CHAPTER 2
CULTURE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
ƒ
Culture is universal; all human groups create a design for living that includes both material
and nonmaterial culture. Ideal culture, a group's ideal norms and values, exists alongside its
real culture, the actual behavior that often falls short of the cultural ideals.
ƒ
All people perceive and evaluate the world through the lens of their own culture. People are
naturally ethnocentric; that is, they use their own culture as a standard against which to
judge other cultures. In comparison, cultural relativism tries to understand other peoples
within the framework of their own culture.
ƒ
The central component of nonmaterial culture is symbols — anything to which people
attach meaning and use to communicate with one another. Included in nonmaterial culture
are gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, and mores. Language is
essential for culture because it allows us to move beyond the present, sharing with others
our past experiences and our future plans. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,
language not only expresses our thinking and perceptions but actually shapes them.
ƒ
All groups have values and norms and use positive and negative sanctions to show approval
or disapproval of those who do or don't follow the norms.
ƒ
A subculture is a group whose values and behaviors set it apart from the general culture; a
counterculture holds values that stand in opposition to the dominant culture.
ƒ
Although the U.S. is a pluralistic society made up of many groups, each with its own set of
values, certain core values dominate. Some values cluster together to form a larger whole.
Core values that contradict one another indicate areas of social tension and are likely points
of social change.
ƒ
Cultural universals are values, norms or other cultural traits that are found in all cultures.
ƒ
No animals have language in the sociological sense of the term. However, different
experiments suggest that some animals have a limited capacity to learn language.
ƒ
Cultural lag refers to a condition in which a group's nonmaterial culture lags behind its
changing technology. Today the technology in travel and communication makes cultural
diffusion occur more rapidly around the globe than in the past, resulting in some degree of
cultural leveling, a process by which cultures become similar to one another.
24
CULTURE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 2, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Understand what is meant by the term culture and list the principles surrounding culture.
(36-37)
Distinguish between material and nonmaterial culture. (36)
Know what is meant by cultural shock, provide examples of situations that may result in
cultural shock, and explain how cultural shock forces people to challenge their own cultural
assumptions. (37-38)
Define ethnocentrism and cultural relativism, offer examples of both concepts, and list the
positive and negative consequences of each. (38-39)
List the components of symbolic culture. (39-40)
Define — and differentiate between — gestures and language. (42-45)
Explain why language is the basis of culture, including why it is critical to human life and
essential for cultural development. (42-45)
Understand the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and provide examples of how language not only
reflects and expresses thinking, perceptions, and experiences, but also shapes and influences
them. (44-45)
Define values, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores, and taboos; provide examples of each;
and discuss their sociological significance. (46-48)
Compare, contrast, and offer examples of dominant cultures, subcultures, and
countercultures. (48-49)
List the core values in American society as identified by Robin Williams and supplemented
by James Henslin. (52-53)
Explain what is meant by value clusters and value contradictions, and offer examples of
some value clusters and value contradictions in American society. (54-55)
Understand how value contradictions can affect social change. (54-55)
Discuss the differences between “ideal” and “real” culture. (56)
Define and identify some cultural universals and discuss how carrying out universal human
activities may differ from one group to another. (56)
List some current “new technologies” and talk about how they are changing social
behaviors and relationships in the United States and around the world. (57-58)
Define and discuss cultural lag and cultural change (58)
Discuss the role that technology has played in cultural diffusion, and cultural leveling. (5859)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
What is Culture?
A. Culture is defined as the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even
material objects passed from one generation to the next.
1.
Material culture is things such as jewelry, art, buildings, weapons, machines,
clothing, hairstyles, etc.
2.
Nonmaterial culture is a group's ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and
assumptions) and common patterns of behavior (language, gestures, and other
forms of interaction).
B. Culture provides a taken-for-granted orientation to life.
1.
We assume that our own culture is normal or natural; in fact, it is not natural, but
rather is learned. It penetrates our lives so deeply that it is taken for granted and
provides the lens through which we perceive and evaluate things.
25
CHAPTER 2
2.
C.
II.
It provides implicit instructions that tell us what we ought to do and a moral
imperative that defines what we think is right and wrong.
3.
Coming into contact with a radically different culture produces "culture shock,"
challenging our basic assumptions.
4.
