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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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Definitions/Concepts'
Responsible'Government :"means"that"the"executive"arm"of"government"is"responsible"to"
Parliament"for"its"actions.""As"per"s"64,"ministers"are"members"of"parliament.""This"is"often" considered"necessary"due"to"the"fact"that,"unlike"the"USA,"the"Executive"in"Australia"is"not" directly"elected"by"the"people."
Representative'Government :"refers"to"government"by"the"people"or"‘citizens’,"through"their" elected"representatives."
Constitutional'Monarchy :"whereby"the"power"embodied"in"a"monarchy"or"monarch"is" limited"by"the"ideals"and"principles"of"constitutionalism."
Separation'of'Powers :"is"the"concept"which"allocates"legislative,"executive"and"judicial" functions"to"distinct"institutions"at"least"partially"independent"from"one"another."
3'arms'of'Government'
Constitutional'Law :""
Constitution: "a"fundamental"set"of"principles"combined"with"the"establishment"and" regulation"of"the"main"institutions"of"government,"so"as"to"restrict"the"arbitrary"use"of" power"and"ensure"“limited"government”."
Federalism :"that"which"allocates"all"governmental"powers,"especially"legislative"powers," among"different"political"and"territorial"units.""In"Australia,"its"basis"is"on"the"fact"that"we" have"two"levels"of"Constitutions,"these"being"Federal"and"State."
•
As"a"result,"each"tier"has"its"own"institutions"of"government,"with"its"own"executive," parliament"and"judicial"system."
Judicial'Review:' refers"to"the"ability"of"the"courts"to"strike"down"laws"and"government" action"found"to"be"inconsistent"with"the"Constitution.
'
Sovereignty'–'Popular'and'Parliamentary'
• Parliamentary"sovereignty:"AV"Dicey’s"concept"
"
Popular"sovereignty"refers"to"the"situation"where"it"is"considered"that"the"power"and" authority"regarding"a"territory,"a"Constitution"or"the"like"comes"from"the"people"of"that" territory"as"a"whole."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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• It"is"thus"related"to"notions"of"democracy,"such"as"in"a"parliamentary"government" composed"of"elected"representatives."
!
' i.e.!Consider!if!the!UK!repealed!the!Australian!Constitution.!!Would!it!still!be!in!operation?!
Rule'of'Law'
•
AV!Dicey’s!classic!formulation,!but!it!is!now!so!much!more.!
Washminster'System:' It"is"often"referred"to"as"a"“Washminster"system”,"given"the"core"of" the"Westminster"system"(including"the"concepts"of"representative"government"and" responsible"government)"was"taken"from"the"United"Kingdom,"while"the"concepts"of" federalism,"separation"of"powers"and"judicial"review"was"taken"from"the"United"States"and" other"nations"with"written"constitutions."
Written'vs.'Unwritten'Constitutions:' Constitutions"can"be"either"written"or"unwritten.""A" written"constitution"usually"involves"the"adoption"of"a"single"document"outlining"a"political" community,"its"chief"institutions,"and"confers"and"defines"powers.""When"such"a"single" document"is"not"adopted"as"a"constitution,"the"constitution"of"that"nation"is"often"referred" to"as"“unwritten”."While"this"is"the"case"of"the"United"Kingdom,"it"should"be"recognised"that" important"aspects"of"the"constitution"are"present"in"a"number"of"statutes"and"other" important"principles"are"outlined"in"judicial"decisions"under"the"common"law."
Flexible'vs.'Rigid'Constitution:' A"flexible"constitution"is"one"under"which"every"law"is"able"to" be"legally"changed"with"the"same"ease"and"manner"by"the"same"body.""In"contrast,"a"rigid" constitution"is"one"under"which"certain"laws"known"as"constitutional"or"fundamental"laws" are"not"able"to"be"changed"with"the"same"ease"and"manner"as"ordinary"laws.""Specifically," changes"to"the"former"type"must"be"approved"by"a"referendum"or"similar"procedure.""The"
Commonwealth"Constitution"is"a"rigid"constitution,"whereas"the"State"Constitutions"are" flexible."
