Thirty Pilgrims and Two Cities:
Approaching The Canterbury Tales through
an Augustinian Route
Hannah Halter
Engl 335W
The Canterbury Tales presents a spectrum
applies its messages. In studying this tale in
of themes surrounding its characters as they
relation to the others, interesting connections can
undertake their journey and offer their tales.
be made between the stories of Chaucer and the
Members of Chaucer’s cast of characters
theology of Saint Augustine, especially in the
represent people across the span of society;
scope of Augustine’s City of God. Within the
each with their own assumed estate. Some
frame of pilgrimage and extending to the choice
exhibit a surprising contrasting with images most
between love of self and love of God—the crux of
readers would conjure up based on their names.
Augustine’s own “tale” of two cities—Chaucer
The tales have this range, too, spanning from
builds a resounding theme of sin and repentance.
courtly, high romance to lecherous, low-class
Chaucer’s theological interest in modes of
fabliau. However, none of these tales stand out
thinking resound with St. Augustine’s City of God
quite as much as “The Parson’s Tale,” which
can be analyzed within the overall pilgrimage
concludes the entire collection. Instead of ending
framing the tales, “The Parson’s Tale,” and
his story with another tale of “solas,” Chaucer
Chaucer’s personal retraction.
concludes The Canterbury Tales with a long
Augustine remains to be one of the
religious sermon. Chaucer explicitly demon-
foremost figures of Christian antiquity, and the
strates his theological interest in this piece of
depth and span of his remarkable writings have
prose, and he follows it with a retraction that
carved out a general consensus of his
importance in all Christian studies. Because of
God pleased (Benson, 939). In exploring bits of
this, Augustine became a standard source for
Augustinian doctrine and including respectful
theological writings, and this pattern was certainly
references to him, Chaucer shows that he could
in place during Chaucer’s lifetime (Kellogg 427).
understand, apply, and honor the teachings of
This assertion does not stand alone as proof that
this fundamental figure of the early Church.
Chaucer put stock into Augustine’s teachings.
The sections of Augustine’s City of God
Throughout the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer
that can apply to The Canterbury Tales tell of
references Augustine, always with a tone of
what the saint metaphorically calls two cities,
utmost deference, in a peppering of nods to the
termed the City of God and the City of Man. The
saint. In the “Monk’s Prologue,” Augustine is
first, he writes, is concerned with “love of God
remembered in his physical toils, as is
even to contempt of self,” and the second is
appropriate to monastic life (1.187-88). Also, in
absorbed in “love of self even to contempt of
the “Shipman’s Tale,” Brother John wishes for the
God” (14. 8). Humankind, then, is caught
blessings of God and St. Augustine on his friend
between these two opposing cities in a sort of
(7. 259). In the “Physician’s Tale,” Augustine is
battleground existence (Battenhouse 258).
called the “Doctour” of the Church, and his
Augustine writes that the cities are “intertwined
description of “Envye” is applied (6. 117). Finally,
and mixed in this world until they [are] separated
in the “Nun’s Priest’s Tale,” St. Augustine is given
by the final judgment” (1. 34). In addition,
similar reverence when he is referred to as “the
Augustine clearly states that the City of God is
hooly doctour Augustyn” at a point where the
not one in the same as the Church, but he writes
narrator speaks of God’s “forwityng” in man’s life
that the City of God can begin wherever divine
(7. 3241-44). In an explanatory note within The
love touches and moves human will (Ames 210).
Riverside Chaucer, Augustine is pointed out as
Although this is a simplified look at a complex
one of the “four original Doctors of the Church,”
work, the basic duality of Augustine’s symbolic
and the passage goes on to explain his doctrine
cities can apply to The Canterbury Tales.
on predestination as “orthodox,” saying he believed that God bestowed plans unto mankind as
Chaucer
In reviewing the main message of The
City of God and identifying exhortation of
2
Augustine within The Canterbury Tales, connec-
tucking this idea into the tales, Chaucer
tions between Chaucer’s text and the theology of
demonstrates that this theme was on his mind
St. Augustine can begin to show up in the
when he decided to frame the story with a
overarching span of the tales. Throughout the
smaller, less transcendental pilgrimage.
