colleagues and job
performance among lecturers in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS).
1.3
Scope of Study
The scope of this study is being limited to lecturers holding the post of DS45 under
the Malaysia Remuneration System (SSM) in Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS),
Malaysia's ninth public institution of higher education which has plans to gain APEX
university status, located in Kota Kinabalu - the capital city for the state of Sabah in
East Malaysia (UMS, 2010), with the target to obtain valuable local data.
4
In addition, the scope in the literature review of this study focused on two
key areas which are job performance and occupational stress focusing on factors
intrinsic to the job and interpersonal relationships at work, and the linkage between
occupational stress and job performance.
1.4
Significance of Study
The results of this study made important implications for the public institution of
higher education such as Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Occupational stress is
widespread and increasingly costly both to the individual's job performance and
organization's productivity. Therefore, this study is significant to assist the
managerial level of higher education organization to manage occupational stress at
public institution of higher education.
Throughout this study, managerial level of higher education organization
can gain a clearer understanding on what is the occupational stress faced by
lecturers at its institution. Management competency is a concern that must not be
taken lightly by the managerial level as occupational stress may affect the
subordinate/employees effiCiency and productivity which would be damaging to the
individual's job performance and ultimately affect the organization's overall
performance (Gillespie et a/., 2001).
This study hoped to serve as guidance and a stepping stone for further
studies in various aspects of improving the quality and productivity in the higher
education industry as a whole by understanding the level of stress its employees of
the twenty first century is experiencing and how it is impacting their job
performance.
Finally, this study also contributes to the global literature on stress and job
performance amongst lecturers in the Higher Education Institution previously
carried out by researcher such as Broadbridge (2002), Jackson and Rothmann
(2006), Kazmi et a/(200S) and Mostert et a/(2000).
5
1.5
Operational Definitions Of Key Variables In This Study
1.5.1 lob Perfonnance
Job performance refers to the overall evaluation of how well an individual is
meeting the organization's expectation (Allen and Griffeth, 1999).
1.5.2 Working Conditions
Working conditions refers to the extent to which the physical working environment
is comfortable and supportive of productivity (Ivancevich
et ai, 2008).
1.5.3 Resources and Communication
Resources and communication refers to the availability of equipment/resources at
work and the effectiveness of communication in the workplace (Johnson
et al,
2005).
1.5.4 Workload
Workload refers to all activities that take the time of the individual and are related
to professional duties and responsibilities (Hashim
et ai, 2006).
1.5.5 Work-Relationship with the Dean
Work-relationship with the Dean relates to the individual's relationship and
interaction with his or her boss, namely the Dean in the workplace (Meiners and
Miller, 2004).
1.5.6 Work-Relationship with Colleagues
Work-relationship with colleagues relates to the individual's relationship and
interaction with his or her colleagues in the workplace (Viemes and Guzman, 2005)
1.6
Organization of the Report
The report is organized into five chapters, which is Introduction, Literature Review,
Research Methodology, Analysis of Findings, and Discussion and Conclusion
respectively.
6
Chapter One, Introduction, provides an overview of the Higher Education
Industry in Malaysia. It subsequently derives the Problem Statements, Research
Objectives, Scope of Study, Significant of Study, Operational Definitions of Key
Variables in this study and Organization of Study.
Chapter Two, Uterature Review, reviews studies on occupational stress and
job performance in the Higher Education Institute previously conducted by others
and their findings. Some of these previous studies are nearly the same as this study
with focus on different industries in different countries or stated, while some other
studies focus on other factors that impacts job performance in the higher education
industry. The dependent and independent variables used in this research were
derived from the literature review and the relationship between them will be
discussed further in Chapter Two.
Chapter Three, Research Methodology discusses the Research Framework,
Hypotheses, methods and questionnaires used to conduct the survey for the
research. Chapter Four presents the Analysis of Rndings and finally, the report
concludes in Chapter Rve, Discussion and Conclusion.
7
CHAPTER 2
LITERAllJRE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature conducted on the relationships among
occupational stress and job performance. The aim of this chapter is to evaluate the
literature and define the meaning of occupational stress at individual level and its
affect on job performance. Next, the chapter justifies the choice of independent
variables such as factors intrinsic to the job and interpersonal relationships at work
as almost everyone experiences stress at work.
2.1
Conceptualization of Stress
Stress is certainly nothing new under the sun as Ivancevich et a/ (2008) stated that
even our cave-dwelling ancestors faced stress every time they left their caves and
encountered their enemy, the saber-toothed tigers. However, the saber-toothed
tigers of yesteryears have since been replaced by another predator known as the
"work predator" that creates stress for individuals on the job.
In this current era, a key ''work predator" is known as occupational stress.