"
Grundnorm'
•
Remb"efficacy"test"of"Prasad"
"
"
"
The"Commonwealth"Constitution"is"the"grundnorm"for"Australia,"given"it"provided"the" legislative"power"for"Australia."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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(No' reading)'
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InTclass'Constitutional'Exercise'
1.
At'the'republic'referendum'on'6'November'1999,'what'vote'of'the'people'was' required'for'the'‘Yes’'case'to'succeed?'
A"majority"of"electors"in"a"majority"of"states"(s"128)."
"
2.
At'what'age'must'High'Court'judges'retire?'
70"years"(s"72)"
"
3.
What'body'enacted'the'Australian'Constitution?'When'did'the'Constitution' commence'operation?'
"
The"Queen,"on"the"advice"of"the"Parliament"of"the"UK"(The"Parliament"of"Australia"didn’t" exist"at"the"time"of"the"Constitution).""It"commenced"on"1 st "January"1901"(This"is"when"we" became"a"Federation)."
4.
Who'is'granted'the'power'to'‘disallow'any'law’'passed'by'the'federal'Parliament?'
The"Queen"(s"59)."
•
This"provision"is"obsolete,"with"the"Queen"or"Governor`General"in"reality"having"little" scope"to"act"independently"of"advice"from"the"Prime"Minister"or"other"Ministers."
"
"
5.
What'is'the'term'of'the'House'of'Representatives?'What'is'the'term'of'the'Senate?''
House"of"Reps"="3"years,"Senate"="6"years"(with"half"of"the"Senate"elected"every"3"years)."
6.
Is'there'a'Bill'of'Rights'in'the'Australian'Constitution?'List'the'human'rights'that' are'protected'by'the'Constitution?'
No.""The"human"rights"protected"are:"
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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• The"freedom"of"religion"(s"116)"
•
Freedom"from"discrimination"on"the"basis"of"what"state"you"live"in"(s"117)"
•
Freedom"of"political"communications"
• Right"to"use"water"reasonably"
• The"right"not"to"have"property"acquired"on"other"than"just"terms"
There"are"a"lot"of"rights"in"the"Constitution,"including"many"held"to"be"implied."
However,"a"Bill"of"Rights"would"be"far"more"direct."
• We"are"the"only"Western"country"not"to"have"some"sort"of"Bill"of"Rights."
7.
Sections'51'and'52'both'confer'legislative'power'upon'the'Parliament.'Is'there'any' practical'difference'between'the'two'provisions?'
• Section"51"confers"power"to"the"Federal"Parliament,"but"this"power"can"also"be" exercised"by"the"States."
•
Section"52"confers"exclusive"(to"the"exclusion"of"the"states)"powers"to"the"
Commonwealth."
"
Note:"s"109"="Commonwealth"prevails"in"conflict."
8.
Does'the'Senate'have'power'to'reject'a'budget'bill'that'has'been'passed'by'the'
Lower'House?'
"
Yes,"as"per"s"53."
9.
Does'the'Constitution'specify'any'procedure'for'resolving'conflicts'between'the'
House'of'Representatives'and'the'Senate?'
"
Yes,"in"s"57.""The"Governor`General"may"conduct"a"double"dissolution,"following"a"joint" sitting"of"the"Houses"to"try"and"resolve"the"conflict."
•
Note:"there"has"been"no"double"dissolution"for"about"20"years"in"Australia."
"
10.
Does'a'federal'Minister'have'to'be'a'member'of'the'federal'Parliament?'
Yes,"as"per"s"64."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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11.
Under'which'provision'could'the'federal'Parliament'give'money'directly'to'a'State' government?'Can'it'impose'conditions?'
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Under"s"96."It"can"impose"conditions."
•
One"of"the"main"ways"in"which"the"Commonwealth"Parliament"affects"Australia"is" through"the"provision"of"tied"grants."
12.
Can'there'be'more'than'six'States?'If'so,'could'the'Northern'Territory'be'converted' into'a'State?'What'about'New'Zealand?'
