Western Civilization
Final Exam Study Guide
Mr. Rinaldi
2009
Chapter 16 – Key Points
Reformation & Scientific Revolution
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Luther’s core beliefs rejected the authority of priests and the pope and were based on belief in the bible’s sole authority, salvation by faith alone, and “the priesthood of all believers”
Luther’s 95 theses were meant to reform the Catholic Church. They were widely circulated as a result of the printing press, a technology invented by Gutenberg that also made the bible available to common people in their own language.
Protestantism spread throughout Northern Europe due to the influence of Calvin’s successes in Geneva, Knox in Scotland and King Henry of England
Calvin’ss doctrine of predestination stated that God knew who would be saved. He also believed that government Calvin
doctrine of predestination stated that God knew who would be saved He also believed that government
should be run by Church leaders
Germany’s 30‐Years war stemmed from conflicts between Protestant and Catholic princes. It left Germany’s agriculture and economy in devastation.
The Reformation ended religious unity in Europe, caused religious wars and persecution in Europe, strengthened royal (or state) power, helped form national identities, and triggered the Counter‐Reformation.
The Catholic Church’s Counter‐Reformation held a Council at Trent which stressed obedience to the Pope and censored, and even destroyed writings it thought opposed Church teaching
Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuit order to help the Church oppose the Protestant Reformation via education and missionary work.
The Scientific revolution was based on observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs, among them the idea that the Sun revolved around the Earth
the idea that the Sun revolved around the Earth. Based on their observations of the heavens, Copernicus and Galileo rejected Ptolemy’s geocentric theory and offered the heliocentric theory as an alternative. Key terms: Reformation, Protestant, predestination, theocracy, Counter‐Reformation, Heliocentric Theory
Key people/places/events: Thomas Moore, Erasmus, Gutenberg, Luther, Wittenberg, Charles V, Edict of Worms, y
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Protestant Reformation, Henry VIII, Calvin, Knox, Council of Trent, Ignatius Loyola, Peace of Augsburg, Ptolmey, Galileo
Chapter 18‐ Key Points
England: Tudor Queen & Stuart Kings
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Queen Elizabeth’s challenges included religious conflicts, rivalry from Mary Stuart, King Phillip of Spain’s ambitions, and her own financial difficulties
She also had conflicts with her own Parliament around religion and finances.
Following England’s victory over Spain’s Armada, Elizabeth’s “golden age” brought a stronger economy (partly fueled by the formation of joint‐stock companies), a flourishing arts scene (Shakespeare’s plays at Burbage’s Globe Theater, etc.) and over‐crowding in London
Elizabeth left no heir, and her Stuart successors began to fight with Parliament over taxes, religion, and the king’s role and conflicts between the Church of England and the Puritans
role, and conflicts between the Church of England and the Puritans
The Stuart Kings believed in Divine Right, but Parliament rejected that belief.
Their conflicts eventually led to Civil War, and led to the formation of political parties, England’s Glorious Revolution, and constitutional limits on Royal power, including habeas corpus.
Key thinkers included John Locke and Thomas Hobbes developed new ideas about government – but the two men differed on a key point –
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“The Right to Rebellion” –
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Locke supported it, and believed that government’s power pp
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came from the people and it should protect people’s rights, which included life, liberty, and property, but Hobbes did not.
England’s Bill of Rights prohibited the monarchs from suspending Parliament’s laws, interfering with members of Parliament’s free speech, keeping a standing army, or requiring excessive bail
In the development of a constitutional monarchy, England relied on old documents such as the Magna Carta, but it also had to experience conflicts between kings and Parliament civil wars and revolutions first
it also had to experience conflicts between kings and Parliament, civil wars and revolutions first.
Key terms – Joint stock companies, divine right, habeas corpus, Bill of Rights
Key people/places/events: Elizabeth I, Spanish Armada, Globe Theater, Petition of Right, Oliver Cromwell, Habeas Corpus, Whig, Tory, Glorious Revolution
Chapter 19 – Key Points
Europe in the Age of Absolute Monarchs
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While England’s government evolved into a constitutional monarchy, on the continent, Europe’s Kings remained absolute rulers
Absolute rulers ruled by divine right, holds unlimited power, expects loyalty from subjects, dominates middle class (which dominates the lower classes), encourages industry and trade, and sets the standards for culture
For example, in France, King Louis XIV ruled as the Sun King from his palace at Versailles, making it the center of French culture and politics
He relied on a talented Finance Minister, Jean Colbert to implement an economic policy called Mercantilism, which supported French industry and limited imports of foreign goods creating a strong economy and a favorable
which supported French industry and limited imports of foreign goods, creating a strong economy and a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports)
After Colbert died, Louis made a mistake that hurt his economy when he revoked the Edict of Nantes which renewed persecution of the Protestants who made up much of the middle class in France
Louis also was a poor general, losing many wars to a group of countries that allied themselves to form a balance against France’s power. In contrast to Louis (who wanted to be the center of everything) Russia’s Peter the Great tried to improve his country by giving more status to women, by aligning Russia’s calendar to Europe’s, by setting up Russia’s first newspaper, and by adopting mercantilism.
