Postcolonial African
literature
An analysis of the clash between Europe and Africa
By Mohamed Gassama & Anwar Saleh
Group 6
Project Supervisor: Kirsten Holst Pedersen
Basic Studies in Humanities
House secretary: Gitte Abitz
4th Semester, 2012
HIB 3.1.1
1
Indhold
Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 5
Aim .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Motivation ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Problem definition................................................................................................................................... 6
Cardinal Question ................................................................................................................................ 6
Working questions .............................................................................................................................. 6
Dimensions and Methodology ................................................................................................................ 7
History and culture .............................................................................................................................. 7
Text and signs ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Theoretic frame ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Delimitation ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Plot summary ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Analysis of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall apart ...................................................................................... 11
Setting of time and place .................................................................................................................. 11
Narrative point of view and structure ............................................................................................... 11
Language ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Thematic analysis .................................................................................................................................. 14
Civil order and Religion ..................................................................................................................... 14
Colonization....................................................................................................................................... 18
Gender relations................................................................................................................................ 20
The historical aspect of ”Things Fall apart”........................................................................................... 24
Colonization....................................................................................................................................... 24
The Igbo political system ................................................................................................................... 25
Heart of Darkness .................................................................................................................................. 29
Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 34
List of Reference .................................................................................................................................... 35
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3
Summary
I denne opgave har vi skildret litteraturen både under koloniseringen og efter koloniseringen
af Afrika. Dette har vi gjort fra et analytisk perspektiv fra et historisk, kulturelt, og litterært
udgangspunkt.
Vores primære værker for denne undersøgelse var baseret på de to noveller af henholdsvis
Chinua Achebe’s ”Things fall apart” og Joseph Conrad’s (Heart of Darkness).
Endvidere har vi ved hjælp af kritiske kilder i form af udvalgte artikler forsøgt, at afdække
spørgsmålene omkring det Europæiske samt vestlige menneskesyn på afrikanere i forsøget
på at bekræfte eller afkræfte Achebe’s kritik. Dette ved hjælp af en historisk perspektivering
og redegørelse for den afrikanske litteratur skrivning efter kolonitiden ved blandt andre,
Richard J. Lane’s “The postcolonial novel” (2006)
Vi har i forlængelse af dette undersøgt de antropologiske aspekter af Chinua Achebe’s
novelle ”Things fall apart” ved hjælp af Robert M. Wren’s bog“Achebe´s world” (1980)
Igennem Achebe’s novelle skildres både de negative og positive konsekvenser for Igbo både
før, under og efter kolonitiden.
Ydermere har vi i vores perspektivering diskuteret, hvorvidt Joseph Conrad’s ”Heart of
darkness” var nedladende mod afrikanere eller oplysende i forhold til den mørke side af
koloniseringen af Afrika.
Abstract
The aim of our project has been to uncover the colonial and postcolonial image of Africa in
literature. We have made a historic, literary and cultural analysis of based on Chinua
Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” (1958) and we include putting Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of
Darkness” into perspective. Through our analysis we argue that Chinua Achebe intended to
change the image of Africa/ the Igbo society in responds to Conrad’s novel in a balanced
approach which includes the positive and negative aspects of the culture. Furthermore we
discuss whether Conrad’s novel can be interpreted as derogatory to African, Colonials or
mankind as a whole. We supplement our analysis with theories from Robert Wren, Austen J.
Shelton and C.P. Sarvan.
4
Introduction
Post colonial African literature has moved boundaries which previously enclosed the view
and thought of the Africans during colonization.
The notion of Africans in the Western world was until this point mainly formed from a
western perspective and by taking a look into the post colonial African literature which tries
to salvage the history of its people of which colonialism has taken of or manipulated, we
experience the emergence of new African perceptions and ideas of truth about themselves
and the period of colonization (Kehinde, 2006, pg 2)
The common western languages used by African novelists enabled them to communicate
their opinions and thoughts back to those who once colonized them, through the literature.
Africans could now present their own view and critique of their own history through writing.
We will elaborate on this genre of literature represented in our project by the Nigerian
author and novelist Chinua Achebe who is amongst one of its first.
Through Chinua Achebe’s critique as one of the first novelist to do so, he takes an aim at
Joseph Conrad and accuses him of shedding false light on the African people and depicturing
them as savages and primitive.
We will in the course of this project attempt to either confirm or refute these claims based
on the works of Conrad, Achebe and critical articles.
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Aim
The aim of this project make a thorough literary, cultural and historic analysis of the image
of a colonial and post colonial Africa, mainly through Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart”
and Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness”.
Motivation
Africa has long been a place associated with primitiveness, corrupt governments and
diseases from a European or Western perspective and one could argue that this perception
exists because of the media. According to Achebe part of the reason for the negative
perception of Africa is because of literary works like “Heart of Darkness” and “Mister
Johnson” among other works. Our initial interest was based on finding out whether or not
African literature perceives Africa in the same way as the people of the West. We also
wanted to look into what attempts there have been to influence the image of Africa through
literary works which is why we use the novel “Things fall Apart.” Although the book is
fictionalized, the anthropological perspective of the book helps us to get an insight into the
cultural aspects of the Igbo society.
Problem definition
Cardinal Question
How does the post colonization literature depict the cultural clash between the Igbo society
and the western world?
Working questions
•
How is the Igbo society portrayed through Chinua Achebe’s novel, Things fall apart?
•
How does Chinua Achebe relate his work and theories to earlier literature set in
Africa such as Joseph Conrads “Heart of Darkness”?
•
What are the main characteristics in Postcolonial literature?
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•
What is the coherence between the historical and the literary themes of colonization
and civil order in the novel?
Dimensions and Methodology
In this project we have worked within the dimensions of History and culture and Text and
Signs.
The project has been anchored in the special course of Cultural Encounters.
History and culture
The collective and individual circumstances of early colonization are presented through a
historical analysis. Furthermore we achieve a broad understanding of past and present
tradition and change in the Igbo society through the work of Chinua Achebe.