A consequence of internalizing culture is ethnocentrism, using our own culture
(and assuming it to be good, right, and superior) to judge other cultures. It is
functional when it creates in-group solidarity, but can be dysfunctional if it leads
to discrimination against those who are different.
Cultural relativism consists of trying to appreciate other groups' ways of life in the
context in which they exist, without judging them as superior or inferior to our own.
1.
Because we tend to use our own culture as the standard, cultural relativism
presents a challenge to ordinary thinking.
2.
At the same time, this view helps us appreciate other ways of life.
3.
Robert Edgerton suggests developing a scale for evaluating cultures on their
“quality of life”. He argues that those cultural practices that result in
exploitation should be judged as morally inferior to those that enhance people's
lives.
Components of Symbolic Culture
A. Sociologists sometimes refer to nonmaterial culture as symbolic culture.
1.
A central component of culture is the symbol — something to which people
attach meaning and use in communications.
2.
Symbols include gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, and
mores.
B. Gestures, or using one's body to communicate with others, are shorthand means of
communication.
1.
People in every culture use gestures, although the gestures and the meanings
differ; confusion or offense can result because of misunderstandings over the
meaning of a gesture or misuse of a gesture.
2.
There is disagreement over whether there are any universal gestures. They tend
to vary considerably around the world.
3.
Because some gestures are so closely associated with emotional messages, the
gestures themselves can often elicit emotions.
C. Language consists of a system of symbols that can be put together in an infinite
number of ways in order to communicate abstract thought. Each word is a symbol to
which a culture attaches a particular meaning. It is important because it is the primary
means of communication between people.
1.
It allows human experiences to be cumulative; each generation builds on the
body of significant experiences that is passed on to it by the previous generation,
thus freeing people to move beyond immediate experiences.
2.
It allows for a social or shared past. We are able to discuss past events with
others.or understandings
3.
It allows for a social or shared future. Language allows us to plan future
activities with one another.
4.
It allows the exchange of perspectives (i.e., ideas about events and experiences).
5.
It allows people to engage in complex, shared, goal-directed behavior.
6.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that our thinking and perception not only are
expressed by language but actually are shaped by language because we are
taught not only words but also a particular way of thinking and perceiving.
26
CULTURE
D.
E.
Rather than objects and events forcing themselves onto our consciousness, our
very language determines our consciousness.
Culture includes values, norms, and sanctions.
1.
Values are the standards by which people define good and bad, beautiful and
ugly. Every group develops both values and expectations regarding the right
way to reflect them.
2.
Norms are the expectations, or rules of behavior, that develop out of a group's
values.
3.
Sanctions are the positive or negative reactions to the way in which people
follow norms. Positive sanctions (a money reward, a prize, a smile, or even a
handshake) are expressions of approval; negative sanctions (a fine, a frown, or
harsh words) denote disapproval for breaking a norm.
4.
To relieve the pressure of having to strictly follow the norms, some cultures
have moral holidays — specified times when people are allowed to break the
norms and not worry about being sanctioned. Mardi Gras is an example of a
moral holiday in our society.
5.
Some societies have moral holiday places, locations where norms are expected
to be broken. An example would be red light districts where prostitutes are
allowed to work the street.
Norms vary in terms of their importance to a culture.
1.
Folkways are norms that are not strictly enforced, such as passing on the left
side of the sidewalk. They may result in a person getting a dirty look.
2.
Mores are norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist on
conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and kills has violated some of society's
most important mores.
3.
Norms that one group considers to be folkways another group may view as
mores. A male walking down the street with the upper half of his body
uncovered may be violating a folkway; a female doing the same thing may be
violating mores.
4.
Taboos are norms so strongly ingrained that even the thought of them is greeted
with revulsion. Eating human flesh and having sex with one's parents are
examples of such behavior.
III. Many Cultural Worlds: Subcultures and Countercultures
A. Subcultures are groups whose values and related behaviors are so distinct that they set
their members off from the dominant culture.
1.
Each subculture is a world within the larger world of the dominant culture, and
has a distinctive way of looking at life, but remains compatible with the
dominant culture.
2.
U.S. society contains tens of thousands of subcultures. Some are quite broad
(teenagers), while others are narrow (body builders). Some ethnic groups form
subcultures, as do certain occupational groups.