Some central European kingdoms (e.g., Poland, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire) struggled to survive because of geographic disadvantages, including rolling plains in the north and low southern mountains with few natural barriers. They also failed to develop strong central governments.
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Other rulers, like the Prussians, took advantage of some of those weaker kingdoms by building bigger and better armies. Austria tried to expand, but took a more diplomatic approach and expanded its alliances, especially with France.
Key Terms: absolutism, mercantilism, exports, imports, balance of trade, balance of power
Key people/places/events: Louis XIV, Versailles, Jean Colbert, Peter II, St. Petersburg, Maria Theresa, Silesia, F d i k II
Frederick II
Chapter 20 – Key Points
Enlightenment in Europe
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The age of Enlightenment in the 1700s resulted in new forms of leadership and government
Writers known as the Philosophes argued that the scientific method could be applied to political, economic and social Writers known as the Philosophes
argued that the scientific method could be applied to political, economic and social
problems. They believed in reason, nature, happiness, progress and liberty. Many philosophes, including Voltaire and Diderot gathered in the salons of Paris which became centers of culture and the arts.
The philosophes influenced economic thinkers including Adam Smith, who argued that a free‐market economy would produce the greatest wealth.
He believed in the principle of laissez‐faire economics, in which the government played little or no regulatory role, and in the
laws of self‐interest, competition, supply and demand.
Montesquieu believed that government power should be divided among legislative, executive and judicial branches.
Rousseau believed that legitimate government ruled by the consent of the ruled, that people, not monarchs were sovereign, and that liberty and justice could only thrive when the people’s will was supreme
While the philosophes did not rebel against absolutism, the believed that rulers should rule as enlightened despots –
While the philosophes
did not rebel against absolutism the believed that rulers should rule as enlightened despots using their using their
power for the good of their people. Peter the Great, Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia were examples of enlightened despots.
Britain’s Glorious Revolution produced a government that was more democratic and enlightened than many in Europe, but fell short of a true democracy because the country’s upper classes ran the government and suffrage was limited to land‐owning males.
Britain’s parliament evolved to include a Prime Minister and Cabinet which effectively became the center of power within government
Key Terms: Philosophe, Enlightenment, Salon, market economy, separation of powers, enlightened despot, constitutional monarchy, cabinet, prime minister
Key people/places/events: Newton, Voltaire, Diderot, Adam Smith, laissez‐faire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Frederick II, Catherine II
Chapter 21 – Key Points
The French Revolution & Napoleon
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The seeds of revolution in France included Enlightenment philosophy, the American revolution, social injustices of the “Old
of the Old Regime
Regime” and France
and France’ss economic crisis (caused by its support of the American Revolution)
economic crisis (caused by its support of the American Revolution)
The Old Regime’s 3 social classes, or estates included the 1st Estate – or Church; the 2nd Estate – or nobility; and the 3rd Estate – or Middle class (Bourgeoisie), workers, peasants
Nearly in bankruptcy, France’s King Louis XVI called a meeting of the 3 estates called The Estates General. Hoping for reform, the 3rd estate formed France’s National Assembly, kicking off the revolution.
The revolution’ss main goals were expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and The revolution
main goals were expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and
included liberty, equality and fraternity
Concerns about the monarchy’s potential for restoring itself to power led one radical, Robespierre, to launch the Reign of Terror
France had several governments during the revolution, none of which were particularly strong or durable –
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Domestically, he implemented economic, social, and legal reforms, and restored religious order.
In international affairs, he tried to spread the revolution (and his own rule) over all of Europe, but he over‐
reached when he attacked Russia. Following that disaster, he suffered defeat at the hands of the Grand Alliance led by Britain at the Battle of Waterloo
Key Terms: estate, radical
Key people/places/events: Louis XVI, Bastille, Estates General, Robespierre, Napoleon, Waterloo
Chapter 22 – Key Points
The Industrial Revolution
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Dramatic changes in technology in Western Europe roughly between 1700‐1850 brought about the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution.
