Master’s thesis in Comparative Religion Faculty of Theology Sami Kivelä January 2005 HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Tiedekunta/Osasto - Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos - Institution - Department Faculty of Theology Comparative Religion Tekijä - Författare - Author Sami Kivelä Työn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title Oppiaine - Läroämne - Subject Comparative Religion Työn laji - Arbetets art - Level Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumäärä – Sidoanta- Number of pages Master's thesis January 2005 122 Tiivistelmä - Referat - Abstract ! " ! # $ " % & " '( $ " ) * $ + , - , " + # " " ! " ! ( + # , . + /, 0 ! , This case study helps to understand a central Newar Buddhist monument. The results have an indirect link with the wider study of Mah y na Buddhism, because there is evidence of the type of Buddhism in the Kathmandu Valley having strong connections to Indian Buddhism before its disappearance there. The study shows a sacred site such as Svayambh to conceal numerous shades of meaning, which can be easily misinterpreted if taken too superficially. Deeper meanings become revealed only when one engages in an active and empathetic dialogue with the local informants. Avainsanat - Nyckelord - Keywords Buddhism, field research, Nepal Säilytyspaikka - Förvaringsställe - Where deposited Library of the Faculty of Theology Muita tietoja - Övriga uppgifter - Additional information HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Tiedekunta/Osasto - Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos - Institution - Department teologinen uskontotieteen laitos Tekijä - Författare - Author Sami Kivelä Työn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title Oppiaine - Läroämne - Subject uskontotiede Työn laji - Arbetets art - Level Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumäärä – Sidoanta- Number of pages pro gradu -tutkielma tammikuu 2005 122 Tiivistelmä - Referat - Abstract ! " # # $ " # # " " " # % % # " # & " ' ( % ) ) " & & ! ( * + ' " , , ! Avainsanat - Nyckelord - Keywords buddhalaisuus, kenttätutkimus, Nepal Säilytyspaikka - Förvaringsställe - Where deposited teologisen tiedekunnan kirjasto Muita tietoja - Övriga uppgifter - Additional information " CONTENTS CONTENTS.....................................................................................................................1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................3 SPELLING AND TRANSLITERATION.....................................................................4 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES ............................................................5 A. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................6 1. THE SETTING ..............................................................................................................6 2. KEY TERMINOLOGY....................................................................................................7 3. PREVIOUS STUDIES .....................................................................................................9 4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MATERIAL .....................................................................11 5. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ...........................................................................................13 B. UNDERSTANDING RELIGIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENA ...........................14 6. PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS AS AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL STARTING POINT ...........14 7. THE USE OF CONCEPTUAL CATEGORIES IN CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH ..................17 8. THE INTERPRETIVE APPROACH OF GEERTZ ...............................................................20 C. RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY ....................25 9. AN INTRODUCTION TO NEWAR CULTURE AND RELIGION ..........................................25 10. TYPES AND FORMS OF NEWAR RELIGION ................................................................29 D. FIELD RESEARCH ................................................................................................36 11. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELDWORK ..........................................................................36 12. METHODS OF COLLECTING MATERIAL ....................................................................39 13. EVALUATION OF THE MATERIAL AND METHODS .....................................................42 E. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF SVAYAMBH ..44 14. ON ANALYSING THE MATERIAL ..............................................................................44 15. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA ....................................................................................47 16. THE SVAYAMBH CAITYA – ITS PHYSICAL PARTS AND SYMBOLISM ........................53 17. DEITIES OF THE SVAYAMBH CAITYA AND SEEING THE CAITYA AS A MANDALA ......57 18. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LAY RITUAL LIFE...............................................................62 19. THOUGHTS OF DEVOTEES .......................................................................................68 21. THE WORLDVIEW AND ETHOS OF THE BUDDH C RYAS INTERPRETED ...................78 22. AN EXCURSUS: VIPASSAN MEDITATION ...............................................................82 23. THE CREATION MYTH AND ITS FUNCTIONS .............................................................86 24. OBSERVATIONS ON TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN SVAYAMBH ......................................93 25. NATIONALISM AND RELOCATION ...........................................................................95 26. CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS AS RELIGIO-CULTURAL DILEMMAS ................................99 27. IS SVAYAMBH HINDU IN DISGUISE? ...................................................................105 F. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................109 28. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................109 29. EVALUATION OF THE STUDY ................................................................................111 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES ........................................................... 114 PRIMARY SOURCES ..................................................................................................... 114 I. UNPUBLISHED FIELD MATERIAL .............................................................................. 114 II. PUBLISHED MATERIAL ........................................................................................... 