B. Countercultures are groups whose values set their members in opposition to the
dominant culture.
1.
While usually associated with negative behavior, some countercultures are not.
2.
Countercultures are often perceived as a threat by the dominant culture because
they challenge the culture's values; for this reason the dominant culture will
move against a particular counterculture in order to affirm its own core values.
For example, the Mormons in the 1800’s challenged the dominant culture’s core
value of monogamy.
27
CHAPTER 2
IV. Values in U.S. Society
A. Identifying core values in U.S. society is difficult because it is a pluralistic society
with many different religious, racial, ethnic, and special interest groups.
1.
Sociologist Robin Williams identified twelve core values: achievement and
success (especially, doing better than others); individualism (success due to
individual effort); activity and work; efficiency and practicality; science and
technology (using science to control nature); progress; material comfort;
humanitarianism (helpfulness, personal kindness, philanthropy); freedom;
democracy; equality (especially of opportunity); and racism and group
superiority.
2.
Henslin updated Williams's list by adding education; religiosity (belief in a
Supreme Being and following some set of matching precepts); and romantic
love.
B. Values are not independent units; value clusters are made up of related core values
that come together to form a larger whole. In the value cluster surrounding success,
for example, we find hard work, education, efficiency, material comfort, and
individualism all bound together.
C. Some values conflict with each other. There cannot be full expressions of democracy,
equality, racism, and sexism at the same time. These are value contradictions and as
society changes some values are challenged and undergo modification.
D. A cluster that is emerging in response to fundamental changes in U.S. society is made
up of the values of leisure, self-fulfillment, physical fitness, and youthfulness.
Another emerging value is concern for the environment.
1.
Valuing leisure is reflected in the huge recreation industry that exists today.
2.
Self-fulfillment is expressed through the human potential movement and on the
popularity of self-help books and talk shows.
3.
While physical fitness is not a new value, it is emphasized more today, as
evidenced by the interest in health foods, weight and diet, and the growth in the
number of health club/physical fitness centers.
4.
There is today a new sense of urgency in being young, perhaps because of the
presence of aging baby boomers who are trying to deny their biological fate.
5.
Our history suggests a lack of concern for the environment; it was generally
viewed as a challenge to be overcome. However, there is today a genuine
concern for protecting the environment.
E. Core values do not change without meeting strong resistance.
1.
Change is seen as a threat to the established way of life, something that will
undermine people’s present and their future.
2.
Today’s clash in values is often so severe that the term “culture wars” has been
coined to refer to it.
F. Values and their supporting beliefs may blind people to other social circumstances.
Success stories blind many people in the United States to the dire consequences of
family poverty, lack of education, and dead-end jobs.
G. Ideal culture refers to the ideal values and norms of a people. What people actually do
usually falls short of this ideal, and sociologists refer to the norms and values that
people actually follow as real culture.
V.
Cultural Universals
A. Although there are universal human activities, there is no universally accepted way of
doing any of them.
28
CULTURE
1.
B.
Anthropologist George Murdock concluded that all human groups have certain
cultural universals: customs about courtship, cooking, marriage, funerals, games,
laws, music, myths, incest taboos, and toilet training are present in all cultures.
2.
Even so, the specific customs differ from one group to another: by way of
example, there is no universal form of the family, no universal way of disposing
of the dead, and even the methods of toilet training differ from one culture to
another. Even incest is defined differently from group to group.
Sociobiologists argue that, as a result of natural selection, the basic cause of human
behavior is biology.
1.
Just as physical characteristics and instinctual behavior of animals is the result
of natural selection (i.e., those genetic traits that aid in survival tend to become
common to a species while those that do not tend to disappear), so is human
behavior.
2.
Edward Wilson has argued that religion, competition and cooperation, slavery
and genocide, war and peace, envy and altruism can all be explained in terms of
genetic programming.
3.
Most sociologists reject this claim. Unlike other species, humans are capable of
reasoning and abstract thought; they can consider alternatives, reflect on
outcomes, and make choices.
VI. Technology in the Global Village
A. Central to a group’s material culture is its technology. In its simplest sense,
technology can be equated with tools. In its broadest sense, technology also includes
the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools.
1.
