MPS 17
The Structure of Persuasion
Logos : reasoning, reasons, good reasons—not necessarily about formal logic
Making and Refuting Arguments
Steps of an Argument
You make a claim
The conclusion of your argument—a statement you want your listeners to accept
“Textbook prices are too high”
“Visual aids make ideas easier to remember”
You offer evidence
The supporting material you use to prove a point
As an advocate you have an obligation to support your position with valid arguments
You must offer your listeners reasons to accept your conclusion
You show how the evidence proves the claim
You link the evidence to the claim
For example: Statistics may underwrite the claim that there is some X-Trend
You qualify the link
Probably
Certainly
Without a doubt
50-50 likelihood
Steps of Refuting an Argument
State the position/claim your are refuting
State your position/claim
Support your position/claim
Show how your position undermines the opposing argument
Types of Argument
Argument by Example
Inductive form of proof
Uses a few specific instances to assert a broader claim
Tests of Examples:
Are the examples true?
Are the examples relevant?

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Are the examples sufficient?
Are the examples representative?
Argument by Analogy
Links two object or concepts and asserts that what is true of one will be true of the other
Appropriate when what you oppose or support has been tried elsewhere (in a way it is like an argument from precedent)
Tests of Analogies:
Are the similarities between the two cases relevant?
Are any of the differences between the two cases relevant?
Argument by Cause
Connects two elements or events and claims that one is produced by the other
Can reason from effect to cause or from cause to effect
The difference is chronological
Tests of Causal Arguments:
Does a causal relationship exist?
Could the presumed cause produce the effect?
Could the effect result from other causes?
Argument by Deduction
Moves from a general category to a specific instance
Can consist of three elements as a syllogism:
Major premise : a claim about a general group of people, events, or conditions (generally, that your audience accepts)
Minor premise : places a specific person, event, or condition into a general class
Conclusion : argues that what is true of the general class is true of the specific instance or individual
Steps:
State your major premise
Say “because,” and then state your minor premise
Say “therefore,” and then state your conclusion
Tests of Deductive Arguments:
Do the premises relate to each other?

Is the may premise true?
Is the minor premise true?
Enthymeme:
State your minor premise
“Because it is raining”
State your conclusion
“You better take an umbrella”
Argument by Authority
Audience supplies missing Major premise(s) from ‘store’ of what they already know
This is some STRONG persuasion!
It seems like (and in fact is) common sense!
Uses testimony from an expert source to prove a speaker’s claim
Its validity rests on the credibility the authority has for the audience
Tests of Argument by Authority:
Is the source an expert?
Is the source unbiased?
Fallacies of Argument
Hasty Generalization
Faulty form of argument by example
Quantity and quality of examples questionable
Insufficient and unrepresentative instances
False Analogy
If the items compared in an analogy differ in critical ways
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
“After this, therefore, because of this.”
A chronological fallacy—assumes that because one event followed another event, the first event caused it
Slippery Slope
Asserts that one action inevitably sets in motion a chain of events or indicates a trend
The domino effect
Red Herring
Can be a faulty argument by deduction
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An argument makes a claim based on an irrelevant premise
The red herring fallacy introduces an irrelevant issue to deflect attention from the subject under discussion
You have more that the two options presented
Polarizing
False Authority
Advocates support their ideas with the testimony of people who have apparent, but not real, expertise
I’m good a golf. Buy this Buick.
Bandwagon
Faulty argument by authority
It assumes that popular opinion is an accurate measure of truth and wisdom
Ad Hominem
Arguments that ask listeners to reject an idea because of the allegedly poor character of the person voicing it
Most obvious form: name calling
Selecting Propositions for Persuasive Speeches
Characteristics of Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence expressing a judgment you want the audience to accept
It expresses a judgment that is debatable, and that requires proof
Appeal to Tradition
Defends the status quo and opposes change by arguing that old ways are always superior to new ways
False Dilemma
Express a judgment
States a position you will defend
It should be a declarative sentence expressing your position
Debatable
Can be an answer to question
Should we stay the course?
Proposition: we should stay the course.
The judgment must include some degree of controversy

Require proof
A proposition is an assertion, and assertions are statements that have not yet been proven
Your objective as a persuasive speaker is to offer compelling reasons for listeners to accept your proposition
Types of Propositions
Propositions of fact
A proposition of fact focuses on belief
You ask the audience to affirm the truth or falsity of a statement
Propositions of value
Requires a judgment of the worth of an idea or action
You ask the audience to determine the goodness or badness of something
Propositions of policy
Advocate a course of action
The statement usually includes the word ‘should’
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
Moves listeners to action by using a progression of motivated steps
Particularly appropriate when you discuss a well-known or easily established problem
Five steps:
Once we accept a proposition as a fact, it ceases to be an appropriate topic for a persuasive speech
Attention
Need
Must first command the attention of your listeners
Establish a need
Satisfaction
Physiological
Safety
Belongingness
Self-esteem
Self-actualization
Propose a way to solve, or at least minimize, the problem
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Visualization
Seek to intensify the listeners’ desire to implement and adopt the proposed solution
Imagine this . . .
Action
Request action within the power of the audience to act
Call 1-800 . . .
Sign this petition
Go to the mall
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