114 SECONDARY SOURCES ................................................................................................ 115 III. WEB DOCUMENTS ................................................................................................ 115 IV. LITERATURE ........................................................................................................ 115 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 120 APPENDIX I – GLOSSARY ........................................................................................... 120 APPENDIX II – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND THEMES.................................................. 122 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ! " " # $%& ! ' () * + & ' , &- . & #. ' 0 ! 0 ! & / 1 2 # 3!10 & % ) 0 % + . 0 4 $%& 5 1 # 6 , ) " 1 ' 7 0 4 + 8) 9 8' 9 8 9 + 3 SPELLING AND TRANSLITERATION ! 0 ! 1 0 :! ; :0 ; ! < 2 3 ) :! ; 9 = + ! 0 8 = 9 0 ! 1 ! = ! :% :! 4 ; 2 ; :! ; LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES Figure 1. Map of Nepal and the location of the Kathmandu Valley ...................................25 Figure 2. Map of the Kathmandu Valley .............................................................................26 Figure 3. Outline of the Newar caste system ......................................................................27 Figure 4. Gellner’s functional typology of religions ..........................................................29 Figure 5. Map of Kathmandu showing Svayambh (‘Swaymbhunath’) on the left ............47 Figure 6. Map of the main Svayambh area........................................................................50 Figure 7. Parts of the Svayambh caitya. .............................................................................55 Figure 8. The Five Buddhas and their consorts around the caitya. ....................................58 Figure 9. A comic strip of a government official at Svayambh . © Rajesh K. / The Kathmandu Post. ................................................................................................................101 Table 1. The Five Buddhas, their family members, characteristics and associations. ........59 Table 2. The seven Buddha families.....................................................................................80 Plate 1. Sunset in Svayambh . On a clear day, the distant Himalayas are visible. Photo © Dilip B. Ali. ......................................................................................................................48 Plate 2. The Hanuman Dhoka (old royal palace) at Kathmandu Durbar Square with the Svayambh hilltop seen between the roofs in the distance. .................................................48 Plate 3. A ticket to Svayambh with a view on the upper end of the eastern stairs. Photo credits unknown. ..................................................................................................................49 Plate 4. The final approach along the eastern stairway towards the top of the hill............51 Plate 5. Prayer flags with the city of Kathmandu in the background. Taken on the viewing terrace at Svayambh . ............................................................................................53 Plate 6. The Svayambh caitya and the author.....................................................................54 Plate 7. The shrine of Amit bha Buddha with a monkey eating leftover food.....................63 Plate 8. Women at the entrance to the residence of the healer lady Ajim . ........................64 Plate 9. Pratappur after the fire with bamboo scaffolding. ...............................................100 Plate 10. The Patan Durbar (Royal) Square. ....................................................................106 Photographs and drawings by the author unless otherwise noted. 5 A. INTRODUCTION 1. The setting = 7 ! & $ >?@A + 2 ! >?@> + 0 2 0 %( ! 1 ! . 3$ 5 . ! " B + :0 ;. . . + > . " B B . ! & C C B# C . + ! " B . 0 + 4 0 : ; . 1 See e.g. Gellner 2001, 73, 325. 6 4 C + D " B . 0 4 + 7 & ! . + 1 7 2. Key terminology 0 80 E 49 0 # 5 B ! 0 . + 4 . + + . 8F G0 4 C : ;9 ; 0 : 5 :8% 9; 4 = 80 49 & >HH : + 8 80 4 + ;A = 9 9 0 % ! 2 D 0 3 IH $ 4 0 J 4 0 0 !C See the map of the area on p. 50. 7 4 0 4 C 0 ' :0 4; ' 4 C 0 4 0 :>??? EA; 4 " 0 4 . K D 8! . 9 . ! ! + + . . 0 . 4 C L ! + . + 5 ! + 0 4 8 < 9 8 9 8 9 ! ) ! 1 + ! @ 8 . 9 : D " . ; 7 B# C :8 9; % 8 B# C :8 9 8 9 . 9; = ' : "; 1 0 1 1 4 @ 1 ) 8 & C >??E E@E C + + >?LA 1 : ; 7 ! 3. Previous studies . . ' ! >MAA+LE # ! ' 1 + ! $ < 0 3 + . + 2 = & C C B# C 0 & C C >?H@ 0 %( :8% !( ! I . 0 9; 1 %( " B . 3$ 0 ! >?@H 3 ! N + !+ ! < 0 . 0 ) +! = >?@H = >?OH 9 ! . 0 1 >?OH O 4 ! )( #$ %% & $ '& % ! + % &:>?ML; + ! . ) 6 7 2 < ! . See e.g. the introduction in Hodgson 1972. The core of Hodgson’s research is in this essay collection. Wylie 1970. See also Snellgrove 1981 (based on his travels through Nepal in 1956) and Tucci 1956. 9 ! + ($ ) *$ $& :% ; . ! + :>??E; , # " B ) + . 1 ) " . ! 0 4 = 0 4 + & 2 M ) ! . " ? ) ' < 0 4 1 CP + + B B ' 1 0 4 9 0 4 $- & 0 + 0 4 + . >H 0 B ' 4 + . ! >> ' 0 45 >E 0 0 4 EI , , ! " % + ! . B 0 8 4 The Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (1970-2002) has played an important role in preserving the scriptural tradition of Nepal. Most of the relevant German scholars have participated in the project. 9 Kölver 1992; Gutschow 1997. 10 Von Rospatt 1998 & 1999. The former is a shorter web document that deals with the same issues that are elaborated in the latter. 11 Von Rospatt 1999, 3. 12 At the time of finishing this study, Prof. von Rospatt was working on a more detailed study on Svayambh . It is possible that the work will deal with some of the issues treated here. However, my impression is that the focus will be more on the periodical renovations of the caitya. 10 + >A ) " 0 : < 2 ; B 0 ! 4 . :! ! ; 0 5 C#FC 9 # ! 3 :>?OM; ( + ! ! 1 0 :3!10; / + >L $ + # 5 K 0 49 ! . C#FC + 9 + EO + 1 + Q 4. Primary and secondary material " $ &$ .& $ " $ - &$ 0 + B + + ! 13 14 . 0 4 See e.g. Locke 1980 & 1985. Contributions to Nepalese Studies (the Journal of CNAS, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal). 11 1 + $ &$ ! 5 " 4 : ;1 ! 0 0 0 4 + 4 ! 0 . 4 / ! $ 1 : ;1 $ 0 4 +. = + < ! 7 1 + 0 7 7 >>L >EE ! .& $ $ 2 + ! - &$ 0 4 # 0 + 4 + B 12 + C . 7 . < + # $ " & B ! 7 + 5. Purpose of the study 7 0 4 + : ; : R ; 0 5 + $ $. .$ $ & && $ $ $ 4 7 2 # & $/ & & / $. & $ &. 