One of the complicating issues in understanding occupational stress is that the list
of potential stressors is almost infinite. As such, the main focus was on identifying
literature which related to occupational stress (independent variables) at individual
level which affects the individual's job performance (the dependent variable). This
focus area is important for Organizational Behavior and Management as the impact
of occupational stress on an individual's job performance would often times lead to
indirect costs to organizations such as absenteeism, turnover, lower productivity,
and quality problems.
Figure 2.1: A Model of Stressors, Stress and Outcomes
Behavioral
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Satisfaction
Petfonnance
Absenteeism
Turnover
Accidents
Substance Abuse
Health care Oalms
Cognitive
Individual Level
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Role Conflict
Role Overload
Role Ambiguity
Responsibility for
People
Harassment
Pace of Change
•
•
•
•
Poor decision
making
Lack of
concentration
Forgetfulness
Frustration
Apathy
Physiological
•
•
•
•
•
Source: Ivancevich et a/(2008)
9
Increased blood
pressure
Immune System
High Cholesterol
Coronary heart
disease
Gastrointestinal
system
Figure 2.1 shows the model of stressors, stress and outcomes illustrated by
Ivancevich
et at (2008). It shows the link among occupational stressors at
individual level, stress and outcomes. The experience from the stressors leads to
stress which produces outcomes that are divided into three categories which are
behavioral, cognitive and physiological.
Previous literature focused on the common link of various occupational
stressors at individual level with lower levels of job satisfaction and higher tumover
(Kinman, 2001), ways of coping the stressors and the effect on job performance
focusing more on other professions such as nursing (lambert
et at, 2004; Nizami et
al, 2006) and customer service (Oole and Schroeder, 2001; Tuten and
Neidermeyer, 2004; Netemeyer
et al, 2005) to name a few. Moreover, research
examining the impact of stress levels on the productivity of staff and universities is
sparse (Jacobs
et al, 2007). Although there is increasing evidence from research
that indicates the assodation between occupational stress and job performance
exists, there is little attention paid to a specific occupation.
According to De Jesus and Conboy (2001), it was found that educators
experience higher levels of stress than other professional groups and Chalmers
(1998) stated that since 1994, there were Significant differences in stress levels
between groups of educators in which lecturers were the most stressed group,
followed by senior lecturers, and tutors while professors were the least stressed
qroup. Thus, this study looked upon university academic staff specifically lecturers
as one professional qroup worthy of consideration.
2.2
lob Perfonnance in an Organization
Allen and Griffeth (1999) explained that job performance refers commonly to the
overall evaluation of how well an individual is meeting the organization's
expectations. Job performance is an extremely vital criterion that relates to
orqanizational success or outcomes. In a study done by Befort and Hattrup (2003),
they found that lob performance is a multidimensional construct in which two
qeneral factors received more attention, namely task performance and contextual
performance which supports Viswesvaran and Ones' (2003) findinqs.
10
Task performance refers to the set of core duties and tasks that are central
to a particular job (Ferris et al. 2008). This includes behaviors that contribute to the
core transformation and maintenance activities in an organization which is
presented by the job itself (Motowidlo and Schmit, 1999). Ferris et at (2008) stated
that task performance can be distinguished by the explicitly prescribed tasks and
duties typically provided in job descriptions. This form of task performance can be
linked to the factors intrinsic to the job such as conforming to the working
condition, managing the demand in workload, and carrying out activities involving
resources and communication.
On the contrary, contextual performance refers to behaviors which
contribute to the culture and climate of the organization (Befort and Hattrup,
2003). Examples of contextual performance behaviors are volunteering for extra
work, persisting with enthUSiasm, following rules and procedures, helping and
cooperating with others, and supporting or defending the organization (Motowidlo
and Schmit, 1999). This form of behavior can be linked to the interpersonal
relationships at work such as work-relationship with boss and colleagues.
In a workplace, Levey (2001) state that job performance is viewed as the
result of three factors working together: skill, effort and the nature of work
conditions. The skill in dude knowledge, abilities and competendes the employee
brings to the job while effort is the degree of motivation the employee puts forth
toward getting the job done, and the nature of work conditions is the degree of
accommodation of these conditions in facilitating the employee's productivity.
However, Ivancevich
et at (2008) conceptualizes the definition of
performance as a function of the capadty to perform, the opportunity to perform,
and the willingness to perform. Ivancevich et at (20OS) identified that the capacity
to perform relates to the degree to which an individual possesses task-relevant
knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences which means to say that high levels of
job performance are only possible when the employee knows what is supposed to
be done and how to do it. The opportunity to perform is another critical ingredient
in the job performance recipe in which the individual's job performance is
11
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