Yes,"there"can"be"more"than"six"states."
Yes,"NT"could"be"converted"into"a"state"(s"121).""It"would"take"the"consent"of"Federal"
Parliament.""The"NT"is"currently"having"constitutional"conventions"to"become"a"state."
Difference"between"a"state"and"a"territory:"
•
Federal"Parliament"can"overrule"any"regulations"etc"of"the"Territory.""They"can" legislate"for"territories."
"
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13.
Who'is'Australia’s'Head'of'State?'
"
Australia’s"Head"of"State"is"the"Queen.""Note,"however,"that"the"Constitution"does"not" mention"it."
In"addition,"the"Governor"General"is"often"considered"to"be"the"Head"of"State"in"Australia," by"virtue"of"being"the"Queen’s"representative."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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(Pgs'1T12,'40T43,'46T52)
1.' Constitutional'Law'
•
The"Commonwealth"of"Australia"came"into"being"on"1"January"1901,"when"the"
Commonwealth"of"Australia"Constitution"Act"1900"(Imp)"entered"into"force"and"the"
Constitution"set"out"under"s"9"in"that"Act"came"into"operation."
"
•
The"Constitution"of"Australia"can"be"described"as"a"hybrid"of"ideas"originating"from"a"
" number"of"sources." o It"is"often"referred"to"as"a"“Washminster"system”,"given"the"core"of"the"
Westminster"system"(including"the"concepts"of"representative"government" and"responsible"government)"was"taken"from"the"United"Kingdom,"while"the" concepts"of"federalism,"separation"of"powers"and"judicial"review"was"taken" from"the"United"States"and"other"nations"with"written"constitutions."
UK
"
Responsible government
Representative government
Constitutional monarchy
Further"comparison"of"the"UK"and"US"systems:"
US
Federalism
Separation of Powers
Judicial Review
"
UK'
Structures"and"establishes"a"chain"of"command" Limits/protects"
Parliamentary"sovereignty"
Unwritten"constitution"
Judicial"Review"
Written"constitution"
"
Responsible"Government"
Constitutional"monarchy"
"
Separation"of"Powers"
Federalism"
US'
•
In"the"UK"system,"there"is"the"idea"that"the"Parliament"is"the"central"institution"in"the" government"of"the"people,"and"that"it"is"through"Parliament"that"all"the"disparate" elements"of"the"system"are"consolidated"into"one"governmental"chain"of"command." o The"people"control"the"Parliament"through"the"process"of"election,"the"
Parliament"controls"the"ministry,"the"ministry"controls"the"Crown"and"its" power."
•
In"contrast,"the"US"system"seeks"to"protect"the"people"against"the"power"of"the" government,"at"least"the"abuse"of"such"power." o To"this"aim,"there"is"a"separation"of"powers"so"as"to"prevent"any"single"chain" of"command."
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o This"separation,"in"conjunction"with"federalism"and"the"power"of"judicial" review,"operate"as"checks"and"balances."
"
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•
The"symbolic"facade"of"the"Australian"system"is"that"of"monarchical"government." o However,"despite"the"Queen"having"the"power"to"disallow"laws"as"per"the"
"
Constitution,"such"powers"are"in"reality"obsolete."
• Representative"and"Responsible"Government" o Responsible"Government:"means"that"the"executive"arm"of"government"is" responsible"to"Parliament"for"its"actions.""As"per"s"64,"ministers"are"members" of"parliament." o Representative"Government:"refers"to"government"by"the"people"or"
‘citizens’,"through"their"elected"representatives."
"
• Constitutions"may"be"written"or"unwritten." o A"written"constitution"usually"involves"the"adoption"of"a"single"document" outlining"a"political"community,"its"chief"institutions,"and"confers"and"defines" powers." o An"unwritten"constitution"generally"refers"to"where"a"single"formalised" document"is"not"adopted"as"a"Constitution.""This"is"the"case"of"United"
Kingdom.""However,"it"should"be"recognised"that"important"aspects"of"the" constitution"are"present"in"a"number"of"statutes"and"other"important" principles"are"outlined"in"judicial"decisions"under"the"common"law."