In doing so we also obtain knowledge of social, political and cultural processes and how this
is formed by humans and human life. However we also focus on a consideration of
corresponding phenomena in the present in relation to a dimension in time. By analyzing the
historical and social practice of the Igbo people, their limits are presented to us.
In our research concerning the encounter between the Igbo world and the western world,
culture analysis is applied in order to understand the contrasts and also the enhanced
understanding in reflecting on the past. The cultural analysis of the Igbo society also
provides us with knowledge in understanding the change in time and space during the
colonization.
Text and signs
The text and sign dimension deals with concepts, theories and methods for the analysis. In
our case this has helped us analysis the texts of “Heart of Darkness”, “Things Fall Apart” and
various relevant articles. By the use of written material we can determine both the historical
and social context of our material in dealing with Igbo society, colonization and post colonial
literature. Furthermore the relationships between these as in presented in our study of the
Postcolonial African literature as being part of our aesthetic considerations.
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We have therefore approached our material as complex interplays between form, meaning,
function and understanding.
Our theoretical aspect in applying the dimension of text and sign in our project has been
focused specifically on the concepts, theories and methods supplied to us through our
material.
Theoretic frame
In defining the Postcolonial African literature and its genre we chose Dr Ayo Kihende’s
description in his article “Postcolonial African literature and counter-discourse: J.M.
Coetzee’s fiction and reworking of canonical works” (2006) as our basis. This article explains
the literary relationship between the first and third world countries.
In the literary analysis we use Austen J. Shelton’s “The Palmoil of Language, Proverbs in
Chinua Achebe’s novels” (1969) which looks into the language of Achebe three novels Things
fall Apart, Arrow of God and No longer at Ease.
The historical perspective of the novel will be based on Robert M. Wren’s book “Achebe´s
world” (1980) which presents a discussion of the accuracy of some of the cultural aspects in
Achebe’s novels from an anthropological perspective. As for Things Fall Apart the book
focuses on the methods of Pacification, Collective Punishment and the Igbo structure of the
civil order as presented in the novels.
As a supplement to both the historic perspective and the literary analysis we use Richard J.
Lane’s “The postcolonial novel” (2006) which analyzes the narrative forms and cultural
aspects of “Things fall Apart.”
As for the comparison of “Things fall Apart” and Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness” we
base this discussion in Chinua Achebe’s article “An image of Africa”(1977) in which he
critically looks at Heart of Darkness and its portrayal of Africans and African culture. To
reflect on these thought we also include P.J.M. Robertson’s article Things fall Apart and
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Heart of Darkness: A creative dialogue (1980) and C.P. Sarvan´s article “Racism and the Heart
of Darkness” (1980).
Delimitation
The colonial period included a large proportion of continents and countries, but we have
chosen to limit ourselves to the colonial era of Africa
Since Africa after the colonial era is a period that extends beyond a manageable amount of
countries to describe, we have chosen to limit our analysis mainly to the Igbo people of
Nigeria described through Chinua Achebe's novel and the descriptions of Joseph Conrad’s
characters from the Congo River shore.
We will not include an analysis of a contemporary Africa instead we will focus on a literary,
cultural and historical analysis of a colonial and post-colonial image of Africa.
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Plot summary
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart takes place in the fictional town of Umoufia in Nigeria
around the late 1890’s. The story focuses on the Igbo community, its culture and traditions
and the influence of British colonialism in the Igbo society. The protagonist of the story is
Okonkwo, a hard working man who has risen in social status in the community despite
having a father who is considered weak, lazy and of no status. Okonkwo is chosen by the city
council to be the caretaker of Ikemefuna, a boy taken a part of a peace settlement because
his father has killed an Umoufian woman. As three years go by Ikemefuna grows closer to
Okonkwo and his family, but the elders in the village decide to kill the boy. Okonkwo being a
man who supports the traditions of the Igbo society goes along with the decision and ends
up giving the boy the final blow himself. Shortly after Okonkwo accidently shoots and kills
one of the Igbo citizens which is considered a great crime. Not wanting to upset the gods,
the village decides to exile Okonkwo and his family for seven years. When Okonkwo returns
he finds the growing influence of the missionaries and colonialists among the people of the
village including his oldest son. Okonkwo and some of the leaders are invited to a meeting
by the commissioner, which turns out to be a trap. This catalyst a rebellion among the
people, but Okonkwo realizes that the Igbo tradition and culture have become too
influenced by “The white man”. This leads him to commit suicide, which is a terrible crime
against nature in Igbo culture.
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Analysis of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall apart
In reading Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” we have chosen to point out some of the
aspects we find interesting in his style of writing. Things Fall Apart is not just know for the
content of the novel it has also been praised for the way in which the story of Okwonkwo is
mediated.
Setting of time and place
Looking into the setting of time and space we know that the book was written in 1958, but
the setting of the plot occurs in the late 1890’s as Achebe wishes to illustrate how the Igbo
society functioned before and after the emergence of the British Colonials and missionaries.
The plot is mainly set in the city of Umoufia in Nigeria, with the exception of an internal time
span of seven years where Okwonkwo and his family are banished from the village and they
chose to move to his mother’s city (Achebe, 1958, Chapter 14). When these seven years
have passed they move back to Umoufia to find that the influence of the colonials is bigger
than ever. During the time span of the whole plot we experience several events which make
it difficult to argue as to exactly how long the plot is. The plot includes some of the
festivaties and rituals in the igbo society (chapter 5), we follow the boy, Ikenefuma and his
stay with Okwonkwo’s family until his death which takes three years and Okwonkwo’s seven
year banishment and return to Umoufia. At the same time we also experience flashbacks
back to the life of Okwonkwo’s father who died ten years prior to the beginning of the plot
(chapter 3).
