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Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, Vol. 14, No. 3, July 2002 (°
The Child Sexual Abuser: Perceptions of College
Students and Professionals1
Daniel A. Fuselier,2 Robert L. Durham,2,3 and Sandy K. Wurtele2
College students and members of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual
Abusers (ATSA) were compared as to their beliefs and attitudes concerning perpetrators of child sexual abuse. Analyses of a 44-item inventory (assessing beliefs
about an abuser’s demographics and attitudes concerning an abuser’s cognitions
and behaviors) indicated that the groups differed on perceived demographic descriptors (e.g., students believed perpetrators to be older when they first begin
offending, more educated, and more likely to be gay than the professionals) and
behaviors (e.g., students believed that the perpetrator was more likely to use force
to gain the child’s compliance). In addition, 2 subscales (Cognitive Distortions
and Perceived Social Functioning) were identified. Compared to professionals,
students were less likely to believe perpetrators use cognitive distortions and were
more likely to believe perpetrators function at a lower interpersonal level. Results
are discussed in terms of the efforts to educate the public about the characteristics
of child sexual abusers.
KEY WORDS: child sexual abuse; attitudes; behaviors; cognitions; demographics.
The past two decades have witnessed increasing research attention to the
problem of child sexual abuse (CSA). There have been multitudes of empirical
investigations into the incidence and prevalence of CSA, along with the consequences associated with this form of abuse. Researchers have also attempted
to describe the characteristics of both victims and perpetrators. Although there
are an increasing number of studies appearing in the literature that focus on the
1 This paper is part of the first author’s thesis for the degree of Master of Arts submitted to the Department
of Psychology at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.
of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology, University of Colorado
at Colorado Springs, PO Box 7150, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80907-7150; e-mail: rdurham@
brain.uccs.edu.
2 University
3 To
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1079-0632/02/0700-0271/0 °
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perpetrators of CSA, our knowledge regarding these individuals is still limited.
Even more limited is our knowledge about public perceptions of perpetrators. This
study compares the perceptions that college students have of child sexual abusers
with the perceptions held by clinical practitioners in the field of sexual abuse. A
survey is used to assess student and professional perceptions and test the degree
of correspondence between the two groups.
Few studies have explored the general public’s knowledge and beliefs about
CSA perpetrators. In one study, parents who had attended an educational program
about CSA thought that 25% of CSA was committed by strangers (Berrick, 1988).
Similarly, Wurtele, Kvaternick, and Franklin (1992) found that although most parents warned their children about strangers (90%), only a few parents described
CSA perpetrators as known adults (61%), adolescents (52%), relatives (35%),
parents (22%), or siblings (19%). A survey of adult respondents living in a rural
community found that 18% of the total sample believed that a stranger was the
most likely perpetrator of CSA (Calvert & Munsie-Benson, 1999). In addition to
perceiving perpetrators as strangers, Conte and Fogarty (1989) found that over
one third of parents surveyed believed offenders were “unmarried, immature, and
socially inept” (p. 7). In Morison and Greene (1992), approximately 20% of jurors
supported the stereotyped image of an abuser as a “Dirty Old Man.” A significant
number were equally unaware that abusers are typically familiar to the victim. Seeing CSA perpetrators as social misfits, strangers, or “Dirty Old Men” appear to be
myths endorsed by the general public; other myths and stereotypes of child sexual
abusers likely exist. Identifying public perceptions of perpetrators is important for
developing public education about CSA.
This study was designed as a preliminary examination of the characteristics
of CSA perpetrators as perceived by college students and treatment professionals.
To this end, an inventory was designed to assess attitudes and opinions concerning
characteristics of abusers. It was hypothesized that students would be more likely to
see abusers conforming to the stereotypical characteristics, whereas professionals’
perceptions would reflect characteristics of actual perpetrators.
METHOD
Participants
Participants were obtained from two populations—“students” and “professionals.” The student sample was composed of 203 undergraduate students enrolled
at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs (141 females and 79 males, mean
age = 22.7 years). Students received class credit for their participation. Of these
students, 13.3% reported that they had experienced sexual abuse as a child, 33%
indicated that they knew someone who had sexually abused children, and 63%
reported that they knew someone who was abused as a child.
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The professional sample consisted of 144 members of the Association for
the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). Three hundred ATSA members were
randomly selected from the membership roster, and 153 surveys were returned
(51% response rate), with 144 surveys being complete. There were 86 males and
48 females (mean age = 46.6 years). Over 19% had experienced sexual abuse as
a child and, as would be expected, 89% knew someone who had sexually abused
children and 97% knew someone who was abused as a child.