Tales, Chaucer’s characters are on pilgrimage to
Within this idea of a pilgrimage,
the shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett, the “hooly
connections back to Augustine’s City of God can
blissful martir,” at Canterbury Cathedral (1. 17).
be observed. All religious traditions peg
The pilgrims, with all their diversities, are drawn
pilgrimages to spiritually significant sites as
together by a common religious journey. Both
undertakings of great depth. Those on such a
New Testament and patristic writings have
journey would take it with their minds on the
advocated the view that Christians are pilgrims in
sacred, leaving the secular behind for its
life, “en route to the heavenly Jerusalem,” an idea
duration. Both the arrival and the journey itself
that resounded in medieval religious communica-
would be times of prayer and reflection during
tion (Philips 133). Augustine repeatedly compares which they would strive to find spiritual
the progression of human life to a pilgrimage
enrichment, or perhaps even undergo dramatic
toward God. He instructs Christians to “enjoy
spiritual change. Also, as echoed in “The
their earthly blessings in the manner of pilgrims,”
Parson’s Tale,” pilgrimages can serve as
trying not to become “attached” to these things
penance, and they can even been undertaken
(1. 29). Christians are to use goods “like a pilgrim
without full consent as atonement for sins (10.
in a foreign land” as to not be distracted from God
104). However, instead of explicitly writing about
through earthly attachment (19. 17). Chaucer
the spiritual journey of the community of pilgrims,
makes explicit reference to this common idea in
Chaucer sets up an occasion for tale-telling,
“The Parson’s Tale”, where he places these
which arises out of a combination of boredom
words on the Parson’s lips: “And Jhesu, for hos
and incentive for a free dinner. Noticing this rift
grace, wit me sende/ To shewe yow the wey, in
between expectation and reality on this pilgrim-
this viage,/ Of thike parfit glorious pilgrimage/
age echoes the division between Augustine’s
That highte Jerusalem celestial” (10. 48-52). By
cities, or rather, the traits that embody each.
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The view of a pilgrimage as a journey of
cloistered is “nat worth an oyster” (1. 182). The
spiritual transformation seems aligned with Au-
theme of tranquility and order that Augustine
gustine’s City of God. A journey of this nature,
backs as a trait of the City of God also appears in
one of self-denial and focus on the divine, seems
the Tales. The semblance of order between all
like a microcosm of the life heaven-bound life
the pilgrims at the outset is quickly tossed aside
Augustine urged Christians to live. But the behav-
as the tales commence, proven once again by
ior of many of the pilgrims is nearly the opposite
the contention between certain members of the
of this ideal. Many of the pilgrims “argue,
party as they try to requite the previous tales.
squabble, swear, overindulge and often exhibit a
This setup is much more aligned with Augustine’s
questionable degree of piety and penitence”
City of Man, the city inclined toward disharmony
(Philips 136). Some of the stories, such as “The
between human beings and distance from God.
Miller’s Tale,” are purposefully ribald and even
With this arrangement, Chaucer seems to be
recounted by a drunken teller. A few tales are
communicating that the pilgrims do not
even framed as personal attacks between the
understand that their pilgrimage is lacking in
travelers, such as the combative tales exchanged
spiritual meaning.
by the Friar and the Summoner. The Wife of
Even with this setup already framing the
Bath, who admits she took a previous pilgrimage
Tales in a reasonably Augustinian fashion, a trove
to Jerusalem to “pleye” instead of pray, offers a
of the saint’s teachings rounds out the entire
prologue and tale that is rife with sexuality, even
story within “The Parson’s Tale” and even
when she tries to tie in biblical stanchions to
extends through Chaucer’s retraction of his work.
justify her lifestyle (3. 551). What may be even
The first two points to note about this tale are its
more surprising is the degree of corruption
position and form, both of which stand out among
among some of the characters that are
all the other tales. “The Parson’s Tale” takes the
associated with the Church, such as the
final position in the work, presented in prose that
Summoner, Friar, and Monk. Both the Summoner
reads like an in-depth sermon. Because it follows
and the Friar are swindlers, and the Monk ignores
all the other tales and presents itself in a new
the tenants of monastic life, feeling that being
form, one cannot help but contrast it from the rest
Chaucer
4
of the tales and even see it as a commentary on
quite literally the way to salvation, and he weaves
them. “The Parson’s Tale” exalts Augustine’s
this powerful theme throughout the tale (10.
wisdom by using many of his quotes to bolster
48-52). Just as “The Parson’s Tale” has two main
religious arguments. This tale deliberately sides
divisions, its application to the teachings of Saint
with the self-sacrificing City of God, while many of Augustine is twofold.
the tales that preceded it seemed aligned with the
In regards to the section on penitence
City of Man, full of what the Parson would
and contrition, Augustine is called in as an
describe as vice in their content, such as lechery
authority figure in a multitude of quotes. In most
in “The Miller’s Tale” and greed in both
of the prose, the Parson offers a bit of theology or
“The Summoner’s Tale” and “The Friar’s Tale.”
moral teaching and backs each up with words
Although some of the other tales carry religiosity
from a saint or church father. On the surface, the
that may echo conceivably Augustinian themes,
use of any church father’s teachings on
such as “The Prioress’s Tale” in its tragic story of
repentance would help in solidifying an argument
a young martyr, none of them compare to the
made to a reader who bought into the wisdoms
abstract, theological density of “The Parson’s
they offer. In using Augustine’s wisdom, however,
Tale.” The continuity of the spiritual pilgrimage
the Parson builds an even more reliable scaffold
theme applies so well to the occasion of the
beneath his own teaching, given Augustine’s
stories, making it a suitable ending that truly does
experience with personal repentance. One of
repay the other tales by reminding the travelers
Augustine’s most renowned writings, entitled
that their whole lives are pilgrimages. To simplify,
Confessions, details his gradual move from
“The Parson’s Tale” is a deep, faith-filled look at
taking comfort in a life of sin and distance from
virtue and vice and how one should deal with sin.