0 4 & & $ 0 $& & 4 ! R 0 0 4 4 $ 1 0 13 # + + 5 + 0 4 # # 1 0 4 1 9 B. UNDERSTANDING RELIGIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENA 6. Philosophical hermeneutics as an epistemological starting point 5 +) ) 5 ) 7 5 ) 5 Q + + 5 >@ 15 1 This division reflects the views of the German Geisteswissenschaften tradition and especially Wilhelm Dilthey, who attempted to develop a particular hermeneutic human sciences methodology as opposed to the prevailing ideals of the natural sciences (see Gadamer 1989, 3ff). Actually, when speaking of human sciences the concept of ‘science’ itself is etymologically dubious. It is preferred in this genre to speak of scholars instead of scientists. See Gothóni 2002b, 20-21. 14 + # S + T>I 7 1 1 ) >O KS. T >M 2 + = $ $ " D = D = >? 2 . $ $. $ '$ 7 5 7 EH D D 1 + 5 U 8 ) * 9 ) E> $ & 1 & ) + ) * 9 7 0 % ) 16 0 * # ; . 1 7 D 15 + EE # : 8 Gadamer 1989, xxi. Ibid., 474. Originally ‘Sein, das verstanden werden kann, ist Sprache’. I have used the English translation based on the fourth edition (1975) of the German original Wahrheit und Methode. 18 Gothóni 2002a, 160. 19 This happened to Gadamer when he started to see his own European tradition through an Asian perspective (ibid., 159). 20 Gadamer 1989, 306-307, 374. 21 See e.g. Gothóni 2001, 2002a, 2002b and 2002c. 22 Gothóni 1982. 17 + 9 ) 0 $ 9 EA 8 + # + 3 7 & ! + 5 # EL S R E@ T 7 # K + EI + EO EM ) * ) K & + E? ) 5 3 : 23 # ) 5 8 9 D ; + + 8 9 8 9 Gothóni 2002a, 158. Cf. however post-positivist paradigms that advocate a natural science approach to the study of religions. 25 Ibid., 157. 26 Ibid., 164 (discussing Rorty 2000). The epistemological attitude in which reality as such cannot be reached beyond the limits of human reasoning can be traced to the Copernican Turn in Immanuel Kant’s philosophy. As is well known, Kant refuted the possibility of knowledge of das Ding an Sich. We can only know of how things appear to us, not how they ‘really’ are. 27 Ibid., 164-165. 28 Rorty 2000, 24. I see this division mainly on a conceptual level; in typical ethnographic practice, both are important. For example to understand one person, we need to emphasize the depth aspect, whereas in order to learn from many people in a comparative manner we need to consider the breath aspect, too. This also has to do with the question of sample size. 29 Gothóni 2002a, 158ff. 24 16 5 & + + 5 $ / + & + 1 7 : 1 M; # 0 4 + + 0 4 8= 7 % 0 0 8 49 4 + 9 8 ! 7 V9 + . D 0 4 7. The use of conceptual categories in cross-cultural research & $ & & 7 8 9 8 9 + Q $ $ + & $ + AH 30 Pentikäinen 1971, 45. I refer to ‘anthropology’ in the narrow sense. In this study, it only covers cultural and/or social anthropology. 17 $ & ' $ + +$ A> = + . # 83 9 . 0 + % AE = 9 + 1 + 0 Q .$ . & AA 0 S= + & TAL ' $ $ + 8 9 8 + 9 A@ 2 0 = + 1 8 9 AI 7 0 + 7 $ $ $/ AO 8 AM $$ 31 .. 9 ' 5 However, the etymology of the term is more complex. See Saler 2000, 65ff. Saler 2000, 159ff. 33 Ibid., 160; Cf. Gothóni 1996. Gothóni agrees that the family metaphor is suitable for religions but appears to see the category as more problematic than Saler. Saler, on the other hand, wants to retain the category for analytical purposes. In the present work, universal and particular categories are used as an aid for interpretation. 34 Saler 2000, xi. Italics in the original. 35 Ibid., xii. 36 E.g. Gellner 1992, 98; Parpola 1999, 283-284. 37 Saler 2000, 197ff. 38 Ibid., xiii. 32 18 + 5 # + 1 0 K 9 + 7 8 5 9 7 8 5 + $ ! & . + 1 + + )P W F ) = + 0 + + 8 8 5 9 8 9 9 + 0 4 8 9 0 9 A? 3 LH = 83 8 + = 9 " B 5 0 = 7 Q " + B 0 + 8 + 9 L> += 7 = 3 " 39 + B Saler himself says he uses religion as a case study for a wider treatment of the problem of conceptualizing analytical categories, and that the approach might well apply to other categories (ibid., xvi). 40 See e.g. Gadamer 1989, 9ff on the concept of Bildung (Culture) in continental philosophy. The etymology of the concept is older, but its use as we know it became fixed only after the Enlightenment. 41 Saler 2000, 263. 19 0 :) >??E;7 = ! . 8. The interpretive approach of Geertz 2 3 + ) D1 + LE 5 + 1 $ $. &/ LA :>?OA;5 + ) D9 & = ) D LL $ $. Q L@ ) D 8 $& 5 3 + 9 # 5 D + + 0 + LI ) D ) S 42 # 7 E.g. by Asad, Shankman, Munson and Kuper (Gellner 2001, 81 n. 6). On Shankman’s critique see below. 43 The Interpretation of Cultures is a collection of essays mostly from the 1960s. Geertz has further developed his views in e.g. Local Knowledge (1983), but his best-known contributions to the field appear in the pages of the former work. 44 Geertz 1973, 5. 45 In Pyysiäinen 2001, this view is refuted on the grounds that it does not take into account the cognitive processes involved in human interaction. 46 Geertz 1973, 45-46, 83. 20 5 9TLO 9 8 ) $& LM $&$ 2 + 3 S XY Z TL? 0 ) " % D@H D @> " ) D ' + + ) D S + & + + T@E 5 K 3 : ; 3 @A 1 8 5 ) 9 ) ' 5 D 2 + ) D[ @L 2 47 Ibid., 91. Heisig 1987, 204. The original meaning apparently was very practical as in an attempt to join two pieces together as a means of identification. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid., 203; Langer 2002. 51 Ibid., 204. 52 Geertz 1973, 29. 53 Ibid., 20. 54 Ibid., 6-7. The example is also from Ryle. 48 21 5 8 9 3 + + S @@ T 1 ) @I ) D9 .+ D . 9 Q ) & D & . = S. . . T@O 1 9 + 9 @M T@? S ) D K 9 + 5 5 S TS + TIH 5 5 + $ D 55 Ibid., 7. Ibid., 412-453. Originally published in Daedalus 101 (1972): 1-37. The essay rests upon his fieldwork in the late 1950s. 57 Ibid., 448. 58 Ibid., 449. 59 Ibid., 452. 60 Ibid., 15. 56 22 + 8 9 + 8 9 + ) D 5 I> + = 7 ) $ . ) D + D 7 $& S 7 X 9Z Q + IE T IA ) D9 $. + .$ IL + 7 1 ) D + 7 I@ ) D9 0 ' 9 + # II 8 7 9V. V0 ) ) ) Q 0 7 Ibid., 92. Ibid., 127 (cf. ibid., 89). Geertz uses a different spelling for worldview. 63 Ibid., 113. 64 Ibid., 93-94. 65 Ibid., 90, 119-123. 66 Shankman 1984, 262. 67 Ibid., 263. 62 23 + D IO 61 + D9 + D9 + + IM ) D9 7 + 7 : ; & . ) D9 8 9 I? 1 8 9 + + 5 9 ) D[ 7 + + # + 7 , ! ) ) D9 OH ! + .+ + " 68 B + Ibid., 264. Ibid. 70 Prof. Gray, currently from the University of Adelaide, has conducted long-term fieldwork in Nepal and the Kathmandu Valley. According to him, the theoretical suggestions made by Talal Asad seem to fit into this context better than those of Geertz (personal communication in Kathmandu, 18 August 2003). 69 24 C. RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY 9. An introduction to Newar culture and religion ! " B >HHH + : > \ E; # " 9 :. : % ; ; >OIM ! 0 ! 7 ! B ! $ 8 " ! 9 O> Figure 1. Map of Nepal and the location of the Kathmandu Valley OE Gellner 1992, 16. From Gellner 1992. 25 " + ) B 72 + + B 71 . Figure 2. Map of the Kathmandu Valley OA ! B B ! +. ! ! & +$ C : ! ! . ) ; " B >OIM C ! # B + 1 ! & B OL ! + ! C 5 5 + 73 74 From Gellner 1992. Toffin 1999, 33. 26 ! K HINDU BUDDHIST R jop dhy y Brahman (Hindu priests) Vajr c rya (Buddhist priests and monks) and kya (Buddhist monks, goldsmiths, artisans and shopkeepers) re astrologers, aivite Tantric priests and others) Ur y copper workers, carpenters, sweetmakers, others) Maharjan (farmers and potters, masons, carpenters and others) Other low clean castes (farmers, musicians, gardeners, barbers) Unclean castes (butchers, musicians, death specialists etc.) Untouchables (sweepers, fishermen) Figure 3. Outline of the Newar caste system 75 1 A B #C C . $ ! FC . OI . $ . + B #C C # FC / $ ! . . 