Narrative point of view and structure
Throughout the majority of the novel the plot is focused on Okwonkwo. Although the story
is not told from with him as a narrator, the reader does get an inside into his thoughts and
feelings almost as the only person in the story. When Okwonkwo moves the narrator moves
with him almost every time as a form of interior narrator (Lane, 2006, p 37). The narrator
does not just have an insight in Okwonkwo’s thoughts and feelings; it is also there to present
us with relevant history about Okwonkwo as it does in the flashback when we hear of his
father and his failure to gain status in society. Actually these flashbacks are set up as a
parataxis (Lane, 2006, p 34) meaning that the story is told in a linear style with a few
11
interruptions from stories of Okwonkwo’s father. As the previously mentioned the narrator
follows Okwonkwo for the majority of the story but there are instances in the novel where
the narrative point of view changes perspective. At times the narrator stops following
Okwonkwo and just lets the reader know about the current events in the novel, as it
happens during the ceremony of the egwugwu (Chapter 10). In this instance the narrator lets
us know that Okwonkwo is one of the egwugwu but that no one in the village was supposed
to know that. We also experience that in the end of the novel when Okwonkwo has hanged
himself (chapter 25), the narrator switches his focus to the commissioner as we at that point
of the story follow his thoughts and feelings.
Language
A lot has been had of the language in Things Fall Apart as well. Firstly the original edition of
the novel is written in English which has caused some controversy as some critics would
have liked to have seen the novel written in the Achebe’s native tongue which is Igbo.
Achebe himself explains that he did not choose Igbo as the language is too complicated to
mediate discourse (Brooks, 1994, “Chinua Achebe, The art of fiction”). It is also assumed that
Achebe chose English as he is trying to reach the minds of those who misunderstood the
Igbo culture. He wanted his audience to be international which is why he chose English. A lot
has also been made of Achebe’s use of proverbs in the novel. Achebe himself emphasizes
that in Igbo proverbs serve two important ends:
“They enable the speaker to give universal status to a special and particular incident and
they are used to soften the harshness of words and make them more palatable” (Achebe in
Shelton, 1968, p 86).
Using proverbs is common in Igbo and African literature and it is one of the elements Achebe
has chosen to translate into his novels although they are in English. The proverbs are used to
describe certain characteristics of Okwonkwo. For example when speaking of his rise from
poverty to success it is said: “If a child washed his hands he could eat with kings” (Achebe,
1958, p 6). The proverbs are not just used when by the narrator it is also used when the
12
characters are in dialog and they are usually mentioned in reference to the elders in the
village.
The use of proverbs is part of what Africanize the novel although the novel uses typical
European or British elements of fiction such as plot structure, point of view and imagery.
Combination of elements has created a new genre in literature which is dubbed Modern
African Fiction (Ogbaa, 1999, p 3) and a lot of the African writers around the 1950’s and 60’s
uses the same themes as Achebe in their attempt to influence the image of the Africa they
know.
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Thematic analysis
Civil order and Religion
In his novel ”Things Fall Apart” Chinua Achebe succeeds in portraying order within the Igbo
society in opposition to the colonial idea of the society as being anarchistic and without
structure and order.
This order within the Igbo tribe was withheld by religious belief, and clan order amongst the
Igbo people in their society.
According to the Igbo belief the Agbala(female priestess), the Oracle of the Hills and Caves,
expressed the will of the Ani, the earth Goddess.
This will concerned both matters of domestic and communal proportions. Furthermore
principles of behavior were also enforced by the priest of the earth.
As an example of this Okonwo’s father Unoka seeks the Oracle of the Hill and caves in order
to understand why his crops are not growing well. The priestess tells Unoka that his bad
crops are not a result of lack of favor amongst the gods but his own laziness. (Achebe, 1958,
p 21)
The Igbo society elders (Ndichie) gathered the villagers of Umoufia when decisions where to
be made on great decision such as war.
This is seen in Things Fall Apart where the village is summoned as a result of a woman being
murdered by a neighboring village. Our main character Okonwo is sent to the village of the
perpetrators, and a settlement is made by handing out human offerings in the shape of a
virgin girl and a boy to the village of Umoufia. (Achebe, 1958, p 11)
Here a settlement is made based on the fear from neighboring villages due to both the
religious awareness that Umoufia possesses great magical power and overwhelming clan
power, “Umuofia was revered by its enemies because of its prowess in warfare and magic”
(Achebe,1958, Abid).
In understanding the order one must also understand that within the Igbo society, the clan
itself ruled all. The clan is understood as being male and all of the nine villages in Umuofia
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share one common first ancestor. Each of the nine villages has their own ancestors whom
are sons of the first ancestor.
In the above example where the villagers are assembled shows the first of many
manifestation of authority by the Umuofia clan in the novel.
The clan should be understood as the community of the ancestors among the living.(Wren,
1980, p 15)
The ancestral Egwugwu who were the living presences of the dead fathers of the nine
villagers of Umuofia was another manifestation of the will of the Umuofia clan.
In the novel Achebe makes it clear that these Egwugwu are ordinary men and this is also
noticed by the women as one of these Egwugwu resemble Okonkwo. “Okonkwo’s wives and
perhaps other women as well, might have noticed that the second egwugwu had the springy
walk of Okonkwo” (Achebe, 1958, Chapter 10, pg 79)
Yet the women did not speak of this as no one was supposed to acknowledge this because
the egwugwu were addressed as the actual ancestral spirits.
Within the Igbo tribe rituals are also a significant part of their religion and society. One of
these rituals is the week of peace which symbolizes kindness and gentleness of which all
villagers exhibit a week before planting.
In the novel Okonwo violates the sacred rules within the week of peace by beating his wife
severly, and therefore is forced to sacrifice to the Goddess of earth in repentance (Achebe,
1958, p 26).
It is clear that breaching the rules and order of Gods are completely unacceptable within the
Igbo society, and actions/rulings are immediate.
It could be argued that the ideas of traditional understanding of justice did not exist when it
came to violating sacred traditions within the Igbo religion and rituals.
15
The birth of twins or multiple children by a woman was seen as abomination within the Igbo
tribe and in Achebe’s novel he explains how the orphans were left in the evil forest to die as
a result of this abomination (Achebe, 1958, p 53).