The emerging technologies of an era that make a major impact on human life are
referred to as new technologies. The printing press and the computer are both
examples of new technologies.
2.
The sociological significance of technology is that it sets the framework for the
nonmaterial culture, influencing the way people think and how they relate to one
another.
B. Not all parts of culture change at the same pace; cultural lag was William Ogburn's
term for situations where the material culture changes first and the nonmaterial culture
lags behind.
C. Although for most of human history cultures had little contact with one another, there
has always been some contact with other groups, resulting in groups learning from
one another.
1.
This transmission of cultural characteristics is cultural diffusion; it is more likely
to produce changes in material culture than the nonmaterial culture.
2.
Cultural diffusion occurs more rapidly today, given the technology.
3.
Travel and communication unite the world to such an extent that there almost is
no "other side of the world." For example, Japan, no longer a purely Eastern
culture, has adapted Western economic production, forms of dress, music, and
so on. This leads to cultural leveling where cultures become similar to one
another.
KEY TERMS
After studying the chapter, review the definition for each of the following terms.
counterculture: a group whose values, beliefs, and related behaviors place its members in
opposition to the values of the broader culture (49)
29
CHAPTER 2
cultural diffusion: the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another (58)
cultural lag: William Ogburn's term for human behavior lagging behind technological
innovations (58)
cultural leveling: the process by which cultures become similar to one another, and especially
by which Western industrial culture is imported and diffused into industrializing nations
(59)
cultural relativism: not judging a culture, but trying to understand it on its own terms (39)
cultural universal: a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group (56)
culture: the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed
from one generation to the next (36)
culture shock: the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a
fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted
assumptions about life (37)
ethnocentrism: the use of one's own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other
individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms,
and behaviors (37)
folkways: norms that are not strictly enforced (47)
gestures: the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another (40)
ideal culture: the ideal values and norms of a people, the goals held out for them (56)
language: a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can
represent not only objects but also abstract thought (42)
material culture: the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art,
buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry (36)
mores: norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values (47)
negative sanction: an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild,
informal reaction such as a frown to a formal prison sentence or an execution (46)
new technology: the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life
(58)
nonmaterial culture: a group's ways of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other
assumptions about the world) and doing (its common patterns of behavior, including
language and other forms of interaction) (37)
norms: the expectations, or rules of behavior, that reflect and enforce values (46)
pluralistic society: a society made up of many different groups (49)
positive sanction: a reward given for following norms, ranging from a smile to a prize (46)
real culture: the norms and values that people actually follow (56)
sanctions: expressions of approval or disapproval given to people for upholding or violating
norms (46)
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language creates
ways of thinking and perceiving (45)
sociobiology: a framework of thought that views human behavior as the result of natural selection
and considers biological characteristics to be the fundamental cause of human behavior (56)
subculture: the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the
larger culture; a world within a world (48)
symbol: something to which people attach meaning and then use to communicate with others
(39)
symbolic culture: another term for nonmaterial culture (39)
taboo: a norm so strong that it brings revulsion if it is violated (48)
technology: in its narrow sense, tools; its broader sense includes the skills or procedures
necessary to make and use those tools (57)
value clusters: a series of interrelated values that together form a larger whole (53)
30
CULTURE
value contradictions: values that conflict with one another; to follow the one means to come into
conflict with the other (53)
values: the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad,
beautiful or ugly (46)
KEY PEOPLE
Review the major theoretical contributions or findings of these people.