75 : . % ; : ) >??I : ; LL \ O>; & . . . 76 + See the glossary at the back for more information. 27 + ) EHH> F ]^ /C : ; + " & C B & "_]P ; + # C F . 1 PC : " PC OO W " C G5 1 " + C G9 :2 ) ; : % ] G< C # ! . OM B# 1 ' " CG ; G " + . + . FC+ ! D ) : ; 1 . " & O? B 8! 9 . W C D 3` 0 + + 4 C . C MH !C C P $ + M> ! ' + ME + 77 .` .` % :>?MH LL@; . . B OM O? " . MH M> ME 28 >??? AA II B CG 3 5 1 :>??I; J :8 9; a 2 + MA 10. Types and forms of Newar religion " B . D ) ! + 9 ($ ) *$ + : L; K + ! Religion I Soteriology Thiswordly religion II Social religion (obligatory practices) III Instrumental religion (optional practices) Figure 4. Gellner’s functional typology of religions ML MA 29 ! , . ) ! $& ) >??E E>A : >?ML @HE; & = 9 + ) M@ ! ) + + 0 TMI : S + ; K : + ; : ; 1 ! + MO . ! 9 7 2 . + D 2 : ; ) & & $. ! $& + MM . . ) 0 % " . M? B $ $ : ; &&& 84 . ) >??E I >AO ! ) 85 : ; + + On Weber’s contribution, see Gellner 2001, 14, 95. This framework has retained its validity for Gellner throughout his decades of anthropological studies on the Newars; he still applies it in Gellner 2001. 86 Gellner 1992, 6. 87 Ibid., 7. 88 Ibid., 80ff. 89 Ibid., 101-102; Lienhard 1978, 151ff. 30 . / : $ ) 9 ; + . %( ) + + ?H . ! . 8 9 . + ?> . 2 + . + & & C C + . ! . & C C : :8 9;. ; & . 3 ?E $ C 1 . & C C C . )) : C :8 9; 8 9 8 ! $ 9; ?A % + 7 & C C :0 $/ 8 9; . + 1 . + . ?L 90 Gellner 1992, 103. Ibid., 101. 92 Harvey 1990, 89. 93 Gothóni 1982, 30-33. 94 Gellner 1992, 111. 91 31 . 1 & C C ) ! & C C ?@ . . 1 ! C FC C ! 9;?I :8 $. & & C C $&$ 2 & C C + B# C :8 9 # 8 9; . + ! 7 . + + $ $&& . $ $. $$ D : ; + : ; 2 ! . #C C : + A; ?O + . FC B+ B #C C . 1 ! . B #C C D FC + + + :! 8 . 9?M; 1 9 95 96 + Ibid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b#WG B & b#WG ! B D # . B + "$ + W G. >>H 1 & b#WG + + + + ! + 4 Gellner 1992, 73. Brinkhaus 1987, 1. 109 Ibid., 29. 110 The first one of the seven human Buddhas dealt with later in the study. 108 35 F C C . 0 107 + 9 ! + D. FIELD RESEARCH 11. Description of the fieldwork & ! L< 5 5 >? 1 EHH> ( " + 7 = 0 4 + < . B ! ! 2 0 1 + 0 1 # & 9 1 , + EHHA ! + " 5 1 " + # CG % ) 7 + 0 E? , 4 E> 0 EHHA + 7 + $%& : $ 0 1 % & ; + 4 0 3 :3!10; / + ! 7 36 ! ! 1 C G ! < ! + + ! ! . + + 2 + 9 $ & % ) " CG + # " CG R + : ; 7 & 1 7 0 4 F ]^ >>> & 7 >>> < ) 9 ! / :) >??E ; + + 37 # 0 & 4 ! >>E $ 8 0 9 2 4 2 + " + 7 7 & + " D B 1 . . ! 1 0 4 B C # + >H+ . 8 ! . >>A 9 1 >0 B " B C / 1 ! & " # + $ >>E / # " CG ) ) * >?ME >>I+>>O < * 9 ! 5 0 >>A 4 1 91 ) >??I E ; 38 1 * :EHHH A>; ! 8! 0 S % # 9 + T:0 12. Methods of collecting material 7 >>L 7 >>@ 7 9 7 : + + ;>>I + >>O + &$ < ) ) * 9 . C C + + F ]^ 1 + 7 Q . C C >>M # 7 >>L >>@ &EHHE OA 7 7 EH7 0 4 5 + 116 Ibid., 76-80. Ibid., 80. 118 See the questions in appendix II. 117 39 7 0 4 ) . 0 C C 4 1 7 5 7 D : 9 7 ; ' . C C ! + 7 >>? 2 ! + + >EH 2 : ) D9 ; + >E> ! . < ) ! + $ >EE 0 >>? MA Q) ! 8 9 + 8 >EH >?ME 7 1 >EE 40 ) + $ 9 >; >E> 4 8 &EHHE ML >??E O : 8 9 9 9: + 7 ( 5 + ! + + 0 4 ! 5 7 + 0 # = 7 = 0 4 : + ; . 3 + >EA + $ >EL + $ 7 $ >E@ + D + >EI 7 9 " + + >EO # >EA >EL >E@ 3 >??H 0 # >??H ?@+?O ! 3 >EI >EO 41 $ >??H @> 3!10 " 7 / ) 5 " % ! 0 ' + 3 0 4 # 13. Evaluation of the material and methods 1 + >EM 0& >E? 7 8 9 2 & $ >AH : ; : ; + $ & 0 4 # 7 3 >EM &EHHE >AL >E? ) >?ME >OL 130 Ibid., 140-146. 42 7 7 0 1 # & & : ;>A> 7 + 7 Q 7 >AE & 7 1 + + 7 0 4 7 7 1 7 + $ >AA 0 4 0 4 2 ! ! . 2 + + 0 131 4 7 Ibid., 175. Strict repeatability is normally not required in qualitative studies due to the nature of the subject matter. See e.g. Gothóni 2002a, 156. 132 Tuomi et al. 2002, 135. 133 Gothóni 1982, 125. 43 E. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF SVAYAMBH 14. On analysing the material = & 0 >AL 5 5 5 1 + + & + , 7 $ + $ 9 1 & S T>A@ # # + D + Q D + . $ & C C D Q >AI 134 Grönfors 1982, 145. Marton 1994, 4426. 136 Tuomi et al. 2002, 105; Grönfors 1982, 161. 135 44 3 + : ; 5 + + 7 Q 8 9 + + + 7 8 + 9 + 2 8 D 9 $ 2 + + + + ! < + 1 + >AO D + 8 0 49 ! ! : 0 ! + 9 0 + ; + 7 R 137 45 E; R A; R K>; L; Cf. Gothóni 1982. There would have been seven sub-chapters in all three main chapters. + R @; M; R I; D R O; R >AM ?; < + 0 9 + + 1 < ; : $ >A? $ >LH $ :8 - % 9 8 9;>L> 9 8 # 5 : >I >O; 5 2 1 0 4 7 0 + 4 D 1 . 0 0 4 C C + 4 ! + 0 49 +! . + 138 Smart 1996, 10-11. Dilley 1999, 2. 140 Ibid., 37. 141 Ibid., 4. 139 46 0 4 1 8 0 4 V9 15. Description of the area 0 4 : " @ >\E ; 0 4 C K & b#WG 0 Q 0 2 & :;$ 0 4 ;>LE 4 C . @ & >LE $ 0 " 0 EHH> AA : < C ; 143 From Majupuria et al. 1987. 47 4 :80 0 :" B # 4^ & 9; ;< C >LA ) W_` + Plate 1. Sunset in Svayambh . On a clear day, the distant Himalayas are visible. Photo © Dilip B. Ali. Plate 2. The Hanuman Dhoka (old royal palace) at Kathmandu Durbar Square with the Svayambh hilltop seen between the roofs in the distance. 48 0 4 & b#WG . ! . + 1 @H .$ & 0 4 : I ; : ; + + 2 + @H # A; Plate 3. A ticket to Svayambh with a view on the upper end of the eastern stairs. Photo credits unknown. 49 : Figure 6. Map of the main Svayambh area. # + 1 W ! < 1 ] . c + . " 50 + C : = ) P W: ! F ; + Plate 4. The final approach along the eastern stairway towards the hilltop. F &C C . c 1 ] ' ! : . : G EH L; ;K) 1 d : + < + : "; >E C ; C GW + Pd . : ;! >LL c + 0 4 + 2 :2) ;K1 >L@ >LL >L@ . 2) . EHHA 1 1 51 0 0 0 EHH> >OO+>O? . 1 0 $ $ 4 & 1 & + $ C GG 0 1 # F B : 2 ; B 1 : ; : !C 0 " C#& C C . . C C ! : 4 . ! < 0 ; ` ; K < & C . & C C C : 3 ; 0 ` FC + >LI . 3 C C 2 . ! : 9 ;0 . + C GG . 7 " ) ! . + AL + 2 : @ ; D 3< + ) # >LI 52 0 EHH> EAA Plate 5. Prayer flags with the city of Kathmandu in the background. Taken on the viewing terrace at Svayambh . 16. The Svayambh caitya – its physical parts and symbolism . >LO + # 0 3$ >LM 4 1 147 A comprehensive analysis of these symbolic elements would need much more space than is available in this study. It would entail a detailed description of the Hindu cosmologic system, its application to the Buddhist context, manifestations of dozens of deities in different aspects etc. A good overview of the symbolism of the caitya (st pa) in general is Snodgrass 1992. 148 Gutschow 1997, 28-29. The dating relies on the first inscriptions that mention the caitya. Legends claim it to be considerably older. 53 + Plate 6. The Svayambh caitya and the author. EO + EH ! . . C . " AH >@ . + " B 2 + 1W 3$ 0 4 O 1 : ; : 45 ; >L? 7 : 1 ); + + 0 . >L? 0 EHHE 0 54 B >??E >M? >??E ) :0 9 ; 3 . >@H + 7 ! + ): ; : ; + 1 7 :$ . ; 3 + >@> 1 # % Figure 7. Parts of the Svayambh caitya.152 >@H "& 0 >@> :% ; EHHE >I 2 : #bC; & : PC; 1 . 8 9 The original version of the drawing is found in Gutschow 1997. Shrines of the Five Buddhas and their consorts are omitted. 