As earlier mentioned the rule of the Earth God was to be followed strictly by each member
of the clan within the Umuofia, and this was practiced in its full force when Okonkwo
accidently killed a clan member. Nevertheless he is obliged to follow the rulings of the earth
God and he and his family are expelled from the village for seven years, and move to the
village of his mother in Mbanta.
A general understanding within the Igbo society was that, a will of Gods was not to be
questioned whatsoever. Yet Okonkwo’s friend Obierika finds it difficult to comprehend that
his dear friend had to be expelled for seven years as a result of an accident.
“Obierika was perplexed at the calamity that had befallen his friend, and he didn't
understand why such a penalty was demanded for an accidental crime, in much the same
way that he couldn't understand why twins had to be abandoned. All he understood was that
the earth goddess expected the payments she demanded, and if punishment were not
extracted from the guilty party, the entire clan would suffer for the offense”
In this passage it is quite interesting to read the doubt towards their belief among some of
the clan members in Umuofia on several rulings despite of the clear and undoubted respect
towards their Gods.
Another example of these flaws could be Obeirikas arguable doubt towards the practice of
the will of the Gods when Okonkwo confronts him curiously on the lack of his presence
during the killing of the boy Ikemefuna. Okonkwo suspects Obeirikas commitment towards
the authority of the Oracle. (Achebe, 1958, p 58)
In Achebe’s novel our protagonist Okonkwo learns after two years of being expelled to his
mothers village Mbanta, that his first born son Nwoye has been brainwashed according to
Okonkwo by Christian missionaries in Umuofia (Achebe, 1958, p 128)
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Soon a group of missionaries reach the village of Mbanta and amongst them a white man.
The clan is described as being saddened, yet not startled by the presence of a new religion as
they were convinced this would fade with time.
The missionaries preached about the one true God and stressed that the people of Mbanta
were wrong to worship any other gods, and that both the white man and black man were
equals and brothers as sons of the same god (Achebe, 1958, Chapter 16, pg.128)
As a result of the increased presence of the new religion Christianity, Okonkwo decides to
stand up and fight this new intruding faith.
Tribal leaders were captured by the white men as the Umuofia tribe was defeated. A tribal
meeting was held after the leaders were released
The presence of the newcomers finally drives Okonkwo to take his own life because the
oppression is too great for his divided tribe to overcome.
The way of understanding the civil order and religion present within the Igbo society is by
acknowledging the weight of the religious commitment and obligation which existed within
each and every member of the Igbo society.
Each respective clan were responsible towards the maintenance in honoring the will of the
Gods and regulating on rulings of what was wrong and right ways of conduct within the Igbo
society.
It can therefore be concluded that the presence of Igbo religion is the main factor in the
regulation of civil order in the form law, gender rights and practices in Igbo society.
In the above we also understand the importance of ancestry connection for the Igbo
tribesmen through the protagonist Okonkwo in Achebe’s,” Things Fall Apart”.
Okonkwo illustrates how important it is to maintain legacy of “One’s own father’s”, and this
both in behaviour, honour and judgement.
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These Igbo religious beliefs and civil order, inevitably met an opponent in the figure of a new
set of beliefs, customs and laws, which were all subject to the colonization spread. This we
will elaborate on and discuss in the following section.
Colonization
The Igbo society by Chinua Achebe’s novel things fall apart, describes the strong challenge to
the otherwise strong Igbo traditional order. This is described as an encounter with foreign
white men who live by a different set of beliefs and traditions in the form of the Christian
religion.
The fundamental beliefs of the Igbo tribe is challenged by the foreign element introduced by
the missionaries as seen through the protagonist Okonkwo and how he is separated from his
son as a result of a breakdown in Igbo society. Colonization is seen through the introduction
of the "peaceful" missionaries.
This could be argued as being a way to gain confidence in the Igbo tribe and disarm their
unity and opposition towards colonization.
As previously mentioned in the story missionaries preached about the one true God, and
stressed that people in Mbanta were wrong to worship other gods, and that both the white
man and black man were just men and brothers, as sons of the same God (Achebe, 1958, p
128)
The Igbo tribe seems undisturbed by the presence of the missionaries, since they do not
interfere with the civil order and practice in Igbo custom of the people in Mbanta. This is the
description of the encounter with this new Christian faith, by the people of Mbanta (Achebe,
1958, Chapter 18)
But the religious spread of Christianity among some in the Igbo tribe could be argued as
being a progressive expansion of colonization by the Christian faith and trust.
This assumption can be seen as a way to divide the Igbo people to govern by a Western civil
order and through another religious perspective, and thus create instability within the Igbo
people's traditional norms / religion and civil order. (Achebe, 1958, p 115)
18
Achebe describes the encounter between missionaries and Igbo people as being of no
religious influence initially. Gradually however this grows into a conflict that creates
instability in the Igbo community in the village of Mbanta.
For instance, the missionaries want to build a house of worship and are therefore offered
the evil forest. Igbo people are convinced that this will mean the end of the white man's
presence. (Achebe, 1958, p 111)
All the white men survived the building of the church in the evil forest and this can be seen
as a massive blow to the Igbo belief and conviction, and could also be an explanation for the
resulting mass conversion to Christianity, which follows in the novel by Achebe.
As mentioned earlier, this also proves to be a major reason behind the split between
Okonkwo and his son because of his embrace of the Christian faith. This religious division
that occurred within the family and structure of Igbo society could have proved crucial
during colonization.
Another way to strengthen grip on Igbo society under colonization was through trade as the
villagers in Umoufia began to benefit financially through a trading store built by the white
men.
“For the first time palm-oil and kernel became things of great price, and much money
flowed into Umoufia” (Achebe, 1958, p 159)
In this sense it could be argued that the trade community in Igbo society, which was created
by the white men paved way for the white men to control and regulate the civil order and
norms in return.
