La ng ua ge & L a b e l s
The plethora of choices we have available to us in talking about
identity can be daunting, especially in classroom situations. Such
language and labels can often seem overly complicated at best and
arbitrary at worst.
In this workshop, participants will share stories from their teaching
experiences, as well as pose questions and voice concerns, and
together we will generate strategies for authentically and seamlessly
addressing language issues around identity in the college classroom.
Facilitators
Dr. Timothy R. McMahon (timmc@uoregon.edu)
Center on Diversity and Community/Teaching Effectiveness
Program, University of Oregon
Kimi Mojica (kmojica@uoregon.edu)
Center on Diversity and Community/Office of Student Life, University
of Oregon
This handout was originally developed by Laurie Jones
Neighbors
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(Please note: Content taken verbatim from Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, 3rd ed.
by Julia T. Wood, 2002, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.)
The Symbolic Nature of Language
Qualities of Symbols
Arbitrary --They are not intrinsically connected to what they represent… Because language is
arbitrary, the meanings of words can change over time. In other words, language is dynamic.
Ambiguous --Their meanings aren’t clear-cut or fixed. There are variations in what words
mean… Although words don’t mean exactly the same thing to everyone, within a culture many
symbols have an agreed-on range of meanings… The ambiguity of symbols is one source of
misunderstandings that can arise in interpersonal communication. We tend to assume that words
mean the same thing to others as they do to us. But the ambiguity of symbols implies that people
don’t always agree on meanings.
Abstract --They are not concrete or tangible. They stand for ideas, people, events, objects,
feelings, and so forth, but they are not the things they represent. As symbols become increasingly
abstract, the potential for confusion mushrooms. One of the ways this happens is
overgeneralization.
Principles of Verbal Communication
Language and Culture Reflect Each Other --Language and culture are intricately
interconnected. Each reflects the other in an ongoing process…Communication reflects cultural
values and perspectives. The words in a language reflect what the mainstream in a particular
culture regards as worth naming. We do not name what we consider unimportant…The
mainstream values of a culture also are reflected in calendars by which social groups’ important
days are and are not named.
Communication also changes cultures. A primary way in which communication changes cultural
values and perspectives is by naming things in ways that alter understandings…Language is a
primary tool of social movement sin their efforts to change cultural life and meanings.
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Symbolic Activities
Symbols Define --The most basic symbolic ability is definition. We use symbols to define experiences,
people, relationships, feelings, and thoughts.
Labels Shape Perceptions --When we label someone, we focus attention on particular aspects
of that person and her or his activities, and we necessarily obscure other aspects of who she or
he is.
Labels Can Totalize --Totalizing occurs when we respond to a person as if one label (one we
have chosen or accepted from others) totally represents who he or she is. We fix on one symbol
to define someone and fail to recognize many other aspects of who he or she is.
Labels Affect Relationships --The symbols we use to define experiences in our relationships
affect how we think and feel about those relationships.
Symbols Evaluate --Symbols are not neutral or objective descriptions. They are laden with values. This
is an intrinsic quality of symbols. In fact, it’s impossible to find words that are completely neutral or
objective.
Values In Language Reflect and Shape Perceptions --We tend to describe people we like with
language that accents their good qualities and downplays their flaws. Just the reverse is true of
our descriptions for people we don’t like… Of course there are degrees of evaluation in language.
In recent years we have become more sensitive to how symbols can hurt people. Most people
with disabilities prefer not to be called disabled because that totalizes them in terms of a
disability… The term African American emphasizes cultural heritage, whereas black focuses on
skin color. Designations for homosexuals are currently in transition. The term homosexual has
negative connotations and even more so do words such as fairy, dyke, and faggot. Some gays
and lesbians use the term sexual orientation to suggest they didn’t choose their sexuality. Others
use the term sexual preference to indicate that their sexuality is a matter of choice, not genetics.
Still others speak of affectional preference to signal that their commitment concerns the entire
realm of affection, not just sexual activity.
Language Can Be Loaded --Loaded language is words that strongly slant perceptions and thus
meanings. For example, radio personality Rush Limbaugh calls feminists Feminazis, which
implies that feminists are also Nazis. Loaded language encourages negative views of older
people. Terms such as geezers and old fogies incline us to regard older people with contempt or
pity. Alternatives such as senior citizen and mature person reflect more respectful attitudes.
Language Can Degrade Others --Language is powerful. The values inherent in the words we
use shape our perceptions and those of others. This implies that each of us has an ethical
responsibility to recognize the impact of language and to guard against engaging in uncivil
speech ourselves as well as not tolerating it from others.