Britain’s abundant natural resources, favorable geography, stable political environment, strong banking system, and a favorable intellectual climate for new ideas gave it an advantage during this period
Capitalists and entrepreneurs combined new technologies to create wealth using the principles outlined by Adam Smith who believed that a free market without government interference would
outlined by Adam Smith, who believed that a free market without government interference would create the greatest wealth. With rapid economic growth, social problems emerged, especially among lower class workers who crowded into the fast growing urban (city) areas that developed around factories, mines and other industries, but laissez‐faire capitalists didn’t want government interference in their businesses
Socialist reformers believed that government should have a role in regulation but they were not
Socialist reformers believed that government should have a role in regulation, but they were not generally successful in creating true reform
In response to neglect and lack of safety, some workers formed labor unions to attempt to improve their working conditions and economic status.
Other reformers proposed more radical ideas, among them Karl Marx, who believed in a Communist Revolution that would put workers in charge and who hated the fact those workers
Communist Revolution that would put workers in charge, and who hated the fact those workers were exploited under capitalism
Key Terms: Industrial revolution, entrepreneur, unions
Key people/places/events: Karl Marx, Adam Smith
Chapter 23 – Key Points
Restoration, Romanticism, Revolution
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Torn by the Napoleonic Wars, Europe’s leaders sought peace, largely by attempting to restore the old, pre‐Napoleonic
old, pre
Napoleonic regimes, limiting France
regimes, limiting France’ss ability to be an aggressor (but not punishing it too ability to be an aggressor (but not punishing it too
severely) and by maintaining a balance of power.
Conservative forces at the Congress of Vienna, led by Austria’s Metternich, argued that the French Revolution had been entirely harmful and believed in protecting existing (absolutist) forms of government
Liberals argued that the French Revolution had resulted in some good reforms and believed in
Liberals argued that the French Revolution had resulted in some good reforms, and believed in giving more power to elected Parliaments
Radicals favored drastic change and, if necessary, violence
Nationalism emerged as a significant force. People who shared similar traditions, history and language, who lived in the same geographic area, and who united under a common government often desired their independence from the old empires putting stress on the balance of power
often desired their independence from the old empires, putting stress on the balance of power achieved at the Congress of Vienna
Romanticism’s greatest contribution to fuel nationalism was a rejection of reason in favor of emotion. It also believed in celebrating nature, glorification of the past, and individualism
Key Terms: conservative, liberal, radical, Romanticism
Key people/places/events: Congress of Vienna, Metternich
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Chapter 24 – Key Points
Economic Expansion & Nationalism
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Industrialism stimulated economic expansion and, combined with Nationalism, drove imperialism in which many European countries developed overseas colonies.
in which many European countries developed overseas colonies. New technologies such as the telegraph and railroads helped foster the growth of trade as did new organizations called corporations which were able to raise capital (money) they needed for large projects by selling stock to the public. Emigration also contributed to economic growth, as people moved to locations where businesses were creating new jobs
were creating new jobs. Socialist reformers believed that government should have a role in regulation, but they were not generally successful in creating true reform
Other reformers proposed more radical ideas, among them Karl Marx, who believed in a Communist Revolution that would put workers (the proletariat) in charge, and who hated the fact those workers were exploited under capitalism
those workers were exploited under capitalism
Italy’s Cavour and Germany’s Bismarck, attempted to unify diverse groups through a set of principles called Realpolitik, which combined the use of military force with diplomacy
Italy became a constitutional monarchy under Cavour and Garibaldi’s leadership, while Bismarck expanded Prussian rule, largely by a series of military actions which enraged the French. The rise of Italy and Germany, along with a weakening of Austria and France destroyed the balance of power, setting the stage for the first World War
Key Terms: stock, corporation, emigration, socialism, proletariat, scientific socialism (Communism), realpolitik
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Key people/places/events: Marx, Cavour, Bismarck
Chapter 26 – Key Points
The Turn of the Century
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• New inventions including the blast furnace, the dynamo, the wireless (radio), the telephone, gas engines, assembly lines, etc., i l
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further accelerated economic growth and competition.
• New scientific ideas improved health and understanding of human and animal biology – sometimes, as with Darwin
and animal biology sometimes as with Darwin’ss theory of theory of
evolution, causing controversy and conflict in scientific circles as well as in the broader society when they were applied to politics and economics
• Women sought and eventually won the right to vote (suffrage), and began to take on more visible roles in society.
• Key terms: assembly line, social Darwinism, suffrage
• Key people/places/events: Bessemer, Edison, Marconi, Bell, Ford, K
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Pasteur, Darwin, Pankhurst Chapter 27 – Key Points
World War 1
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In the late 1800s nationalism threatened world peace.
Otto von Bismarck of Germany had united Germany using the strength of his military, but later turned to diplomacy and alliances because he was concerned that war, particularly a multi‐front war, would shatter his empire
Kaiser William II forced Bismarck from office partly because of that shift, and later destabilized Europe p y
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by letting Germany’s treaty of friendship with Russia expire, by threatening English and French colonies, and by starting a naval arms race
In the Balkans, nationalist movements threatened both the Ottoman Empire and Austria‐Hungary.