In Chinua Achebe’s depiction of the encounter between the world of the
colonists/missionaries our lead protagonist describes how at first it appeared peaceful and
without influence to Igbo ways and tradition. “The church had come and lead many astray”
(Achebe, 1958, p 155)
Not only did the Igbo people feel the presence of a new faith and set of beliefs which
recruited supporters among the Igbo race, but also a new legal system was introduced
19
through a new foreign government. This system was represented by a white commissioner
who judged the people who conspired against the laws of the whites and decisions of the
Christian faith. This justice was a punitive system of court messengers bringing people to
trial, and they also guarded the prisons with violent methods of punishment against any
offenders against the white man's law (Achebe, 1958, p 156)
Colonization was at this point a religious, political and legal system of control.
It can therefore be concluded by gaining the trust of the villagers through the trade system
and through the Christian faith, that this made it eligible for the colonizers to establish a
government and introduce a new legal and justice system independent and superior to
earlier Igbo order.
Gender relations
Within the Igbo society women are described through Achebe’s novel as being subjected to
male rule, and women are inferior to the men.
"No matter how prosperous a man was, if he was unable to rule his women and his children
(and especially his women) he was not really a man."(Achebe, 1958, p 45)
The men in Igbo society are entitled to acquire infinite products in terms of both wealth and
women, since women are considered a vital part of a man's status and wealth. Therefore,
polygamy was a sign of high quality, among other Igbos.
Yet the women are not entirely passive in terms of religious representation. This could be
argued by the priestess of Agbala who is described as being a woman just like any other,
before she is overcome by the spirit of Agbala. (Achebe, 1958, p 42)
Although this woman is described as being a divine individual who was taken over by the
male spirit of Agbala, she is nevertheless a female in both her shape and appearance.
Igbo people refer to her as a woman earlier in her life, but it's hard to argue that she is
perceived by them as being a female contribution to the divinity as the spirit Agbala is
described as being male, and thus the source of her spiritual ascent. (Achebe, 1958, p 13)
20
Another example of the female spiritual presence in Igbo society is Ani, the earth Goddess
who is a powerful female influence on the society of Umuofia.
Throughout the novel "Things fall apart" we see the protagonist Okonkwo express his
disappointment and shame over his father Unoka because of his interest in playing music
and not to harvest yam to feed his family. To play this kind of music was feminine, among
other Igbos.
In addition to the fact that Unoka lived a life of deep economic debt to most of the villagers
in Umoufia and it was something Okonkwo was very embarrassed by, as it proved unworthy
of an Igbo man being unable to support himself or his wife unless he got help from others.
In Igbo society, an individual would also appear to be a failed human being, in this case
Unoka as he did not possess much in terms of wealth also by virtue of that he had only one
wife.
Marital status was crucial and the polygamous man was honorable and powerful. Unoka was
none of these and therefore he was a clear example of a coward who could not even bear
the sight of blood (Achebe, 1958, pg 4)
This is also referred to when the people of Umuofia are summoned to the market place and
Okonkwo is described as a “Man of action, a man of war” whom unlike his father before him
could stand the look of blood.
In this case it was apparent that the art of killing, sacrificing, polygamy and participating
actively in war was expected, as to being the way of a man.
Unoka did not fit the bill, and he was therefore considered a man without honor, titles, and
no position of wealth to support either himself or his family. Therefore, he was considered a
"woman" according to Igbo standards. Unoka was finally laid to rest in the evil forest
because the gods would not accept such a man.
In the course of the novel it is clear that the woman's role is purely domestic, of obedience
and of her husband's will.
21
This is seen during the week of peace where Okonwo beats his wife Ojiugo severely and its
seen as a fault and disgrace towards the Gods, yet the action is condemned entirely due to
the act being committed during this week.
Yet we also find examples of which the women are considered and valued, for instance
during dowry in marriage.
When Obierika a dear friend of Okonkwo is set to marry off his daughter, it is clear that the
suitor is entitled to consider her physical characteristics, together with his relatives. This was
to ensure that the girl was beautiful and mature (Achebe, 1958, pg 62), just as one would
consider a car before purchase.
Bride price in Igbo society was negotiated between both the suitor's father and father to
daughter receiving the proposal. During this ceremony, there was an agreed price set
between the male representatives on both sides of the marriage contract. Woman is thus
passive and only valued by her own father and suitor's father who wants to marry her.
In addition, Okonkwo expresses his surprise and outrage at practices of other village tribes,
for example, practicing women's rights by assuring that the children belong to the woman
and her family (Achebe, 1958, pg 65).
The importance of gender identity appears in Achebe’s novel as something Okonkwo is
related to continuously throughout his history. Okonkwo reflects on the disappointment of
having a boy like Nwoye, which he holds in great respect and expectation, but his
expectations of him are being betrayed countless number of times, and the disappointment
is described in Nwoyes missing warrior's behavior and his manhood as missing wrestling
skills. Nwoye is not married and most decisive; he ends up embracing the Christian faith.
The latter as the ultimate death blow to the relationship between Okonkwo and his son.
Nwoye's decision to leave the Igbo people's gods, norms, customs and civil order is
described by Okonkwo as the closest to the fault of his own father Unoka “He, Okonkwo,
was called a flaming fire. How could he have begotten a woman for a son?” (Achebe, 1958,
pg 138)
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23
The historical aspect of ”Things Fall apart”
The aim of this part of the rapport will be to look into historic accounts that can be related to
some of the cultural themes and settings in Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” through
Robert M. Wren’s “Achebe’s World” (1980)
Colonization
In constructing the novel “Things Fall Apart,” Lane argues that one could split the plot into
three main parts: A pre-colonial contact world, the initial contact with the white man, and
the post contact world which leads to the complete breakdown of the Umoufian culture
(Lane, 2006, p 36).
One of the methods the white man used to sustain their influence in the African societies
was the so-called “Pacification”. Pacification was a way for the British colonials to govern the
Africans. It occurred in the Igbo hinterland from 1900 – 1920. In “Things Fall Apart” the
explicit power of the colonials becomes apparent during Okonkwo’s exile when his friend
from the village tells him of the massacre at Abame (Achebe, 1958, p. 122-125). The story is
of a lost white man on his bicycle who ends up in Abame and asks for direction. But the
villagers capture and kill the man as their oracle tells them that the white man is a threat to
their society. They tie his bicycle to a tree just outside of the village. Time goes by and a
band of black men led by three white men see the bicycle. They later return with an army
who kills everyone in the village.