Materials
The 44-item Child Sexual Abuse Survey used in this study was developed
from a review of current literature on CSA perpetrators. The instrument was divided
into three sections containing Likert-type items, semantic differential scales, and
items describing potential demographic characteristics of abusers. This survey is
available from the second author and the literature supporting the items is presented
below. In addition to these items, both students and professionals were also asked
to complete a brief demographic questionnaire.
In Section I, participants were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed
or disagreed with each of the 22 statements. A 6-point Likert scale was employed,
where 1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree. Nine statements described
some of the cognitive distortions that molesters use to deny, minimize, justify,
and rationalize their behavior (Murphy, 1990). In several studies, child sex offenders have been found to be more likely to endorse attitudes and beliefs about
the acceptability of sexual activity with children than non–child sex offenders
(Blumenthal, Gudjonsson, & Burns, 1999; Hayashino, Wurtele, & Klebe, 1995).
Seven statements dealt with emotional/psychological characteristics of offenders, including self-control problems and insecurities about interpersonal relationships. CSA perpetrators have been described as needing to assume power and
control over others (Hilton & Mezey, 1996), as exhibiting poor impulse control,
and as using alcohol or drugs to lower their inhibitions (Groth, Hobson, & Gary,
1982; Yanagida & Ching, 1993). Other studies describe molesters as lacking social
skills and as being overly sensitive to negative evaluation (Hayashino et al., 1995;
Seidman, Marshall, Hudson, & Robertson, 1994). Three statements appraised
the extent to which offenders feel guilt or shame for their transgressions. Studies have found child sex offenders to report more feelings of guilt, remorse,
or regret than sex offenders against adults (Blumenthal et al., 1999). Finally,
three statements described offenders as having a history of childhood molestation, as being male, and as not knowing their victims. CSA perpetrators frequently report a history of childhood molestation (Becker, 1994; Overholser &
Beck, 1989), 90% or more are male (Barnett, Miller-Perrin, & Perrin, 1997), and
are rarely strangers to the child. Large-scale community surveys of adults reporting childhood histories of abuse have found 11% (Russell, 1983) and 21%
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(Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis, & Smith, 1990) of female victimizations to involve
strangers.
Section II of the survey contained 11 semantic differential scales, where the
participant rated “average” abusers along several dimensions, including physical
characteristics, reputation, moral development, self-concept, interpersonal skills,
impulse control, and intelligence. Item 12 asked about the extent to which abusers
use force or violence to get the child to comply. It has been assumed that most sexual
offenses against children are nonviolent, with many experts estimating that physical violence accompanies CSA in only 20% of incidents (e.g., Timnick, 1985),
although recent research suggests that offenders are more frequently aggressive
(Becker, 1994).
Section III contained 10 questions asking about various demographic characteristics of abusers, including age, gender, race, marital status, along with socioeconomic status (SES) and educational levels. Research indicates that most CSA
perpetrators are White males, in their thirties, single, fairly well educated, and
employed (Abel, Becker, Cunningham-Rathner, Mittelman, & Rouleau, 1988). In
addition, offenders are familiar to the child in the majority of cases (Barnett et al.,
1997). However, offenders come from any racial, occupational, or socioeconomic
group (Groth, et al., 1982), diminishing the probability of there being an “average”
abuser.
Procedure
Students were tested in small groups at a campus laboratory. They were explained the nature of the study and, after giving their consent, filled out the instruments anonymously. The ATSA members were randomly selected from the membership roster (restricted to domestic members). The cover letter informed them
that they were randomly selected as representatives of professionals for the study.
RESULTS
Results of this investigation are presented in three parts. First, differences
between the two groups on perceived demographic characteristics of offenders
are presented. Second, perceptions of the dynamics of abuse are presented. Third,
differences between the two samples on shared subscales are explored.
Perceived Demographic Characteristics
Students and professionals did not differ in their assessment of the gender of
abusers. Both groups agreed that abusers were predominantly male, Professional =
83% and Students = 81%, t(339) = 1.26, ns. Nor did the groups differ significantly
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Table I. Abuser Characteristics as Perceived by Students and Professionals
Characteristic
Age (years)
Socioeconomic status (%)
Low
Middle/High
Education level (%)
Did not complete H.S.