God to renouncing his past through conversion,
The tale can be seen as twofold, beginning and
penitence, and creating a relationship with God.
ending with a full description of penitence and
Augustine had lived through and succeeded in
proper contrition, with a discourse on the Seven
exactly what the Parson discusses as having
Deadly Sins and their counters occupying the
“steadfast purpose to shriven hym, and for to
middle. The Parson set out to show the pilgrims
amenden hym of his lyf” (10. 304). In presenting
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the literate world with the story of his journey
Sins of selfishness characterize this city, which
from vice to virtue, Augustine confessed and
dwells in the earthly. These maladies, since they
demonstrated how he altered his life which, in
are opposed to God as the Parson says, service
short, defines the teaching of the Parson on
the earthly and wound the spirit. The spirit is
penitence.
aligned with the City of God, and therefore can-
Augustine’s authority is again defined
not prosper in the mire of sin which traps the City
and his teachings reflected in the succeeding
of Man, “ruled by its lusts of rule” (Augustine, 1.
topic of “The Parson’s Tale” which deals with the
1). But in calling forth the City of Man in his study
Seven Deadly Sins. The Parson offers
of sin, the Parson shoots down each sin with a
evaluations of these sins that come straight from
virtue that is aligned with Augustine’s City of God.
Augustine’s City of God. For example, the Parson
In place of pride, he suggests humility (10. 475).
shares Augustine’s definition of Anger, or “Ire,” as
To quell anger, he proposes patience (10. 653).
the “wikked wil to been avenged by word or by
Against gluttony, he champions abstinence, and
dede” (10. 534). The Parson later uses
so on (10. 831). Virtues such as these embody
Augustine’s summary of Avarice, calling it “a
the harmony between people that Augustine gets
likerousnesse in herte to have erthely thynges,”
at in City of God. In stemming the wiles of sin,
including “somtyme in science and in glorie” (10.
these traits lead the spirit to turn from the earthly
742). Both of these definitions are adapted from
city to the heavenly one, where “instead of life,
book fourteen of City of God. Along with offering
[there is] eternity” (Augustine, 2. 29). In summary,
characterizations of each of the seven vices, the
the Parson’s whole treatise on the Seven Deadly
Parson suggests remedies. This remedying of
Sins can be seen as the achievable victory of the
sins can be associated with the themes of the
City of God over the City of Man, which stands as
City of God. The Parson frequently reminds the
the primary message of Augustine’s City of God.
pilgrims that every sin listed in the tale “is expres
The retraction that follows the final tale
eek agayn the comandement of God” (10. 817).
further reflects these themes. In it, Chaucer
Just as these sins are opposed to God, Augus-
requests mercy, imploring readers to “preye for
tine’s City of Man stands against the City of God.
me that Crist have mercy on me and foryeve me
Chaucer
6
my giltes;/ and namely of my translacions and
praying that his alignment with the sacred can be
enditynges of worldly vanitees, the whiche I
restored, just as Augustine called Christians to
revoke in my retracciouns” (10. 1083-84). Much
reject the sin of the City of Man and set their
like how the Parson called for Christians to repent
minds on the spirit-driven City of God.
for six main reasons, including fear of divine
The connections between The Canter-
judgment, Chaucer seeks forgiveness so that he
bury Tales and The City of God are proven by
“may been oon of hem at the day of doom that
Chaucer’s settlement on St. Augustine’s authority.
shulle be saved” (10. 1091). In this retraction,
He inserts respectful mentions of the saint
Chaucer appears to apply what the Parson
throughout the tales, culminating in his heavy
preached about to his own life. He attempts to
quotation of Augustine in “The Parson’s Tale.”
prove to the reader that he distinctly turned away
These concrete, observable examples show that
from the previous tales that contained the work-
Chaucer and Augustine are analytically compa-
ings of sin in hopes of restoring his own virtue.
rable involving the Canterbury pilgrimage, the
Whether or not Chaucer is truly repentant, he
Parson’s sermon, and Chaucer’s retraction with
writes of his decision to move away from the
the City of God.
worldly and examine his own spiritual health,
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Basic Writings of Saint Augustine. New York: Random House, 1948. 3-663. Print.
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