According to Robert M. Wren the story is fictionalized history. It corresponds well with the
case of Dr J.F. Steward who reportedly took off on his bicycle and suffered the same fate as
the white man in the story. As a result a Captain Fox commanding two groups of black
soldiers went to the village where Steward had reportedly been killed and managed to kill 20
villagers. Steward’s death was seen as one of the major justifications for the Bende-Onitsha
Hinterland Expedition which subdued any resident groups of Africans in the area and
initiated the motor road constructions.
Wren also accounts that the colonials power was “wielded only with difficulty – though
when wielded it was implacable” (Wren, 1980, p. 14). This was because of their superiority in
troops and weapons. Resistance would be met with Collective Punishment as accounted in
24
Abame. There was no interest in finding the guilty individuals which contradicted the British
Rule of Law. But it was recognized that this was the only way to govern these societies. The
outcome of the Collective Punishment would be “to make the white man sacred”.
As previously mentioned the villagers were also governed through agents like the
messengers or the Kotma as they are called. The Kotma were there to “police” the area and
do the bidding of the District Commissioner. Wren presents arguments for why the District
Commissioner could only govern with an iron fist, as he could not understand the people or
its laws. It also seems that the elders of the village (Ndichie), who still had some authority
amongst the tribe, would not obey the rules of the commissioner. In the novel Achebe
depicts the Commissioner’s treacherous nature when he invites the leaders of the clan to a
meeting only to strip them of their weapons and hold them ransom (Achebe, 1958, p. 174).
This was a common practice for the commissioners, but all it did was to cause distrust
between the people and the government. In the novel, the captivity is also seen as a turning
point for the Igbo people as this is one of the reasons as to why they decide to rebel against
the white man.
Although it seems that there was a lot of negative outcome to the pacification, Wren also
offers some observations in the defense of the pacification. He argues that population
controlling devices used by the Africans such as cannibalism and slave trade needed to be
established in a civilized manner. This was especially accountable for slavery which was the
moral basis for pacification. At the heart of this was the “General act,” signed in 1890 at the
Brussels Anti-Slavery conference. The act required European powerhouses to “penetrate
African territories, set up administration and military stations (…) and to use whatever
military force that might be necessary to control slave trade” (Wren, 1980, p. 18). This act
was supposed to morally justify the “penetration of Africa”, although some may argue that
the main reason for the act was the economic interests.
The Igbo political system
Colonial accounts state that one of the reasons for the invasion of the African countries was
to introduce them to the “civilization” that would replace their savage ways of ruling their
country, but Achebe’s novel tries to illustrate that the governing system of the Igbo tribe did
25
in fact have order and some form of democracy. This system included the living, the dead,
gods and the Earth with Chukwu, the great unknowable god as the ruler above all. The
duality of the unity of these factors is key in what pervaded things. Major Arthur Glynn
Leonard writes: “For the production of (…) one life in other words, two factors of opposite
yet attracting forces are essential” (Leonard in Wren, 1980, p. 19). He further explains that
the two factors are powerless to reproduce their own species without cooperation from the
each other. An example of the duality pervading lies in the gender relation. G.D. Killam
accounts that that although the Umoufia society emphasizes on “male” activities like sports
and wars, it was “Ani, the Earth goddess… In another word a powerful female principle
which pervades the whole society of Umoufia” (Wren, 1980, p. 19).
Another sense of the duality the Igbo society is also shown through the Egwugwu which
emphasizes on the relation between the living and the dead. The Egwugwu are dancing
masked men who are perceived as dead ancestors of the people in Umoufia. The function of
the Egwugwu is religious deliberations over matters concerning the Igbo culture. In the case
of the novel it is centered on marriage. The responsibility of being egwugwu falls upon the
young men of status in the village, being that they had to carry big wooden faces and raffia
suits with grace. Achebe suggests that the villagers did in fact recognize that the masked
men were actually mortals but due to the religious function of the Egwugwu, no one speaks
of this. Basden, the missionary accounts that the Igbo people believed that the Egwugwu
“supernaturally endowed” (Basden in Wren, 1980, p 21). He further goes on to describe how
villagers were surprise to see that the white man was not afraid of the mask bearing men
which attests to the conviction of the Egwugwu. In more recent times it seems that the
Egwugwu has had more of an entertaining value than a religious one. The meaning of the
word Egwugwu derives from the root form egwu which can mean drum, dance or
entertainment (Wren, 1980, p 21). Achebe also puts a lot of emphasis on the power of the
egwugwu and at the same time he shows his audience something about the gender
relations. It is shown that when the egwugwu comes forward, the women and the children
“backward stamped” (Achebe, 1958, p 62). He also mentions “powerful flutes” and
“awesome” and “guttural” voices of the egwugwu which tells the reader that the power
26
relation between the genders are far from equal (Lane, 2006, 38). But Achebe includes irony
in this notion by mentioning that some of the women might recognize Okonkwo.
Another aspect of the Igbo ruling system is the Oracle of the Hills and the Cave. As previously
mentioned the role of gender is complex in the Igbo society. The Oracle is seen as a
transitional manifestation being that he is served by a priestess. It is also accounted for that
Agbala, The Oracle at Awka was seen as the daughter of Igwe-ka-Ani but was also called
Father and took a masculine pronoun (Basden in Wren, 1980, p 24). In Basden’s description
of Agbala, the oracle, he notes that the oracle is the voice of the Earth, which the Igbo
address as the great Mother, but is still called Father. Basden is also very critical in his
description stating that the only real function of the Oracle was to deceive and take
advantage of the villagers. There are also colonial accounts that state that the oracles were
really a link in the slave trades. When the fate of person was to be decided the oracle would
at times show that they had killed that person by presenting the family of the person with
chicken and claim that it was the blood of the ill-fated one when in fact they would capture
that person and sell them as slaves. In the novel Achebe presents his oracle in a different
way:
“People came when misfortune dogged their steps or when they had a dispute with their
neighbors. They came to discover what the future held for them or to consult the spirits of
their departed fathers” (1958, p.12).