Peter Conrad: He notes that not all homosexuals have the Xq28, “gay gene”, and some people
who have this gene are not homosexual. This gene does not determine behavior and social
causes should be examined. (57)
Charles Darwin: Darwin studied the principles on which natural selection occurred. (57)
Robert Edgerton: Edgerton attacks the concept of cultural relativism, suggesting that because
some cultures endanger their people's health, happiness, or survival, there should be a scale
to evaluate cultures on their "quality of life." (38-39)
Douglas Massey: This sociologist has studied the impact that immigration is having on Miami,
predicting that the city will become the first “truly bilingual” city. (45)
George Murdock: Murdock was an anthropologist who sought to determine which cultural
values, norms, or traits, if any, were found universally across the globe. (56)
William Ogburn: Ogburn coined the term "cultural lag." (58)
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf: These two anthropologists argued that language not only
reflects thoughts and perceptions, but that it actually shapes the way people think and
perceive the world. (44-45)
JoEllen Shively: This sociologist’s research demonstrated that Native Americans’ identification
with cowboys in Westerns was based on the symbolism of the West as a free, natural way
of life. She discovered that they think of themselves as the real cowboys. (53)
William Sumner: Sumner developed the concept of ethnocentrism. (37)
Robin Williams: He identified twelve core U.S. values. (52)
Edward Wilson: Wilson is an insect specialist who claims that human behavior is also the result
of natural selection. (57)
Eviatar Zerubavel: This sociologist offers an example of how language shapes our perceptions
of the world (the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). He notes that in his native Hebrew, there is no
distinction made between the two forms of fruit spread — jams and jellies. It was only
when he learned English that he was able to “see” the differences that were so obvious to
English speakers. (45)
31
CHAPTER 2
STUDENT APPLICATION PROJECTS
This is your opportunity to apply the sociological perspective to the world around you. The
projects in this section refer to material introduced in this chapter of your text. These projects
help you apply the sociological perspective “down to your earth…down to your daily life.”
1. Over a period of two or three days observe various gestures that people use to
communicate. List the various gestures. Are the various gestures confusing to people as
they try to communicate with one another? Are there easily shared meanings of the
various gestures?
2. Think about the text’s various discussions about values, core values, and emerging
values. Further, think about yourself, your parent(s), and your grandparent(s). Do
different generations view values and the priority of certain values differently? Or, are
certain values universal across generations in the United States. Provide illustrations from
your own family.
3. As noted in the text, there are various new technologies emerging and they have a
significant impact on our culture and our lives. Choose two new technologies that you
currently use and explore the positive and negative effects these technologies have on
society. For each technology, list three positive and three negative effects. Overall, do
you think culture will “catch up” to the newest technological developments? Explain
your answer.
SELF-TEST
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
Which of the following would you use to describe a group's ways of thinking and doing,
including language and other forms of interaction? (36)
a.
material culture
b.
nonmaterial culture
c.
ideological culture
d.
values
2.
Which of the following is part of material culture? (36)
a.
weapons and machines
b.
belief in a supreme being
c.
value of individualism
d.
language
3.
Which of these statements regarding culture is not true? (38)
a.
people generally are aware of the effects of their own culture.
b.
culture touches almost every aspect of who and what a person is.
c.
at birth, people do not possess culture.
d.
culture is the lens through which we perceive and evaluate what is going on around
us.
4.
In the textbook the author describes his reaction to life in Morocco. Which of the following
best describes what he was feeling? (37)
32
CULTURE
a.
b.
c.
d.
cultural diffusion
cultural leveling
cultural relativism
cultural shock
5.
An American thinks citizens of another country are barbarians if they like to attend
bullfights. Which of the following concepts best describes his reaction? (37)
a.
cultural shock
b.
cultural relativism
c.
ethnocentrism
d.
ethnomethodology
6.
Which of the following statements about cultural relativism is incorrect? (38-39)
a.
cultural relativism does present a challenge to our ordinary thinking.
b.
none of us can be entirely successful at practicing cultural relativism.
c.
Robert Edgerton argues that we should accept other cultures according to their
customs and values.
d.
cultural relativism is an attempt to appreciate other ways of life.
7.
Which of the following statements about gestures is correct? (40-42)
a.
gestures are studied by anthropologists but not sociologists.
b.
gestures are universal.
c.
gestures always facilitate communication between people.
d.
gestures can lead to misunderstandings and embarrassment.
8.
Which of the following makes it possible for human experience to be cumulative and for
people to share memories? (42)
a.
language
b.
cultural universals
c.
gestures
d.
computers
9.
Sociologist Eviatar Zerubavel gives a good example when he states that is native language
of Hebrew does not have separate words for jam and jelly. What is this an example of?
(45)
a.
sociobiology
b.
the Davis-Moore theory
c.
the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
d.
the Linguistic perspective
10.
Every group develops expectations about the right ways to reflect its values.
expectations are: (46)
a.
ideal culture.
b.
real culture.
c.
norms.
d.
moral standards.
11.
A monetary reward, a prize, a hug, or a pat on the back are all examples of: (46)
a.
norms.