High school graduate
Some college or higher
Marital status (%)
Single/Never married
Divorced
Married
Sexual orientation (%)
Heterosexual woman
Heterosexual man
Gay man
Relationship to child (%)
Stranger
Acquaintance
Authority figure
Family member
Parent/Parent substitute
Method used to abuse child (%)
Force/Aggression
Threats
Bribes
Other
Students
Professionals
p
19.33 (7.32)
13.24 (3.67)
.001
.001
5.0
95.0
20.5
79.5
6.4
53.5
40.1
12.8
75.2
12.0
37.8
11.9
50.2
12.1
9.1
78.8
3.6
90.3
6.2
6.8
91.7
1.5
8.38
15.61
15.15
33.47
27.39
6.53
15.78
11.79
29.93
35.97
15.3
33.0
46.3
5.4
1.4
9.7
65.3
23.6
.001
.001
.05
.01
ns
.001
.06
.001
.001
Note. Probabilities reported are from appropriate statistical procedures (Welch’s
t test and chi-square test). Because of cells with zero frequencies, categories in
the socioeconomic status and educational levels were combined.
on their perceptions of the race or ethnicity of the offender. Subjects perceived
offenders as being primarily Caucasian (83%). Other responses included African
American (1%), Asian American (1%), Native American (1%), Latin American
(1%), and other (13%).
Students and professionals did differ in their perceptions of the abuser’s age,
SES, educational level, marital status, sexual orientation, and relationship to victim. Results of these analyses are presented in Table I. Compared to professionals,
students perceived offenders to be older when they committed their first offense,
t(341) = 9.1, p < .001, as being from a higher SES level, χ 2 (1, N = 334) =
19.48, p < .001, as having completed more education, χ 2 (2, N = 335) = 31.52,
p < .001, as less likely to be married, χ 2 (2, N = 333) = 30.17, p < .001, and
more likely to be gay, χ 2 (3, N = 328) = 5.66, p = .059. Students and professionals were also compared on how they distributed the relationships abusers had
with the children they abuse. Five tests compared the two groups on the percentages they differentially assigned to the relationship categories. (The assumption
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of homogeneity of variance was not met on three of the tests; therefore Welch’s t
statistic was used in those instances.) As can be seen in Table I, the groups differed
significantly on three of the categories. Specifically, more students believed that
a larger percentage of abusers are strangers and authority figures than did professionals. In contrast, more professionals believed that a larger percentage of abusers
are parents or parent substitutes than did students.
Perceived Dynamics of Abuse
The two groups did not significantly differ in their perceptions of the number
of times an offender abuses a child. Responses included one time (1%), 2–3 times
(11%), 4–10 times (29%), 11–50 times (44%), and hundreds of times (15%),
χ 2 (4, N = 339) = 4.05, ns. Students and professionals differed in their perceptions
about the method an offender uses to make a child participate in sexual activities. As
can be seen in Table I, students were more likely than professionals to believe that
offenders use force, aggression, or threats, whereas professionals were more likely
to report that offenders use bribes, χ 2 (3, N = 347) = 63.73, p < .001. Similarly,
when asked how often perpetrators use force, students believed that perpetrators
used force or violence to get the child to comply more than professionals did,
t(345) = 6.61, p < .001. Students scored higher (M = 3.39, SD = .82) than
professionals (M = 2.83, SD = .73) on this item.
Group Differences on Subscales
Two subscales (Cognitive Distortions and Perceived Social Functioning) were
identified (see Table II). These subscales had acceptable internal consistency, with
Cronbach’s alphas of .81 and .82 respectively. The scores were summed to obtain
Table II. Items Comprising the Two Subscales
Cognitive distortions subscale
An abuser blames the child for their sexual encounter
An abuser believes that having sex with a child is a good way to teach the child about sex
An abuser believes that when a child asks about sex it means that the child wants to have sex with
the adult
An abuser believes that children enjoy having sex
An abuser believes that a child who physically resists really wants sex anyway
Perceived social functioning subscale
Abuser’s reputation
Abuser’s community standing
Abuser’s intelligence
Abuser’s commitment to job
Abuser’s sense of morals
Abuser’s mental soundness
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subscale scores for both groups. The two groups were then compared on each
subscale. On the Cognitive Distortions subscale, the two groups significantly differed, t(339) = 7.44, p < .001. Students (M = 17.45, SD = 5.12) were less likely
than professionals (M = 21.29, SD = 3.98) to believe that abusers use cognitive
distortions to justify or rationalize adult–child sex. On the Perceived Social Functioning subscale, students perceived abusers as functioning lower interpersonally
and occupationally (M = 24.48, SD = 6.44) than did professionals (M = 27.98,
SD = 4.99), t(339) = 5.39, p < .001.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to compare perceptions of child molesters held
by college students and treatment professionals. Results of the present investigation demonstrate that the two groups held fairly similar and accurate perceptions.
Where there were differences between the two groups, students tend to endorse
some stereotypical characteristics of molesters, whereas professionals’ perceptions
reflected characteristics of actual perpetrators.