In this description we see that the function of oracle as more ideal. There is no mentioning
of anything that might indicate the corruption of the oracles.
We also see that within the political system of the Igbo tribe there are processes that
somewhat look democratic. In chapter 2 of the novel every man in the village is called to a
great assembly. At the assembly an orator comes forward and speaks of the murder of an
Umoufian woman by the Mbaino tribe. After this the men decide how to deal with the given
case. Although the orator is described as powerful and he is in “a land where oratory is an
esteemed art” (Wren, 1980, p 20), he alone cannot decide what action the whole village
should take. The villagers all state their opinion before taking action at the end of the
assembly (which is a detail Achebe fails to mention). The men of the tribe decide that they
27
want compensation for the damages in the form of a wife and a boy. As the normal course of
action among the Igbos is that there should be a demand of a compensatory and punitive
damage (Wren, 1980, p 20). The wife here is the compensation which leads the boy to be
sacrificed although it is not decided right away. This form of deliberation is also relevant to
the end of the novel. Okwonkwo starts uproar among the villagers but before the form of
action is thoroughly discussed and decided, he kills one of the messengers, shocking the
other villagers and eventually leading him to lose his faith in the Umoufia ways.
These historic accounts attest well to Achebe’s novel. One could argue that this is a
testimony to Achebe’s ability to incorporate an anthropological aspect in a fictionalized
story. The critic Wole Ogundele argues that the novel really emphasizes culture more than
history being that the first thirteen chapters are all focused on describing the culture and
religion of Umoufia (Lane, 2006, p 36) and in mediating these elements in a objective and
balanced way in contrast to the Novel “Heart of Darkness”
28
Heart of Darkness
The aim of this part of the rapport will be to put Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness into
perspective in the relation to Chinua Achebe’s thoughts and novels.
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is one of the novels Chinua Achebe heavily criticizes for
its portrayal of Africa. It is also seen as one of the main reasons behind creating “Things Fall
Apart” which was supposed to change the modern image of Africa that was created by
European literature, meaning that both literary works can be considered important factors in
the postcolonial African literature.
In the novel we follow Charlie Marlow who works on a steamship traveling through the
Congo River. The purpose of the trip is to purchase ivory from the native. Upon arriving at
the central station Marlow meets an accountant who works for Kurtz, a man famous for his
talents as an ivory collector and for having the natives treat him like a God. As he tries to find
Kurtz, Marlow’s boat is attacked by natives but the boat still comes through to the inner
station, where he meets the Russian Fool, an understudy of Kurtz. Here he learns that Kurtz
has fallen ill and needs to be taken back to England, but he refuses to do so which is why
Kurtz ordered the natives to attack Marlow’s boat. He also learns that Kurtz is only able to
collect as much ivory as he can because he gives the natives weapons so they can go to war
against other tribes and collect their ivory. Although Kurtz makes an attempt to escape,
Marlow brings him to the boat and back to England, and on the way back Kurtz realizes the
horrible things he has done before dying on the boat. As Marlow has promised not to tell
anyone of what he know of Kurtz, his “legacy” remains.
In his essay “An Image of Africa” (1977) Chinua Achebe presents passages in Heart of
Darkness that expose the Africans in a way he finds offensive. He states that “Heart of
Darkness projects the image of Africa as “the other world,” the antithesis of Europe and
therefore of civilization” (Achebe, 1977, p 3). He also points out the polarization in the way
Conrad describes the Thames, where he uses words like peaceful and tranquil and the River
Congo, where the description is more about darkness and primitiveness. Achebe notices the
different ways, in which Conrad describes the women in Kurtz’ life, one of them is his African
mistress while the other is addressed as his intended or his fiancée. When it comes to the
29
African woman who appears to be Kurtz’ mistress Conrad describes her as savage and wildeyed, where as the fiancée, Achebe argues, is described as a counterpart to the African
women:
“She came forward, all black with a pale head, floating toward me in the dusk. She was in
mourning…. She took both my hands in hers and murmured: “I heard you were coming”….
(Conrad, 1902,p 111)
Although the description of the African woman also includes positive notions, Achebe argues
that this is only because the African mistress is in her place and can therefore “win Conrad´s
special brand of approval” (Achebe, 1977, p 6).
He further looks into how Conrad presents the talk of the natives. When it is not an
exchange of “short grunting noises” the native only get short sentences in English like “Catch
Im” or “Mistah Kurtz, he dead.” Achebe uses all these examples and more to show that
Conrad was “a bloody racist” and that Heart of Darkness is novel which celebrates the
“dehumanization” and “depersonalization of a human race”. In the article Achebe also finds
other accounts where Conrad has very different view of how he sees black and white people.
In the first account he addresses a black man as a “Buck nigger”, where as in the second
example he speaks of “the unforgettable Englishman”.
Although Achebe certainly makes his case for “Heart of Darkness’” patronizing views of black
people some people counter these arguments with the fact that the narrator of the story
and the author should not be seen as one and the same, meaning that the descriptions of
the black natives should not be interpreted as Conrad’s views but as Marlow’s. C.P. Sarvan
from the University of Zambia argues that because Marlow’s character is “drawn with quiet
irony and at times a mocking humor” (Sarvan, 1977, p 7) Conrad intentionally creates a
distance to the character. We see examples of this a couple of times in the tale when he
speaks of the Roman conquest compared to the European colonialism (Conrad, 1902, p 5051). Achebe however counters this argument by stating that Marlow “enjoys Conrad’s
complete confidence” (Achebe, 1977, p 7) as he argues that Marlow is presented as a
witness of truth and holds views appropriate “to the English liberal tradition” but Sarvan
focuses on one extract from the novel that may imply otherwise: " In the great
30
demoralization of the land he kept up his appearance. That's backbone" (Conrad, 1902, p.