152 55 D + >@A + 1 0 : ; :) ! >8 + 9; S T>@L 1 # 2 . . $ $ / >@@ $ $ 0 4 + & & >@I - 0 1 + % : ) ; 0 4 . >@O + . # : ; ) . ? C C B : : ; >@M ; + C C >@A ; : >@@ B #+ ; 1 B . >@L & + : C 0 0 Q = + >??@ AH >??E A >??E AIH >@I :. EO; >@O & C C :) ; ) / >@M 56 ) + >??O MO >??O . . & >@? C C + 1 . + 0 4 7 : 0 ; 4 ! & C C "= & . : = B #C C . ; >IH : ; B # B # C >I> + + 0 4 + ) 0 . ! + 4 ! 0 " 4 ! + 7 17. Deities of the Svayambh caitya and seeing the caitya as a mandala 1 0 1 4 ' >IE B # C : ; 1 M> LH >@? 0 >??E AEL ) >??I EEI >I> B # >IE B ' >??? A+>> >IH 57 ! . Q >HE >E> . 0 ; : = ; 4 M >IA :/ K Figure 8. The Five Buddhas and their consorts around the caitya.164 . C >IA : C ; & C C B #+ . A Individual pictures, which I have combined, are from Hodgson 1972. Vairocana often resides invisibly in the centre, which the arrow indicates. In this case, he has been built a visible shrine. 164 58 >I@ 1 C 1 & C C :1 ] ; >II B # C 1 . CC B C C :8 & ) e C C C C >IO = C C; 0 9; B # C . 0 4 + + ) CC: 1 . + 0 K>I? . direction consort Centre East South Vajradhate vori Locan T r M mak T r bodhisattva Ghantap i family ! tath gata $ vajra % colour human ' ' P ' rya T r ! # ! padma karma Garu a !& yellow $ North ar T r " & blue $ West ratna & %& ! white >IM 1 red ! green $ ( & Buddha element water sky / space earth fire air teaching earth touching gift bestowing meditation fearlessness (dharmacakra) (bh mispar a) (varada) (dhy na) (abhaya) symbol cakra vajra ratna padma vi vavajra taste sweet pungent saline acidic bitter o) h ) tra) hr * * $ syllable Table 1. The Five Buddhas, their family members, characteristics and associations. >I@ ) >II ) >IO * \ &C bb >??H >HE . >??E E@E >??H >AO 1 c : CC ; D ! + + >IM :% . ) >?MH >EO; >I? ) L@ 59 C# * \ &C bb >??H >HAQ0 EHHE >> + . + . + + . : : ; ; 1 0 4 0 4 # + >OH = V B # C K>; E; < C B # C GW C + + Pd Pd : B<+ : ; >O> <<BB+ " 0 ; B<+ B 4 <<BB+ <<BB+ < 0 4 + D B ' >OE 0 1 4 <<BB+ <<BB+ B<+ 1 B # C + B<+ . B <<BB+ B & b# ] & b#W G 2 ' ! ( ="2 & & b# < & B 0 " >O> 3 ) ' ' >OE >OA 60 >??E ) >??? > 0 4+ <<BB+ ]9 >OA >OH & C C GW ' + & b#W G 4 B + D >??O ' + >??? 0 B >??E 0 ' EHHE # @ ! \& >?M? LM 1 <<BB+ EEH 5 5 0 + 4 3 ! = 0 . & & b#W G 3 " B ' 0 2 + C 4 B . . B # # + B # B + B # C e 4 >OL 0 + 1 ] 5 ) C# 5 ! >O@ . 0 <<BB+ >OI 1 ] ! Pd C+ 4+ Pd 1 ] . >OO ' + 0 4 0 >OM & & b#W G 0 4 . C C <<BB+ 4 . 1 1 ] + >OL >O@ ) B >OI >OO >OM >??E E@A+E@@ ' >??? ? "C # ?+>H 0 EHH> LH 1 1 FC ) & + 61 FC C C C C : + C ; ! . + >O? ! @ . + 18. Observations on the lay ritual life 0 4 & CGG . 0 0 1 C 4 + 4 + # >MH 9 = # 1 5 9 5 5 0 3 1 R 1 1 + CGG 1 ) >O? 3 C . 9 J + 8! B & 9 1 0 4 + 0 4 B # C B 180 This principle applies more generally. There are small clay caityas or shrines of deities standing in the middle of roads all over the city. People automatically pass them on the left hand side, even if one needs to change the walking route a little. 62 >M> 1 K ! : "; 8 9: ; : ; : ; 7 + 1 8 9 ) 7 1 C . 0 1 4 C . . 1 C 5 9 5 : O; Plate 7. The shrine of Amit bha Buddha with a monkey eating leftover food. 181 63 . + Gellner 1992, 146-148. CC ) 5 9 5 + < 7 :$ ; 1 < Q Q CGG 0 + : ; T>ME 1 S Q Plate 8. Women at the entrance to the residence of the healer lady Ajim . >ME LL 1 D 64 + ! CGG 1# C :8 9; 1 OH+ 1# C + + 7 : M; / 1# C % ) " CG + >MA ' " CG " CGG + " ' " CG " < :' ; 07 1 " + CG : ; & ! " & + ! 8 5 9 7 5 "] 3 :! + ; ! >ML " " CG 8 : 7 9 ) E?; 9 + = + + 5 ! ) + >M@ & 2 S " CG X Z T1 S = >ML >M@ >MI 65 1 + CG ' >MA < % " E> >??I >> EH+E> ) " B >MI + CG ' T " CG " + : 1 >??I; < G: " CG ; 2 T>MO 2 S S >MM T S C G G CT:+ 8 1 0 + T 1 S " 9; CG 4 >M? 0 4 C G G :1# C; >?H 7 0 7 9 5 1# C + . 0 4 EO 1 CGG >?> CGG . 0 5 5 . 0 4 4 = 1 ," 7 7 . : : ; ; : ; : ) : ; 2 + D S T 0 ) P W " . < >E 66 0 EHH> F ]^ >?> 192 :F ; CG ,C C >?H T>?E & S EH O >MM >M? + ; " >MO + $ 0 0 + Field diary I, 46. + + V + >?A K ; : 5 : ; 5 9 7 ," ) >?L ) ! . ' $ $ $ & & 9 7 Q 7 % 0 4 . 0 4 B ' & C C , ! ' . & C C ) ) $ A) 0 ! C C . K . + 9 9 XY Z 9 >?@ ) 8 >?I 9 1 & 193 )4J C 0 4 For certain rituals, slightly intoxicating materials like betel nuts are used. In addition, cannabis leaves were sold for ritual purposes openly in the street at the centre of Kathmandu, which was surprising. 194 Gellner 1992, 106. An Indian friend of mine made a similar remark: “To us a guest is God. You can never really know whether the guest is in fact God in disguise, which is why we respect him or her as such.” (Personal communication.) 195 Field diary I, 67. 196 Newman 1987, 37. 67 + 5 5 & + 1! . + 7 + $ >?O + 7 1 # 19. Thoughts of devotees & . )4J C " 0 4 B 0 + 4 + 2 5 5 ; B& >?M 2 " 0 4 )4J C + >?? OE+ + ! >@H + 0 : 4 A ; < 2 197 These imply the r vakay na form underlying Mah y na in the hierarchical structure of Newar Buddhism (cf. Gellner 1992). 198 Lewis 1998, 310. 199 Field diary I, 52-53; Field diary II, 76-77. The date is 28 August. 68 1 + : ; 9 . W FC ) . W ! G % < < " 2 ) : C + " ; . S 7 TEHH 0 4 + 1 CGG CGG : )7 4; % . @HH D 3 . 7 1 CGG KS1 T : ; V0 . D + : . ; 2 C + 5 = 7 E@ S # + EH> T # >@ & 200 201 69 Field diary I, 52. Ibid. 1 C 5 S TEHE 1 . . + 9 + 5 6 1 EHA 0 FC & .1 4 + )4J C S X Z T + S X ZT CGG " : ; " : + ; EHL / . EH@ 0 EHI 1 0 + Q 0 " : ; CGG 2 0 202 4 = Prem often uses the word ‘criminal’ to refer to negative deeds and thoughts. The word has to be seen in a wider context than jurisdictional; it reflects a Buddhist worldview and Buddhist ethics. 203 Field diary I, 57-58. The date is 31 August. 204 This is interesting, since being a kya, he should have been and apparently was a Newar Buddhist monk as well. I only realized this after the interview and could not ask him to tell me more about his obligations. 205 Purity of substances is highly esteemed. It reflects an attitude of respect as well as purity of the mind. 206 Field diary I, 58. The date is 31 August. 70 : & .1 ; + )< + S T # 0 /!$032 = 4 ! 0 ! 1 0 4 S T EHO S T = B V= + V + = V ! : 8 , & . ) ;V1 # ;VEHM % # 9 $) : 0 + . 4 $) : ; : + EH? ; " + 7 = 0 4 : ; # + E>H AI@ 0 0 4 >A # " B # E>> EHO EHM ) * >??? LIM LO@ 1 E>H 3 ) * >??? LOA+LOL 211 Also discussed by Gellner 1992, 189ff. EH? 71 b C :) >??E >MH; 0 # V % ) : ; 9 < :D # " + ; 1 # + 2 ' ! 1 0 & 4 &/ 2 + # & 5 0 $ + $ 0 9 + 1 D . 72 ! 20. The Buddh c ryas – their social status and religious duties ! . . + E>E + + 1 1 + + B #C C 1 0 : . FC 4 C C . ; C C 7 + E>A FC % + E>L ) = FC ! . 0 4 + 0 FC 4 B #C C FC B #C C E>@ + :"" $ . C C ; + . + E>I . C C 1 % >?M@E>O 0 E>E 1 7 E? >M@ E? E>E >??M E>M & ! AHH . + C C ' . C C EHHA 1 ! & + + 1 : . >??I 2 1 ; & >L ! ! & 1 ! E>A & ) . C C 0 % >?MH E>+EEQ) >??E >I@+>II E>@ 1 4 1 C >?MH EEQ>?M@ A?O; E>I : E>O % >?M@ A?O E>M 0 EHHH: ; . C C E>L 73 0C ) . C C ` ; 0 :% + . C C B + . & 0 . 4 :) ; :' + ; C C 1 ) 0 . 7 1 : CGG E>? ; + C -$/ 4 MH f . 1 ] 0 0 B C J0 ` 0 " EEH 4 4 ! . + 1 % 1 . 