In terms of demographic characteristics, both groups perceived abusers as
Caucasian males, which is consistent with the literature (Abel et al., 1988). Compared to professionals, students perceived offenders to be of an older age when
they first begin offending: 19.3 versus 13.2 years. Therefore, both groups appear
to be aware that sexual perpetration often has its onset during the adolescent years
(Becker, 1994; Briggs & Hawkins, 1996). Additionally, neither students nor professionals endorse the “dirty old man” myth found in other studies.
Compared to professionals, students perceived offenders as having completed
more college education and as being from a higher SES level. Students appeared
to be describing offenders as being similar to themselves in terms of academic
achievement, whereas the professionals’ lower ratings of offender education were
likely influenced by their familiarity with the typical offender’s academic achievement. Students saw offenders as less likely to be married, and more likely to be
gay men, although the majority of both groups perceived offenders as heterosexual men. In terms of victim–perpetrator relationship, students also believed that
a larger percentage of abusers are strangers and authority figures than did professionals. Encouragingly, very few students (8%) endorsed the “stranger–danger”
myth. In contrast, professionals believed that a larger percentage of abusers are
parents or parent substitutes, consistent with findings from child abuse reporting
systems and clinical programs. In general population surveys, abuse by parent
figures constituted between 6 and 16% of all cases (Berliner & Elliott, 1996), and
in clinical treatment programs, 40% of offenders functioned in the role of a parent
(Gomes-Schwartz, Horowitz, & Cardarelli, 1990). As found in other studies of the
general public (e.g., Morison & Greene, 1992), students in this study appear to
view a perpetrator as someone who is from outside the child’s family.
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In terms of typical offense characteristics, both groups agreed that only a
minority of cases involve a onetime episode, with almost three fourths of the total
sample perceiving abuse as occurring between 4 and 50 times. Indeed, multiple
abuse episodes are very common, occurring in more than half of the cases in nonclinical samples and in 75% of clinical cases (Berliner & Elliott, 1996). However,
the two groups differed in their perceptions about the method an offender uses
to make a child participate in sexual activities. As found in Morison and Greene
(1992), students were more likely than professionals to believe that offenders use
force or violence to gain victim compliance. Students appear less knowledgeable
about the subtle grooming strategies abusers use to gain access to children. Professionals are more aware of the role that bribes and enticements play in recruiting and
maintaining child victims. Offenders usually engage in a gradual process of sexualizing the relationship over time, often employing emotional coercion, offering
tangible rewards, or misusing adult authority to maintain children’s cooperation
(Berliner & Elliott, 1996). Students who believe that molestation usually involves
force may not appreciate that a serious offense has been committed when force is
not used, or they may be less likely to believe a child’s accusation of abuse in the
absence of force.
Students’ and professionals’ scores on the two subscales (Cognitive Distortions and Perceived Social Functioning) differed significantly. Students believed
that the abuser functioned at a slightly lower interpersonal level than did the professionals. Professionals saw the abuser as functioning at a higher, presumably
more “normal” level, than did the students. Similarly, students were less aware of
perpetrators’ use of cognitive distortions. Cognitive distortions related to sexual
offending are self-statements molesters use to deny, minimize, justify, and rationalize their behavior (Murphy, 1990). Not only did students perceive perpetrators
as using force or violence to initiate sexual activity, but they were less aware of the
perpetrators’ use of cognitive distortions to maintain a sexual relationship with a
child victim. Because of their frequent contact with offenders, professionals were
more aware of perpetrators’ use of these self-statements to justify their actions.
We cannot say whether the opinions expressed by this group of undergraduate students are representative of the perceptions of the general public. Indeed,
other researchers have found well-educated participants to be more knowledgeable
about CSA compared to participants with a high school education or less (Morison
& Greene, 1992). Future research needs to be directed at assessing the perceptions
of perpetrators among nonstudent populations, and also among parents, educators,
childcare workers, clergy, and others who are responsible for the welfare of children. Nor can we claim that the characteristics of perpetrators provided by ATSA
members are the characteristics of offenders in the general population. The clinicians can only describe offenders who have been caught and arrested; undetected
sexual abusers are most likely not included in their perceptions.
Results suggest that efforts to educate the public about child sexual abuse
may be working, as reflected in the accuracy of students’ perceptions of some
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characteristics of offenders (e.g., few students described offenders as strangers).
At the same time, educational efforts need to address some of the other characteristics of child abusers. Specifically, it is important for the general public to be
aware that perpetrators are often family members or parent substitutes who function “normally” in society. It is also important to stress that abusers often begin
offending during early adolescence, rarely use force or aggression to initiate the
sexual relationship, and often employ cognitive distortions that allow them to continue offending without feeling guilt, shame, or anxiety. Educational efforts would
hopefully serve to increase the identification and reporting of sexual abuse cases
that do not fit a stereotype.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers for
allowing us access to their membership roster, and the members themselves for
their assistance.
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