68). Sarvan states that this line should not be ignored as it illustrates the discrepancy
between “appearance and reality. Between assumption and fact. Between illusion and
truth” (Sarvan, 1977, p 7) meaning that it is not a valid point to argue that Marlow has the
complete confidence of Conrad.
Sarvan is also opinionated around the statement that “Heart of Darkness” should be read as
a mockery of Africa. He rather focuses on how it illustrates the darkness of mankind and that
Africa is just a setting that reflects on this darkness. He further argues that it is actually the
darkness of the European barbarians which is exposed in the novel and that Conrad is
actually trying to say that “Europe’s claim to be civilized and therefore superior needs
earnest reexamination.” He also interprets the meaning of the Thames in a different way.
Being that the Thames is a “waterway leading to the uttermost ends of the earth” (Conrad,
1902, p 47) he argues that this river is a symbol of the abiding nature of man, as things
always stay the same and “foreign shore and foreign faces are veiled not by mystery but by
ignorance” (Sarvan, 1977, p 8).
Lastly Sarvan points out that Achebe also overlooks the powerful critique Conrad presents
against colonialism, illustrated best by the skulls stuck on poles outside of Kurtz house. The
powerful critique lies in the fact that “Kurtz and many others like him had come to civilize
the non-European world” (Sarvan, 1977, p 8), but the skulls are an evidence of exactly the
opposite.
These arguments are backed up by P.J.M Robertson who states that “If Conrad is a racist
here, it is surely on the accounts of his treatment of white rather than of blacks” (Robertson,
1980, p 107). He also counters Achebe’s claims that the Africans in the novel are all put in
negative light as the cannibals are “dignified”, the helmsman is “athletic” and the mistress is
“magnificent” and “gorgeous”. Sarvan also joins in on the comparison between the African
mistress and the Kurtz’ intended. His claim is that Kurtz intended never truly gets to mourn
as she does not know “The real Kurtz”, she can only mourn the man she thought she know,
which comes back to Sarvan’s notion of “Keeping up the appearance”. But the African
mistress has seen Kurtz for what he really is and therefore knows why she mourns.
Robertson praises the psychological complexity of the novel, but also criticizes the lack of
31
anthropological fullness, which is where he looks to “Things Fall Apart”. Where “Heart of
Darkness” has an outside look on the African societies, “Things Fall Apart” takes an insider’s
view both before and after the arrival of the colonials.
Throughout this part of the rapport we have seen that although Chinua Achebe does have
some valid points as to how Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness” illustrates the Africans in a
negative and offensive way, the novel seems to be about more than how Conrad presents
Africa. It is also about the darkness of humanity and colonialism, expressed through the two
main characters (Kurtz and Marlow). So as a final thought one could ask whether or not
Achebe should discard “Heart of Darkness’” racist attitude as one the reasons for making
“Things fall Apart”?
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Discussion
The Achebe’s critique of “Heart of Darkness” can be somewhat discussed as there is valid
arguments for both parties. On one side Conrad does depict the Africans as somewhat
primitive and savage cannibals but on the other hand there are diffidently cause for the
reader to consider whether or not Conrad is actually being critical towards the colonials, a
statement that especially becomes explicit with Kurtz’ last words: “The horror, The horror.”
It is noted that Conrad himself went to Congo before he wrote the novel, so why is Conrad’s
vision of Africa much different from Achebe’s? For one the setting of the two plots are in
two different countries. There are a couple of countries between Nigeria and Congo which
could mean that they are very different in the way they are perceived from an outsider’s
point of view. Another factor to notice is that in Conrad’s novel the colonials seem to have
taken over the country, where Achebe describes Umoufia before and up until the invasion of
the white man which is actually where the story ends. So maybe Achebe was not trying to
counter Conrad’s notion of Africa but rather explain how Conrad came to perceive the Africa
he describes. Although it is not perfect Achebe describes a civilized and organized society,
which downfall can be blamed by both the locals and the colonials. This could also open up
for a discussion about the laws of fiction. Are writers allowed to describe and illustrate
anyone the way like and what should the consequences be for someone who goes too far?
33
Conclusion
At the end of our project, we have achieved possible conclusions to understand the various
aspects of our studies of the Igbo society, colonization, and African vs. European literature
both during colonization and after its fall.
When dealing with the literary and technical analysis of Achebe’s novel “Things Fall Apart”
we have found that the modern African literature consists of a mixture of elements from
typical African and European literature.
From the historical perspective on Achebe’s novel we find that relating historical accounts
from missionaries and historians, validate the anthropological aspect of novel, in terms of
colonization and the political structure of the Igbo society.
Our thematic analysis concluded that the introduction of the Christian religion helped spread
the colonization and dismantling the Igbo civil order and society. In our discussion on gender
relation it is clear that there is an unbalanced yet fundamental gender relation between men
and women within Igbo society.
“Heart of darkness” presented arguments which could be understood as critique towards
both colonials, native Africans or even mankind as a whole.
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List of Reference
•
Achebe, Chinua, An Image of Africa, The University of Massachusetts, The
Massachusetts review, 1977
•
Achebe, Chinua, The Novelist as a teacher, A selection of African Prose, Oxford, 1964
•
Achebe, Chinua, Things Fall Apart, Bloms literary criticism, new edition, 1958
•
Cary, Joyce, Mister Johnson, Nyt Nordisk forlag, 1952
•
Conrad, Joseph, Heart of Darkness, Dover publication Inc, 1902
•
Kehinde, Ayo, Postcolonial African literature and counter – discourse: J.M. Coetzee’s
fiction and reworking of canonical works, Department of English, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 2006
•
Lane, Richard, The Postcolonial Novel, Polity Press, 2006
•
Ogbaa, Kalu, Understanding things fall apart: A student casebook to issues, sources
and historical documents, British library cataloguing, 1999
•
Shelton, Austin, The Palmoil of language: Proverbs in Chinua Achebe’s Novels, State
University College, New Paltz, New York, 1969
•
Wren, Robert, Achebe’s world: The historical and Cultural context of the novels of
Chinua Achebe, Longman Studies in African literature, 1980
35