33
These
CHAPTER 2
b.
c.
d.
values.
positive sanctions.
negative sanctions.
12.
Moral holidays are: (46)
a.
times when people can break the norms and not be sanctioned.
b.
often center around people getting drunk and being rowdy.
c.
celebrations like Mardi Gras.
d.
all of the above.
13.
As you are shopping at a crowded mall, you absentmindedly forget to hold the door open
for an elderly woman coming through behind you. The consequence is that the door slams
in her face. Which of the following cultural components has been violated as a result of
your behavior? (47)
a.
taboos
b.
mores
c.
values
d.
folkways
14.
Which of the following statements about mores is correct? (47-48)
a.
mores are essential to our core values and require conformity.
b.
mores are norms that are not strictly enforced.
c.
mores state that a person should not try to pass you on the left side of the sidewalk.
d.
mores are less important in contemporary societies.
15.
The author of your text cites having sex with one’s parents as an example of: (48)
a.
folkways.
b.
mores.
c.
taboos.
d.
a behavior that is universally sanctioned.
16.
Subcultures: (48-49)
a.
are a world within a world.
b.
have values and related behaviors that set their members apart from the dominant
culture.
c.
include occupational groups.
d.
are all of the above.
17.
The Hell’s Angels are an example of a: (49)
a.
motorcycle enthusiast group.
b.
perverted people.
counterculture.
c.
d.
subculture.
18.
U.S. society is made up of many different groups. Which of the following terms would a
sociologist use to describe this type of society? (49)
a.
a melting pot
b.
a pluralist society
c.
a conflicted society
34
CULTURE
d.
a counterculture
19.
Which of the following statements concerning core values is incorrect? (52-53)
a.
they are shared by the many groups that make up U.S. society.
b.
they include achievement and success, individualism, and progress.
c.
they change over time.
d.
they rarely create much conflict as they change.
20.
According to the author of your text, a new value cluster is emerging in the United States.
Which of the following combination of core values make up this new value cluster? (54)
a.
achievement and success, activity and work, material comfort
b.
individualism, freedom, democracy, equality
c.
leisure, self-fulfillment, physical fitness, youngness
d.
youngness, self-fulfillment, romantic love, material comfort
21.
Which of the following reflects conditions under which value contradictions can occur?
(54)
a.
a value, such as the one that stresses group superiority, comes into direct conflict with
other values, such as democracy and equality.
b.
societies have very little social change.
c.
a series of interrelated values bind together to form a larger whole.
d.
values blind people to many social circumstances.
22.
The term culture wars refers to: (55)
a.
intense conflict between different cultures.
b.
intense conflict between subcultures and countercultures.
c.
wars fought because of ethnocentrism.
d.
the contemporary clash in core values in U.S. society.
23.
Which of the following statements about ideal culture is correct? (56)
a.
ideal culture is a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group.
b.
ideal culture reflects the values and norms which people in a culture attempt to hold.
c.
ideal culture is the norms people follow when they know they are being watched.
d.
ideal culture is not a sociological concept.
24.
Which of the following is a cultural universal identified by George Murdock? (56)
a.
toilet training
b.
discipline
school systems
c.
d.
none of the above
25.
What is the perspective that views human behavior as the result of natural selection and
considers biological characteristics to be the fundamental cause of human behavior? (56-57)
a.
natural science
b.
social science
c.
anthropology
d.
sociobiology
35
CHAPTER 2
26.
Edward Wilson, an insect specialist, claims that human behavior is the result
of__________________. (57)
a.
socialization
b.
natural selection
c.
genetics
d.
DNA
27.
What would the printing press or the computer be considered? (58)
a.
inventive technologies
b.
diffused technologies
c.
examples of cultural leveling
d.
new technologies
28.
There are computer tests that outperform physicians in diagnosing and prescribing
treatment, yet most of us still visit doctors and rely on their judgement. What does this
situation reflect? (58)
a.
resistance to new technologies
b.
cultural diffusion
c.
the social construction of technology
d.
cultural lag
29.
Today bagels, woks, and hammocks are all a part of U.S. culture. The adoption of these
objects illustrates which of the following processes or concepts? (58)
a.
cultural leveling
b.
nonmaterial culture
c.
cultural diffusion
d.
cultural universals
30.