When the war started Germany faced a two front war and extended supply and communication lines
When the war started, Germany faced a two‐front war and extended supply and communication lines
WWI introduced the concept of “Total War” in which all male civilians were subject to the military draft, women replaced men in factories, and governments used propaganda to promote particular points of view.
After a long and difficult war, Germany was defeated by the Allies and was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which, among other punishments, forced Germany to pay reparations, reduce the size of its army, and admit full responsibility for causing the war.
Key Terms: militarism, mobilize, neutrality, total war, armistice, reparations
Key people/places/events: Bismarck, Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, Franz Ferdinand, Treaty of Versailles
Chapter 28 – Key Points
Russia in Revolution
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More than 90% of Russia’s population was involved with agriculture and 80% were serfs.
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Efforts to reform and modernize Russia, and to eliminate serfdom came and went during f
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much of the 1800s, but failed when Russia’s Czars turned to autocratic rule. The reform efforts were punctuated by periods of repression and rebellion.
Nicholas II the last Czar, made several reforms, including setting up a Duma, or parliament, b h
but the reforms came too late.
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Social Democrats were a radical reform group seeking revolutionary change. Led by Lenin, the Bolshevik faction of the Social Democrats seized control of the government after Nicholas II abdicated. L i
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state could not be possible without violent revolution. Following the success of the revolution Russia became the USSR and the Bolsheviks renamed themselves the Communist party.
When Lenin passed away Stalin became Russia’ss dictator, and set up a totalitarian state. When Lenin passed away, Stalin became Russia
dictator and set up a totalitarian state
Using 5‐year plans, collectivization of farms and control of all culture, he modernized Russia using a command economy ‐‐ but at the cost of millions of Russian lives.
Key terms: autocrat, autocracy, command economy, totalitarian
Key people/places/events Nicholas II Stalin Lenin 5 Year Plan
Key people/places/events: Nicholas II, Stalin, Lenin, 5 Year Plan
Chapter 30 – Key Points
Years between the Wars
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The global effects of the Great Depression, high inflation, severe unemployment and fear of communism in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the
and fear of communism in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the rise of authoritarian Fascist governments in Italy, Germany and Spain.
Fascism (and Nazism) were opposed to Communism, but shared a common approach to their opponents – anyone who disagreed was suppressed or opporessed
Adolph Hitler’s vision for Germany included condemnation of the Weimar Republic which had left Germany weakened, an Aryan “Master‐Race” which would rule, and extreme Anti‐Semitism.
The League of Nations was too weak to deal with armed aggression from the
The League of Nations was too weak to deal with armed aggression from the Fascists
Encouraged by an ineffective foreign response, Germany sent troops into the Rhineland, an area supposed to be left unfortified (according the Treaty of )
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Versailles) and eventually annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia
An ineffective policy of appeasement from France and Britain only encouraged Hitler to take more of Czechoslovakia and invade Poland, starting WWII.
Key terms: depression, fascism, authoritarianism, Nazism, appeasement
Key people/places/events: Mussolini Hitler Franco Axis Powers Allies
Key people/places/events: Mussolini, Hitler, Franco, Axis Powers, Allies
Chapter 31 – Key Points
World War II
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Leading up to the war, Hitler and Germany signed a non‐aggression pact in 1939 that divided Poland and other parts of Europe between them.
Discontent about the Treaty of Versailles, German, Italian and Japanese expansion, and failure of the appeasement policy all contributed to the war
WWII was actually two great wars fought simultaneously: The Allies and Axis powers fought in Europe and in the Pacific. More than 40 million people, including civilians died.
At the outbreak of the war, the Axis powers had strong economies prepared for war, while the Allies were generally unprepared to fight
generally unprepared to fight
For example, France’s Maginot Line was an elaborate, but ineffective line of defense against German blitzkreig
(lightning war) attacks.
While the Axis powers dominated Europe’s continent, England managed to resist German air power during the Battle of Britain and prevented an invasion. nd front in the war in Europe –
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repeating Napoleon’s mistakes, suffering huge losses as his forces turned on the USSR
Japan’s 1939 invasion of China was followed by expansion into SE Asia, and ultimately by an attack on the US Fleet at Pearl Harbor. That attack brought the US into the war on the side of Britain and the USSR against the Axis powers of Italy, Germany and Japan.
German defeats in North Africa and USSR began the changing tide of the war in Europe. US naval victories helped turn the tide in the Pacific
turn the tide in the Pacific. Key terms: nonaggression pact, blitzkreig, genocide, Holocaust, concentration camp
Key people/places/events: Winston Churchill, Hitler, Mussolini, Battle of Stalingrad, D‐Day, final solution