CONTENTS
chapter
one
ARGUMENTS,
I
1.1
Deductive and inductive arguments,
1.2
Valid and invalid arguments, 5
1.3
Some important valid and invalid forms: Syllogisms, 12
1.4
More valid and invalid forms: Nonsyllogisms. 18
chapter
two
BEGGING THE QUESTION, 25
2.1
Alleged certainty, 26
2.2
Question-begging epithets, 27
2.3
Circular reasoning, 27
2.4
Question-begging definitions, 28
2.5
Complex questions. 29
2.6
Assuming a more general claim, 30
2.7
Assuming every instance of a generalization, 30
2.8
Equivalent expressions, 31
ix
x
CONTENTS
chapter
three
PSEUDOA UTHORITY, 34
3.1
Popular sentiments, 35
3.2
Confident manner, 36
3.3
Ceremony, 36
3.4
Jargon, 37
3.5
Aphorisms, 37
3.6
Popular people. 38
3.7
Titles, 39
3.8
Tradition 39
3.9
Large numbers, 41
3.10 Self-interest. 42
3.11 Irrelevant authority, 43
3.12 Apriorism, 43
3.13 Idols, 44
3.14 Faith, 45
3.15 Misrepresenting authority, 46
3.16 Imaginary authority, 47
chapter
four
IRRELEV ANT APPEALS, 50
4.1
Force, 50
4.2
Pity, 51
4.3
Ignorance, 52
4.4
Abusing the man 53
4.5
Bad seecl54
CONTENTS
4.6
Bad connections, 54
4.7
Faulty motives, 55
4.8
You're another, 55
4.9
Friendship, 57
4. 10 Fear, 58
4.11 Wrong reason. 59
4.12 Wishful thinking, 60
4.13 Is-ought. 60
4.14 Attacking illustrations, 61
4.15 Straw man. 63
4.16 Pride, 63
4.17 Good intentions, 64
4.18 Vacuous guarantees, 65
4.19 Rationalization. 65
4.20 Monday morning quarterbacking, 66
4.21 Simple diversion. 67
chapter
five
CONFUSION, 70
5.1
Equivocation. 70
5.2
Amphiboly, 71
5.3
Accent, 72
5.4
Humor, 73
5.5
Contradictory assumptions, 73
5.6
Anger, 74
57
Lack of understanding, 75
xi
x ii
CONTENTS
5.8
Trivial objections. 77
5.9
Emotional language. 78
5.10 Pseudoarguments. 79
5.11 Etymology. 80
5.12 Exceptions to the rule. 80
5.13 Answering questions with questions. 81
5.14 Alleged ambiguity. 82
chapter
SIX
chapter
seven
FAULTY CLASSIFICATION, 86
6.1
Continuum. 86
6.2
Golden mean. 87
6.3
False dilemma. 87
6.4
Composition. 88
6.5
Division. 88
6.6
Oversimplification. 89
6.7
Vague terms. 89
6.8
Illicit contrast. 90
POLITICAL FALLACIES, 92
7.1
The end justifies the means. 92
7.2
No precedent. 93
7.3
Novelty. 94
7.4
Stagnation. 94
7.5
Imposter terms. 94
7.6
Special pleading. 95
xiii
CONTENTS
7.7
Repeated assertion. 95
7.8
Quietism, 96
7.9
False consolation. 97
7.10 Self-purification. 98
7.11 Procrastination. 99
7.12 Uncertain consequences, 99
7.13 Creating doubts, 100
7. 14 Perfect world, 101
7.15 Efficacy of time, 101
7.16 Almighty will, 102
7.17 Popular corruption. 103
chapter
eight
INDUCTIVE FALLACIES,
106
8.1
Hasty generalization. 106
8.2
Accident 107
8.3
False cause, 108
8.4
Gambler's, 108
8.5
Faulty analogy, 109
8.6
Central tendency, 111
8.7
Misleading percentages, 112
8.8
Misleading totals, 112
Suggestions for further reading, 114
Answers to review questions, 115
Index, 123