1 : C C 9 W 1 ] IA; 1 . C C C EE> 1 : "; 1 " ! . EEE 0 . 1 >HM : ; + $ ; : $/ / 1 >HM >HM 219 .$ Sharkey 2001, 233. The informants did not contradict this information. Ibid, 40. Although smaller, Lalitpur has a bigger Buddhist population than Kathmandu, so the figure is relevant. 221 Their esoteric rites are performed in their own monastery in secrecy. 222 Ibid, 55-58. There are considerable differences throughout the cities in terms of frequency of practice. Sharkey’ s model is an average of all the practice he has witnessed. 220 74 1 0 ! & ' . C C EEA 9 S T ' . CGG B C F S T8 C G G9 . B 9 C B B C :% ] G ; F B #C C C F ! 0 9 1 8 . C+ C C F 0 . 9 CGG C ' ' 0 7 2 + ' B F ' S 9 S X Z T EEL 1 T1 2) . >HM ' >HM : ; 223 224 75 Field diary I, 41-43. Field diary I, 41. EE@ 1 C : $ : ' 9 1 C ; 9 9 ; S + T : 78 6 & ; + CGG ' )& # " " ) T S S "T TEEI S 8 9: B) & ;: ; EEO 1 " & b#W G 0 ! " CGG 1 C + : >HM + 1 . ' + EEM S 1 ; T C C 7 EAH A M 1 & 0 2 + 225 I have not been able to check the spellings of the Newari names of these rites, so I have written them as I heard them, without diacritics. EEI EEO ) >??E >?> + " C C 9 EEM 76 ) LE ! B & B) & 81 EE? 0 EAH . ! C C . + . : C C 0 4 ! + ; " : B #C C ; /!$032 ' D ' 9 + :" ; 1 + . ' 2 D+ B #C C + 1 ' B #C C 1 EA> ! EAE . . >?@> B #C C + . ) . C C 0 C . 9 < 4 EH 1+ EAA AH & >?AH C LE ' 1 9 : IM; 230 Sharkey 2001, 234. 231 Field diary I, 57. At the time of my fieldwork, Ramesh was pondering different possibilities and I do not know whether he found a solution later. 232 See e.g. Gellner 1992, 332ff. 233 Field diary II, 67. This has likely to do with the inclusion of Svayambh in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1978. 77 + + : EE? C C + 0 4; % C D ! . + ) + EAL . C C . + 21. The worldview and ethos of the Buddh c ryas interpreted + = + + 0 49 D + 0 0 4 ! & 45 ) . C C + 7 F ]^ : 7 ; S + 4: + TEA@ EAI ) . 0 EAL ) 1 EAI 0 EA@ ` & C 0 >??E AEA 7 / ! 78 C & ! : . ; ; : + ; + EAO S T! TEAM S & C C + = : )7 ; . C C : ; 0 4 5 $ 5 + $ EA? ! 5 & + &5 + & ! & 1 B # C 2 8 9 + 3 B # CC G J ELH 1 8 9 $& Q 3 J ) B # CC G 5 = 1 M 237 = 8 ; 9 % EL> 1 #9: = Gellner 1992, 77-78. Field diary I, 17. 239 For ethical reasons I will not disclose them in this work. 240 Gellner 1992, 268. 241 Wayman 1995, 39-40. The dating is mine and based on Wayman’ s dating of Lilavajra’ s teacher on pp. 13-14. 238 79 8 9% 9 5 9 5 + 5 $ : + ; + `+ . + 9: ) + ELE ; + + + Q ELA < ) 0 4 . : > B E F A BW L " @ " I O W G B G F 4 ; 0 W# & G BW e 0 " FC CC , # ` G < C ' " "CW EK " < C# C# ' Table 2. The seven Buddha families.244 242 Ibid., 40. As far as I have been able to find out, some of the names seem to refer to bodhisattva realms or heavens, which goes along well with the general idea of ascending towards the ultimate. 244 Also included were the respective hand gestures of the Buddhas, but they have been in part contradicted by other authoritative sources. Therefore, I have omitted them here. I have not been able to check the correct spelling of the spouses and sons. Note also that the Newars usually replace the initial V with B (e.g. Bipa v instead of Vipa v ). 243 80 . C & C 0 0 C 4 0 <G CP 4 >@ 0 4 EL@ ! C >I 1 ) $ # 4 1 + :0 ) & & 5 ! C C C C + ! ELI . ) C 7 7 + ELO ) $ - & 0 4 : 0 ;Q ) ' . C C + ) ' 5 5 : ; = ' 5 7 ' KSX' 7 D K ! Z1 + c & KS= ' KS0 0 G VT Pd Pd C 9 Y X %` C C G C ' ) 2 Gellner 1992, 193. Tuladhar-Douglas 2003 (web document). 247 Gellner 1992, 221; Locke 1980, 193. 248 Field diary I, 68. 246 81 Z 04 Y e ) Y 4 9 04 . TELM 7 + 245 T Y $ :S + T; # + 1 0 . C C + 9 22. An excursus: Vipassan meditation 1 ' 7 < 9 ! + D # .$ & $ 1 0 9 4 0 K . + . $ % 3 : ; F ]^ < " C >H+ D B+ 1 0 > + + ! . 0 ! ) & . EL? & ! . C ! B 249 C K . + L This Burmese form of Vipassan was popularized in the 1920s and has gained ground e.g. in Sri Lanka (Harvey 1990, 293). It has established meditation centres all over the world. 82 + >> + 1 ?AH 5 + 5 . FC C ) : == ; : ; == : ! "= ; E@H ) 2& : C ; 7 $ :$ ; 9 + 7 + + D + 9 1 + = + 9 1 8 + 9 7 = $ $& ! . : D ;Q = 7 0 0 1 0 ' 250 4 . + $ & 4 C C Based on the leaflets I received (Vipassana Meditation: An Introduction; Vipassana Meditation – code of discipline and application form; Guidelines for practising Vipassana Meditation) and Goenka’ s discourses at the end of the day. 83 + # B C = 7 Y # Y ! 7 XY Z0 0 9 9 B K ) # . B C c C B C 9 B c + Q + Y E@> C ' + . E@E " + 7 . D 7 = : ; 1 7 ' . ! . KS X Z . 3 TE@A ! ! ' ! . K 1 ) 1 1 + + E@L 1 K 2 X Z Q E@@ + % 251 + Field diary I, 61. The Dharmashringa meditation centre was established only in 1987. 253 Field diary I, 76. 254 Field diary I, 71. 255 Ibid. 252 84 9 + ! 9 . 8 9' TE@I S ' + # 2 & / ! . Q := ' ; 1 9 , eC 0 , K eC V2 V1 Q E@O :8 , 9; eC " , ! eC ' . + 3 + + ' . . C C + E@M ' : ; ' " ! 0 + 4 1 256 Ibid. Field diary I, 79. 258 Ramesh also said the following: “Even me, I’ m Buddhist myself, I’ ll go sometimes into church. When I go to church, when I see Jesus, I pray to Jesus inner my heart. Because he’ s the great, he’ s the great! And I’ m not alone.” (Field diary I, 74.) 257 85 + 9 5 ! E@? . 23. The creation myth and its functions + 0 . 4 D " B 1 CP 0 EIH " D + B D 0 + 0 1 1 . 7 4 1 + D . Q & b#W G "_]P 1 + . " + B 0 ! EI> . " B :" ;B ! 2 D & b#W G 0 + 4 + 0 4 7 0 4 >@ 259 On the overall changes see e.g. Gellner 2001, 285ff. Decleer 1998 (web document). 261 Brinkhaus 1987, 1-4. EIE ) :>??O >I; >@ 0 260 86 >@@O CP >I EIE 0 4 CP & >AL? 3$ 1 . . 5 B 0 . EIA 4 F ]^ 9 ) . C C # ) . C C : $ ; 2 + 1 + ) 9 . 0 B C C 4 >L 7 W G. D ) 1 . >M " & 0 : , + 4 D B : 0 ; 4 1 + 1 B W G . < F G. EIL ) 0 4 . & b#W G " W G: 3 / ; < . : 0 ) W & 4 G & b#W G 4 ) >@ 0 EHH> EM EIL < C 87 @HH ; = 0 EIA C < C C >I & + " W G 4 % ! $ & b#W G 3 Pd d 1 "C 3 . C & b#W G & b#W G + & b#W G ) W G . #: ; D ) W & b#W G & b# D 1 < " & b#W G ) : B C ) %D : 0 ; " 4; " 4 = K. " $ . 0 G + .C + "CW OHH 'C# X Z B W 5 3 " W G5 9 9 ! :! ! 8 9; " K S 6T1 .C G' : B " ) d ; OHH ) + EI@ Pd 2 + 0 : " B ) PC + :) & ; D 0 4 eC 4 + ; ) PC Pd 1 Pd 0 ) PC ) : 4; e J W KFC +: ; B #C C " + 0 . " :# EI@ "$ FC 4 FC C C + C C ; . . . " 88 KFC : B . 1W + ; 1 FC . " . FC 0 C C 9 7 0 EII 4 # 1 FC C C D 1 !C :B FC B ; ) e . CC CC ' 3 e 1 + CGG 7 CGG : ; " . = FC C C 0 FC 4 ) . 0 4 ' . C C >MHH < FC 1 " # C C C . % + ! . 1 :"$ B W G + . ; + e + . + & C C 2 + e 8 B # & b#W G 0 9 4 B D e W G. . . 266 How this might be so has remained unclear to me, since the contemporary caitya is naturally on top of the hill. It may be that the original more modest caitya has actually been placed elsewhere. 89 0 1 V1 ! 0 B : 0 4 C W C ) W G; EIO . 0 4 & b#W G & b#W G 3 Q " 3 ! 0 4 : . . ; & b#W G < 0 4 C C GW + Pd ' 0 & b#W G 4 e & b#W G D & b# : ; + 9 ) W G + . ) W G C G F F + : W $ G W + C 0 8 9: 4$; ) W G 0 267 268 90 C C Shrestha 1997, 187. Michaels 1996, 317. D 4 45 + . 5 EIM 5 # ) ; ) $& ) W G ! ) . : #bC C C CC W e + #; 0 . 