Symbols Organize Perceptions --We use symbols to organize our perceptions…How we organize
experiences affects what they mean to us.
Symbols Allow Abstract Thought --The organizational quality of symbols also allows us to think about
abstract concepts, such as justice, integrity, and good family life. We use broad concepts to transcend
specific, concrete activities and to enter the world of conceptual thought and ideals. Because we think
abstractly, we don’t have to consider every specific object and experience individually. Instead, we can
think in general terms.
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Symbols Can Stereotype --Our capacity to abstract can also distort thinking. A primary way this
occurs is through stereotyping, which is thinking in broad generalizations about a whole class of
people or experiences… Notice that stereotypes can be positive or negative.
Common to all stereotypes is classifying an experience or person into a category based on
general knowledge. When we use term such as African Americans, lesbians, white males, and
working class, we may see only what members of each group have in common and not perceive
differences between individuals. We may not perceive the uniqueness of the individual person if
we label him or her only as a member of one group.
Stereotyping is related to totalizing because when we stereotype someone, we may not perceive
other aspects of the person, ones not represented in the stereotype…Clearly, we have to
generalize. We simply cannot think about everything in our lives as a specific instance. However,
stereotypes can blind us to important differences between phenomena we lump together. Thus,
it’s important to reflect on stereotypes and to stay alert to differences between people and things
we place in any category. We should also remind ourselves that we place others in categories;
the categories are our tools. They are not objective descriptions.
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Speech Communities
A speech community exists when people share norms about how to use talk and what purposes
it serves (Labov, 1972). Members of speech communities share perspectives on communication
that outsiders do not have. Conversely, members of particular speech communities may not
understand the ways communication is used in other speech communities. This explains why
communications between members of different social groups sometimes is difficult.
Speech communities are not defined by countries or geographic locations but by shared
understandings of how to communicate. In Western society there are numerous speech
communities, including Native Americans, African Americans, women, and men. Each of these
groups has distinct understandings of communication and ways of using it, ways that are not
familiar to people outside the group. For example, some African Americans who were socialized
in traditional African American communities engage in more dramatic and elaborate verbal
communication than most European Americans (Hamlet, 2000).
Appreciating Speech Communities
After thinking about your own speech communities, talk with people from different speech
communities. Identify differences in the rules you follow for public and private interaction. Do you
recognize communication rules that explain differences between how you and others speak?
Guidelines for Improving Verbal Communications
Engage in Dual Perspective --This involves recognizing another person’s perspective and
taking that into account as you communicate. Effective interpersonal communication is not a solo
performance but a relationship between people. Awareness of others and their viewpoints should
be reflected in how we speak… We don’t need to abandon our own perspectives to
accommodate those of others… In fact, it would be as unconstructive to stifle your own views as
to ignore those of others… It requires understanding both our own and another’s point of view
and giving voice to each when we communicate.
Own Your Own Feelings and Thoughts --Our feelings and thoughts result from how we
interpret others’ communication. Although how we interpret what others say may lead us to feel
certain ways, others do not directly cause our responses… Telling others they make us feel some
way is likely to arouse defensiveness, which doesn’t facilitate healthy interpersonal relationships.
Respect What Others Say About Their Feelings and Thoughts --Effective communicators
don’t disparage what others say about what they feel and think. Even if you don’t feel or think the
same way, you can still respect another person as the expert on her or his own perspective.
One of the most disconfirming forms of communication is speaking for others when they are able
to speak for themselves… Generally it is arrogant and disempowering to speak for others… Just
as we should not speak for others, we also should not assume we understand how they feel or
think. As we have seen, our distinct experiences and ways of interpreting life make each of us
unique. We seldom, if ever, completely grasp what another person feels or thinks. Although it is
supportive to engage in dual perspective, it isn’t supportive to presume we fully grasp what’s
happening in someone else, especially when he or she differs from us in important ways. It is
particularly important not to assume we understand people from other cultures, including ones
within our society…When we claim to share what we haven’t experienced, we take away form
others’ lives and identities.
Strive for Accuracy and Clarity
Be Aware of Levels of Abstraction --Misunderstanding is less likely when we are
conscious of levels of abstraction. Much confusion results from language that is
excessively abstract… Sometimes, however, abstract language is appropriate. As we
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have seen, abstract language allows us to generalize, which is necessary and useful.