Coca-Cola is found in almost every country in the world. This is an example of: (58-59)
a.
cultural sharing.
b.
cultural leveling.
c.
enrichment of local cultures through contact with U.S. material culture.
d.
culture shock.
TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
_____Culture consists primarily of material objects that are passed from one generation to
another. (36)
_____Culture has little to do with people’s ideas of right and wrong. (38)
_____No one can be entirely successful at practicing cultural relativism. (38-39)
_____Robert Edgerton is a strong critic of cultural relativism, arguing that cultures should
be rated on the basis of their “quality of life.” (39)
_____The gesture of nodding the head up and down to indicate "yes" is universal. (41)
_____Without language, humans could still successfully plan future events. (43)
_____Sanctions are positive or negative reactions to the ways people follow norms. (46)
_____While folkways may change across cultures, mores are universally the same. (47)
_____Motorcycle enthusiasts who emphasize personal freedom and speed, while
maintaining values of success, form part of a counterculture. (48-49)
_____Racism and group superiority are core values in U.S. society. (52)
36
CULTURE
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
_____ In her research, JoEllen Shively found that Native Americans identify with cowboys.
(53)
_____Concern for the environment has always been a core value in U.S. society. (55)
_____It is not uncommon for some values to conflict with one another. (55)
_____Core values do not change without meeting strong resistance. (55)
_____Although certain activities are present in all cultures, the specific customs differ from
one group to another. (56)
_____Most sociologists do not agree with sociobiology. (56-57)
_____Edward Wilson argues that human behavior is different from animal behavior. (57)
_____Although new technologies may affect material culture, including the way things are
done in a society, they have only minimal impact on nonmaterial culture, including the way
people think and what they value. (57-58)
_____According to William Ogburn, a group's nonmaterial culture usually changes first,
with the material culture lagging behind. (58)
_____Because of cultural leveling, the piñatas in Mexico are no longer donkeys but Mickey
Mouse. (59)
FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
The material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, building,
weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry are known as _______.
(36)
When Sue experiences disorientation from moving from the U.S. to Africa, this is known
as ____________. (37)
Trying to understand a culture on its own terms is the concept of ________________.
(38)
A __________ is something to which people attach meaning and then use to
communicate with others. (40)
____________ are ways in which people use their body to communicate with one
another. (40)
The ______________________ hypothesis reverses common sense. (45)
Expectations, or rules of behavior, that develop out of a group’s values, are _______.
(46)
Norms, that are not strictly enforced, are _______________________. (47)
_______________ groups have values and norms that place it in opposition to the
dominant culture. (49)
______________ are a series of interrelated values that together form a larger whole. (53)
Leisure time is becoming an emerging _________. (54)
Sociologists call the norms and values that people actually follow _______________.
(56)
Emerging technologies that have a significant impact on social life are referred to as
__________________________. (58)
William Ogburn used the term______________________ to refer to a situation in which
nonmaterial culture takes a period of time to adjust to changes in the material culture.
(58)
The process in which cultures become similar to one another is _________________.
(59)
MATCH THESE SOCIAL SCIENTISTS WITH THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
37
CHAPTER 2
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
1. Edward Sapir and
Benjamin Whorf
2. Robin Williams
3. George Murdock
4. Douglas Massey
5. Robert Edgerton
6. Edward Wilson
7. William Sumner
8. Charles Darwin
9. William Ogburn
10. JoEllen Shively
a. Stated Miami is truly bilingual
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
introduced the concept of cultural lag
looked for cultural universals
principles of natural selection
studied Native Americans’ identification with Westerns
stated that language shapes perceptions of reality
believed natural selection produces human behavior
criticized aspects of cultural relativism
noted core values of U.S. society
developed the concept of ethnocentrism
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1.
Explain cultural relativism and discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of practicing
it.
2.
As the author points out, the United States is a pluralistic society, made up of many
different groups. Having read this chapter about culture, now discuss some of the things that
are gained by living in such a society, as well as some of the problems that are created.
3.
Consider the degree to which the real culture of the United States falls short of the ideal
culture. Provide concrete examples to support your essay.
4.
Thinking about William Ogburn’s term cultural lag, explain why college students still
attend traditional classes in the classroom when the technology is available to take classes
over the Internet.
38