0 4 EI? + . ) W + G ) 0 1 0 + W G + 4 4$ ) EOH G 1 ! C & W W G 4 . 5 + + 5 7 + . D 7 . 0 . 4 CP FC " + EO> " B "CW .C G B ]P G 0 Pd FC C C+ . " FC C C B 7 ) d S . TEOE + ! ) PC + B FC FC C C eC B #C C C C B #C C FC B #C C 1 ' B #C C 269 . : ; C C " K : )& ; . C C EOA Ibid., 319-321. Ibid., 311. 271 E.g. Gellner 1992, 193. 272 Locke 1980, 25. 273 There is a story of a Malla king going inside the cave to pray for rains after a long draught. He is said to have found ntikar c rya still meditating. The plea was successful and the rains came. 270 91 B #C C FC C C EOL 9 " % 7 . C C 1 FC . C C ) d C C B #C C C . 0 C+ 4 FC B #C C " B . C C 1 . C C + + 0 4 B % ! : % + 3$; E . ; 0 4 EO@ &$ " D . C 7 . ; # $ : & ! B C C : + e B + ! 0 ! 4 CP . 0 & b#W G9 D EOI . + 5 9 E$ D . . FC E. ! + C C #- + B EOL EM EO@ 2 EOI 1 0 92 + B 3 ! 4 0 . 4 " , >I@L 3$ 0 & 4 EHH> AA 0 . CP 4 ! . 0 4 + ! " . B 24. Observations on Tibetan Buddhism in Svayambh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he caitya is ritually whitewashed so as to ensure its renewed purity. It also has a special birthday in October, during which its all-seeing eyes are renovated, wick lamps are lighted and a fire sacrifice is performed (Gutschow 1997, 26). This ritual renovation is a very important feature for Newar Buddhists also, but I did not obtain personal field information on it. 280 Slusser & Giambrone (web document, read on 24 July 2004). 281 An overview of Nepal-Tibet religious relations throughout the centuries is e.g. Dhungel 1999. 94 : . ;% Q ' >O@M ' / / / >IE?RAH 8 / / / $/ + >O@> EME >O?H . 0 4 . 3 B # C + ! . . 0 4 1 1 25. Nationalism and relocation ! ! & >MLI >?@> 0 " 7 + >OIM+I?EMA B ' 0 = = ! >?@> 3 + = 0 ' & !+ >??H ' ! K EHH> :8 9 = 9; & ! D ! D ! 3 ! 282 283 95 9 # Ibid., 186-87, 189, 194. Gellner 1992, 9-10. The process was swift but in practice extended to 1769 before being completed. + ! D 9 + ' Q % 9 2 & ! , ' eC ! . C C EML ! , eC + 1 5 ' 8 9 5 ! D 0 : I?; 4 CGG . 1 S0 + T : EM@ ; CGG + ! + 7 + ' K 1 . . 284 Field diary I, 77-79. Field diary I, 52-53. 286 Field diary I, 61-62. 285 96 , 9 & $ X ZEMI 0 % . &$ 0 1 : ; $ + 0 4 + 1 ' K 0 4 . ! . e ! 1 . . + EMO FC . . + 0 4 . 2 # 0 4 . " B ! 0 4 ! D 0 . 0 4 + ) P W + B ! 4 EMM 1 0 0 4 + . B ' D . ! D 1 EM? 0 8 ) 9 1 D 9. S . XY Z. 287 . Von Rospatt 1999, 27. Ibid. (n. 44) 289 Ibid., 28. 288 97 +. TE?H 1 . TE?H 1 +. . 0 4 : ; % 3$ 0 + 4 . D 2 & C C 0 4 + e E?> 0 0 ; 4 4 . FC C & . C C B 3$ E?E 1 : 0 4 . # 0 4 CP . + ! + + ! 0 4 . 0 1 + ! : & ; + 7 7 7 + ! + 0 1 + & 290 C C e Gellner 1990, 221. Harvey 1990, 127. 292 An introduction to the history of Buddhist monasticism in Nepal is e.g. Allen 1973. 291 98 . + 0 4 ! . 26. Conflicts of interests as religio-cultural dilemmas & 4 E?A 0 8 0 & 3 9 + : . C C ; 2 0 4 < 1 :< 1; < 0 4 2 1 + 2 /!$032 = L EHHA ALM+ W) + 0 4+ 2) :3 J ; 5 = + D = 7 + 7 # 1 + E?L S 293 ' . C C TE?@ Sofield has recorded a total of 17 organisations involved with Svayambh in 1994 (Sofield 2000, web document). 294 Newspaper article ‘Rescuing God from God’ , the Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003. 295 Field diary I, 83. 99 Plate 9. Pratappur after the fire with bamboo scaffolding. AH 8 5 9 # E?I 1 S= ) X Z TE?O ' 1 3 9 1 + 296 297 Newspaper article ‘Rescuing God from God’ , the Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003. Ibid. 100 0 + ' /!$032 1 & <+ ' /!$032 + + W 7 0 + KS% + W ZTE?M X Figure 9. A comic strip of a government official at Svayambh .299 © Rajesh K. / The Kathmandu Post. 2 0 EA ! + + 298 Field diary I, 82-83. The Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003. In the background are the Svayambh caitya and the Pratappur temple. 299 101 + AHH 7 KS < 1 ! XZ TAH> 1 < 1 S= TAHE 1 D , 0 < EHHA AHA EHHL 4 ! = $ & $ : ; 5 9 ) D9 7 5 + 9 0 4 / + $& - && + 2 9 0 4 + B 0 + 300 The media’ s response would be worthwhile to analyse more precisely, e.g. by discourse analysis or rhetoric analysis, a treatment which falls beyond the limits of this work. I am basing my interpretation predominantly on five articles. In them, the voice of the ‘common man’ is quite clearly one that respects the religious traditions, whereas the government should constantly be acting more quickly, more wisely, more determinately etc. See Fig. 9 for an illustration of this situation. 301 Newspaper article ‘Pratappur temple waits for restoration’ , the Himalayan Times, 21 October 2003. 302 Ibid. 303 Newspaper article ‘DoA restores 348-yr-old Pratappur temple’ , the Himalayan Times, 2 July 2004. 102 + 1 + 0 4 $ & . 0 FC + . 0 4 & >?M? AHL 3 1 0 . EHHE 3 0 + % + 1 7 S. . TAH@ 1 # + + 5S T AHI & + . + ! 1 . & . = . D ! . B & 0 = 304 0 4 0 4 7 >?OH AHO Newspaper article ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ , the Kathmandu Post, 5 October 2002. Ibid. 306 Newspaper article ‘Swayambhu demolition turns into a ministerial farce’ , the Kathmandu Post, 27 September 2002. 307 Newspaper article ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ , the Kathmandu Post, 5 October 2002. 305 103 + + 5 0 " B 5 4 + ! 1 B ! ! 0 ! B < 0 4 ! 0 AHM ! 5 >@H HHH 5 + 7 + + % /!+ # AH? ! 7 0 1 Q A>H 5 1 7 + / + 0 : EHHH; 0 2 0 4 2 + 1 308 Sofield 2000 (web document). Ibid. 310 Ibid. 309 104 7 0 4 27. Is Svayambh Hindu in disguise? 7 0 4 = V. DD + 0 4 7 7 g . 7 1 " B ! + . 0 :, 3 ; # :F ; . :B # C & B ]P C C F FC C ; 0 ) 0 " 1 B 7 0 + . 0 0 ! . + 105 4 . + 2 + ! . V Plate 10. The Patan Durbar (Royal) Square.311 & 0 4 CGG 0 B 4 9 % ) . " $ 7 ' 0 ) P W % ) P W 0 >H; CG $ 0 ) P W ) P W "C ) P W ) P W A>E : + 0 4V ) P W 1 0 . . C C 4K # 4 X Z Q X Z ! 8 + . 311 ) P W9 2 CGG # 9 . . The royal compound is to the left; adjacent to it is the Patan Museum. To the right are e.g. the Vi van th and Bhimsen temples. Note the architecture of the buildings. 312 Field diary I, 64. 106 + . " CGG K = 0 0 CGGX @HH 9 Z 1 XY Z0 CGG + 0 VX Y 9ZX 9 $ : $ # . B # 9 Q CGG 1 $ XZ 7 D 8 K8= KZ& 3 J ; + A>A 9 & " B 5 + $. A>L . g + " 7 CG 0 . + CGG . . ! A>@ 0 # . 4 7 Q ' 3 J 1 B # 3 7 + . 5 . + J CGG ' . . 313 Ibid., 63. On the tympana in Newar monasteries see Locke 1996. A>@ & D>??I ALA+ALL . :' / ; 314 107 FG = # 0 4 CGG 7 + 1 0 &6 0 A>I &6 Q% ] G9 & b#W G + 4 . 0 4 B C A>O ! W . 2 &6 A>M . CGG . % . + + : ; : D . + ; # . + 1 + 0 $ 7 0 0 $ . 4 + 5 : 0 ! CGG ; 4 " . ' A>I & # A>O . 1 C C K $ $ :&$) & ; & & $ & >?MO M? MI ?M A>M I> . B 4 C ] . 9 W &6 . 108 4 # . B 4 C ]9 0 4 $ . 0 4 + F. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 28. Conclusion 0 4 ! " + + ! . + " B + 0 4 . B 0 9 +. 4 & & CGG 0 4 . + & / # . C C ! 0 = B #C C A>? & . ) % 0 ' C C . 109 FC C C 4 + A>? + + + . 0 ! . + 4 + 0 4 + ' ! + ) 9 1 + + . + $ + D 0 ! 0 4 4 / $ $ . + e . + + . + . ! . + + 2 0 $ . 4 ! &$ / ! + D 0 4 +. = ! + + 0 110 4 $ . 1 0 4 + + + D B 0 4 1 . FC = C & C C B # C . 1 ! 2 0 . 