The goal is to use a level of abstraction that suits particular communication objectives
and situations. Abstract words are appropriate when speakers and listeners have similar
concrete knowledge about what is being discussed… Abstract language is particularly
likely to lead to misunderstandings when people talk about changes they want in one
another… Vague abstractions promote misunderstandings because people may not
share concrete referents.
Qualify Language --Two types of language should be qualified. First, we should qualify
generalizations so that we don’t misled ourselves or others into mistaking a general
statement for an absolute one… We should also qualify language when describing and
evaluating people. A static evaluation is an assessment that suggests that something is
unchanging or static… Whenever we use the word is, we suggest that something is
inherent and fixed. In reality, we aren’t static but continuously changing.
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Further Resources
Talking about Race, Learning about Racism: The Application of Racial Identity
Development Theory in the Classroom
Beverly Daniel Tatum
Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 62, No. 1, Spring 1992
Guidelines for Reporting and Writing about People with Disabilities
The Life Span Institute at the University of Kansas
http://www.lsi.ku.edu/lsi/internal/guidelines.html
The Great Pop vs. Soda Controversy
Who knew there were such regional differences?
http://popvssoda.com:2998/
Do You Speak American?
Provides information and resources in association with the PBS series of the same name.
http://www.pbs.org/speak/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
Multicultural Affairs & Resources
http://www.asha.org/about/Leadership-projects/multicultural/
Race: Are we so different?
Interactive website produced by the American Anthropological Association
http://www.understandingrace.org/home.html
TEP Inclusive Teaching Website
http://tep.uoregon.edu/resources/diversity/index.html
Lots of information for instructors and those interested in teaching and learning.
The Diversity Factor Language Guide (The Diversity Factor at Rutgers University)
http://diversityfactor.rutgers.edu/lang_guide1.jsp
Excellent publication developed by The Diversity Factor at Rutgers University and available for purchase.
Race: The Power of an Illusion
http://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00-Home.htm
Interactive website that accompanied the PBS series by the same name.
The Implicit Association Test
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/
Try out this interactive on-line exercise that focuses on your conscious and unconscious preferences.
Western States Center
http://www.westernstatescenter.org
“Western States Center's mission is to build a progressive movement for social, economic, racial, gender
and environmental justice in the eight Western states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming,
Utah, Nevada and Alaska.” Great resources.
Colours of Resistance (COR)
http://colours.mahost.org/
“Colours of Resistance (COR) is a grassroots network of people who consciously work to develop antiracist, multiracial politics in the movement against global capitalism. We are committed to helping build an
anti-racist, anti-imperialist, multiracial, feminist, queer and trans liberationist, anti-authoritarian movement
against global capitalism. We are committed to integrating an anti-oppression framework and analysis
into all of our work.” Great resources.
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Challenging White Supremacy (CSW) Workshop Home Page
http://www.cwsworkshop.org/index.html
“Challenging White Supremacy (CWS) workshop organizers believe that the most effective way to create
fundamental social change in the U.S. is by building mass-based, multi-racial grassroots movements led
by radical activists of color. We also believe that the major barrier to creating these movements is racism
or white supremacy. One way to challenge white supremacy is to do anti-racist training workshops in our
own communities. CWS has worked in the broad-based radical, multi-racial community of the Bay Area
since 1993.” Great resources.
To ensure inclusion, freedom, and respect for all, we must use People First Language
http://www.disabilityisnatural.com/peoplefirstlanguage.htm
Excellent publication by Katie Snow
Other Diversity Dictionaries or Glossaries
From Ohio State University
http://www.osu.edu/diversity/dictionary.html
From Texas A&M University
http://diversity.tamu.edu/dictionary/index.asp
Transgender Inclusion Guide: A Primer by and for college students and student organizations
By the National Queer Student Coalition, National Queer Student of Color Caucus, and the LGBT
Student Empowerment Project. Produced by the United States Student Association Foundation.
(The “Terms and Definitions” section is based on materials produced by Gender Queer of Lane
County, Oregon)
http://www.getthetoolkit.com/publications/Trans%20Inclusion%20Guide%202004.pdf
From the University of Baltimore Student Life
http://www.ubalt.edu/template.cfm?page=281
From Buffalo State University
http://www.buffalostate.edu/offices/disabilityservices/glossary.htm
The Disabilities Dictionary
http://www.brookespublishing.com/dictionary/
On-line dictionary from Brookes Publishing.
Disability Dictionary
http://www.sterlingfrazer.com/BFW/Dictionary/DictionaryTableofContents.html
Sterling Frazer Associates is an online educational forum for people to learn about people with
disabilities.
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