4 + + $ 0 + 4 + D $ + . 29. Evaluation of the study + + # # D 0 4 MH 7 ! + 111 D ! 5 + 1 8 8 0 9 9 4V V 3 1 7 + $ < + 7 0 + 0 ! . 0 0 0 0 4 + 4 $ . C C 7 0 5 4 7 0 0 4 1 0 AEH 112 1 9 + + ! 0 % See e.g. Gombrich et al. 1988. ' 4 . 320 1 5 . & 0 , 0 " 4 B + 0 ! 7 321 See Gellner 2001, 319ff. 113 AE> B 4 + PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES Primary sources I. Unpublished field material a) Field diaries and photographs Field Diary I (29.7. – 21.9.2003), 83 pages. Field Diary II (29.7. – 21.9.2003), 102 pages. ' . C C 9 :E@ 9 " " < ; 1 M> + # + 9 b) Interviews and other recorded material > ) E ' . C C . >O EH C C EL < EHHA < F ]^ ?O AH 1 >M 0 $ ; EHHA + A2 + F ]^ ! : EM 1 : ; : ; 9 7 ! @2 ! A> 1 >E A> 1 EHHA + EHHA CGG C EHHA >A@ + >M L 2 I' & E> 1 C " 1 9 " 2 3<+' 7 < CG II. Published material a) Newspaper articles (accessible also via the Internet; URL: http://www.nepalresearch.org/) The Himalayan Times: 21 October 2003: ‘Pratappur temple waits for restoration’ . 2 July 2004: ‘DoA restores 348-yr-old Pratappur temple’ . The Kathmandu Post: 27 September 2002: ‘Swayambhu demolition turns into a ministerial farce’ . 5 October 2002: ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ . 12 August 2003: ‘Rescuing God from God’ . 114 C# 9 + + b) Information leaflets on Vipassan meditation (published by Nepal Vipassana Centre) 1) Vipassana Meditation: An Introduction 2) Vipassana meditation – code of discipline and application form 3) Guidelines for practising Vipassana meditation, May 1999. Secondary sources III. Web documents Decleer, Hubert 1998 Two Topics from the Svayambhu Purana: Who was Dharma-shri-mitra? Who was Shantikara Acharya? Paper presented in conference of Lotus Research Centre, Patan. [http://www.lrcnepal.org/papers/cbhnm-ppr-2.htm] Slusser, Mary S. & Giambrone, James A. Unknown Kuber Singh Shakya – A Master Craftsman of Nepal. [http://www.asianart.com/articles/kubersingh/] Sofield, Trevor H.B. 2000 Pilgrimage Tourism to Sacred Power Places in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy. Perth: Murdoch University. [http://wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au/publications/e_public/Case%20Studies_Asia/t ounepal/tounepal.htm] Tuladhar-Douglas, Will 2003 The Navagrantha: an historical précis. Paper presented in conference of Lotus Research Centre, Patan. [http://www.lrcnepal.org/enews/Dr.%20William’ s%20paper.pdf] von Rospatt, Alexander 1998 Conflicting Conceptions of the Shrishrishri-Svayambhucaitya as a Holy Shrine. Paper presented in conference of Lotus Research Centre, Patan. [http://www.lrcnepal.org/papers/cbhnm-ppr-5.htm] IV. Literature 1 & >?OA B #$ C + & $.? 0 " K& / " >??I . >??O . >?MO ' . ' ! " + & + : >?O@ !10 + & + ( % & + , # K0 & /, $. 115 K B # F >+>L G$ . ; & 0 && + H 0 & K & C D0 $ B * = $. + 3 >??H , ! &$ : ; Dhungel, Ramesh, K. >??? ! + 3 $ & K - & . ) >?M? +) + ) D3 >?OA >?MA < K' < ( $ 0 \< ) & % K0 ' $.C $ $/ ;% : ; + , $ & $. $ / L ! c \2 K $ $.C + ! % , \2 , = + c K. . $ $&$ ! c K \= $ $. & K# & A E A 1 8 = 95 1 % : ; $ ? 0 && 3$0& $2 2 EEA+ELH + C $ $&$ $. 2 / EHH> + ( ) LO+OH h +< + :0 FIJF >MA+E>H # 3 ! . L & $ K+ L & ($ ) *$ $& >??I $ . + 1 H$ & ? $ & . . >??E ) >?MM ' $ $ < ' >??? ) >??H K' 0 # : ; E & K3 / % ! C B K K' 3 / # B * 1 : ; + G$ & @ EHO+EEA K3 / " C. C % & & K$ D G + ! K0 $. 92 < K ) + .$ L & $ # H ) K / ) * >?ME ' ( ($ $.H . $.+ ($ ) C # $. ($ # H ) K0 2 :0 2 @E; ' + $ MF I@+O? K" # \, i : ; N )$ $ & K= 02c LIM+LOM N )$ $" &) K / c ii i+ ! IJFOOP EI+AH ! 8/ 9 0 K 0 0# / \ : ;# & ,$ $ K/ + :3 ' M; >@I+>O@ K K' ) * : ; C . Q $ $ K B +0 :0 ; >>+EA S2 T + ! FJFOOF LM+@E >??I >??? EHHH EHH> EHHE EHHE EHHE ) * >??H ) >?ME ) >??O 116 ' (\ & C bb :& & ! $" i ; $& )) K) & ? & ) ! & ! \, K= 02c ! + & 0 && 0 PROOS R% $. K$ 1 0$ & C ? / Harvey, Peter >??H , C 1 $ = 0 c >?MO $ $ 3 K3 / &$ $.L & K& $ : ;+ A >?M+EHM K& $ 0$& PT ! & >??? 2 $ . . K' < : ; + , $ & $. L ! c \2 K - & . . >?OE A $ H H L & RO; < $ $. & : K& b#W G + :. + >MOL ; " >??E . % EHHE 0 L / & # ! @. " ! L % >??I ! >??M " 1 $ $&$ $.L & C /C & # FMJP >H?+>>O / ! . K3 & ) : . ! c \2 ' # : ;C >AI+>LL . $ 9U ( + ,& AH>+A>M $ $ 3 % $ K . # ) : ; $ \' KB 0 &$ D . + >LI+>OO " ? >?M@ >??I + K0 ($ & $.C &$) $. & # >?MO ! $ 3$0& $2 2 3 *$& ,& # B 1 \& # $. & >??L &V1 K & D. >??I /( 3!10 K0 & & K$ D & " . & A &$ $.A = = . ) : K $ 1 / K ( \ ! 0$& W 2 K & ; G & ;$ % ALA+A@L / 1 1 $. / K0 % : ; $. ? 0 &/ 92 E@O+EM> & . 0 && 0 : ;+ 1 LLEL+LLE? K K1 & & 0 3B ' $ & \1 ?I 1 ) 3B ' c 0 ) \1 = ?I . \& + X W G ! : ; G & ;$ K % AHA+ALE : $. $ 117 ! ; #& \% K' ! $ L & & " ! >?M? K& % :& 1;K. & 0 % , >?MH & >??I $ D K0 % >?OM KB) = X K1 & & 0 ; ( O 1 & 2 K. ! & + ! >?MO , ' + < G & $.+ + 1 1 K/ K0 " $ $&$ ?& ) & 1 >??? K" # K= 02c EMA+AEM i \, i : ; N )$ $ & , >?O> ( 0 + ) &$ )$ $ 0"0K E?? K % i EHH> *$ L & ' ' EHHH . H$ 0 . EHHH $ G$ ) +$ > % $ L $ &' L & $ $ 0 EHH> 1B C $ $&$ & $.L & $ 3 1 C ! c +) ) $ $&$ + \2 K. K' 0 # : ; E & K3 / % . $ + ( ) ?E+>E> $. . $ . $ K# 0 ) B \0 EM+@H & 0 >?ML 0 EHH> # ' ' EHHH EA+E@ $. $$) >I& N $ 0 # ' >??H $ K. D K2 $ $&$ C , .# 4 % 0 # K! & 3 E@ EI>+EMH ) X & L & + ," ? 0 && # . K 2 0 EHHE " & # 0 0 1997 ! D+ 0 >?M> < 0 >??E 1 118 $ $. # C C $ $. G$ & @ % * & + # , " K" < 0 Kathmandu. The Eternal Kumari. An in-depth guide to the sacred places, historic sites and important monuments of Kathmandu Valley. Lalitpur: Saroj&Kautz. Smart, Ninian >??I X 3 0 EHH> & $.0 " ! ' ,& $& . $. # \0 < K& 0 A&! !" $ K1 K0 . & .% K )( >?ML #$ %% 0 0 >??? & $ 7 K. . , '$ '& % ! \& ) hN KB % & " D : K3 B ;* & hN ! ' K 5 # & AA+OH + + & *$ / ) >?@I , & L $ $ + $# ' j ' K & $2 , \0 H EHHE ' >??? = >??@ = >?OH 119 #i && . A- $ & 0 2 1 ) " !&& & K 1 2 3 0 4 PP >E>+>LO X 0 " B # C . U$ & $. K $ &L >+AIZ 0$& 1 + c + H $ 1 $/+ A$ % \! K" C+ L & & $2 $ ;$ $. & 0 2 ' j% ' K APPENDICES Appendix I – Glossary C C 5 1B # + C C 5 B #C C C C " 5 ' 7 e 5 C J5 0 ! . . + $ C ]^ 5 K + ]^ C _ C 5 & + ! 1 ) . $ B C Ca5 & ! C B #C C FC G51 . 8 C C 51 8 9 . . 51 & : ; FC 4 9 0 # FC : ; B #C C ! . & + . + ' . . 1 4 3 J 51 ! 0 C & 1 40 B # C C G 5 51 ) C G5 ' C 51 D ! ! 3 ! & : W5' + + ; D / " C 5= " & & # 51 Pd # 51 ! + + + 3 ! C ) 120 5 C ) C# % 4 <W 4 0 & 0 C P C C . C# % ` C C] C K1]^ 0 C #bC+ Pd G 4#C 5 8 9< b C _ 5 b C ! : ; / 5 : ; 1 =$ Pd 5 1 0 C58 ! C C5 :7 8 : 2 & C C . ; ; C 5B FC 50 + J 1 9 ! C . 5 D 1 ! . : ; B #C C ! & . . " B #C C F ]^ 5 1 + ! + + FC 3 . D 51 ML 0 4# 0 4 0 /C 51 # 5 : 4 5 + CP 5 1 4 >@ . >I D " B ! 0 8 9 8 9' ; # B #C C B #C C ; 50 + $ ; + + ; 2 : ! . + ; . : ;C C . 0 B# G5 B# C B # C C G5 B# C 121 + FC 5 5) 3 J B# C . . 1 B# Appendix II – Interview questions and themes Y $ $ $ # & > = : E= ;V 0 4V A= V L V @< V I= V< O V V M< Y K V= $ $ $ && $ # $ K $. > V $ & ) .$ V V V E V= V= V A< " 0 L= 4= 0 4 @= I= : ; V< M= >H < 122 . 4V C C C GW ;V V 4 + ;V . 0 :. 4V C 0 : V " 0 O= ?= V V