!
Note:"constitutional"conventions" o Furthermore,"even"where"there"is"a"written"constitution,"much"of"its"actual" workings"depend"on"unwritten"understandings"known"as"“constitutional" conventions”."
!
These"are"matters"of"convenience"or"views"on"how"government"ought"
" to"be"conducted."
•
A"distinction"can"also"be"drawn"between"“flexible”"and"“rigid”"constitutions." o A"flexible"constitution"is"one"under"which"every"law"is"able"to"be"legally" changed"with"the"same"ease"and"manner"by"the"same"body." o In"contrast,"a"rigid"constitution"is"one"under"which"constitutional"or" fundamental"laws"are"not"able"to"be"changed"with"the"same"ease"and" manner"as"other"ordinary"laws.""Specifically,"changes"to"the"former"type"must" be"approved"by"a"referendum"or"similar"procedure."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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o The"Commonwealth"Constitution"is"a"rigid"constitution,"whereas"the"State"
Constitutions"are"generally"flexible."
!
Under"the"Australian"Constitution,"while"amendments"are"able"to"be" initiated"by"Parliament,"they"can"only"be"affected"through"a" referendum"as"per"s"128."
•
Note"while"the"words"of"the"Australian"Constitution"are" entrenched,"their"effect"is"perhaps"not"given"the"High"Court’s" role"in"determining"validity"of"enactments,"based"on"whether" they"are"within"power"as"opposed"to"ultra"vires"enactments."
!
Under"state"constitutions,"provisions"can"be"generally"be"expressly"or" impliedly"repealed"or"amended"through"the"passing"of"legislation"by" the"State"Parliament"in"the"ordinary"manner."
"
Note:"
"
• Aust"constitution"both"written"and"unwritten" o Written"–"s9"of" Cth!of!Australia!Constitution!Act!1900!
(British"act)"" o Unwritten"–"Constitut"on"supplemented"by"common"law,"unwritten"conventions""
•
Rigid,"supreme"over"legislature"–"final"chapter"of"Consti,"s128"–"can’t"be"altered"except"by"popular" referendum""
2.'Constitutionalism'and'Judicial'Review'
Judicial'Review:' refers"to"the"ability"of"the"courts"to"strike"down"laws"and"government" action"found"to"be"inconsistent"with"the"Constitution.
'
Under"the"“unwritten”"constitution"of"the"UK,"Parliament"is"supreme"and"it"is"normally" assumed"that"legislation"cannot"be"questioned"by"the"courts."
•
Under"the"Westminster"system,"the"democratically"elected"nature"of"the"legislature" supports"a"claim"to"legislative"power"and"sovereignty"over"the"other"two"branches"of" government."
However,"under"“rigid”"and"“written”"constitutions"which"place"limits"on"legislative"power," there"is"generally"a"power"of"judicial"review."
•
If"there"was"no"power"of"judicial"review,"it"could"be"considered"worthless"to"have"a" written"constitution."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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It"is"accepted"in"Australia"that"any"court"(but"in"practice"the"High"Court)"has"the"power"to" declare"an"enactment"as"unconstitutional"and"therefore"invalid."
• While"the"Australian"Constitution"does"not"expressly"confer"a"power"of"judicial" review,"the"principle"of" Marbury!v!Madison
"is"considered"axiomatic."
• Reason"for"judicial"review:" o In"the"context"of"a"“rigid”"and"“written”"constitution,"it"is"necessary"to"have"a" power"of"judicial"review"in"operation,"so"as"to"ensure"that"the"constitutional" limits"of"legislatures"are"obeyed." o In"this"manner,"arbitrariness"and"the"abuse"of"power"by"the"legislative"arm"of" government"is"prevented."
"
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• CASE:&Marbury&v&Madison&& o Cornerstone"decision"by"US"Supreme"Court,"confirming"the"power"of"judicial"review"in"the"United"
States"Constitution." o It"is"the"duty"of"judiciary"to"say"what"the"law"is"–"if"2"laws"conflict"with"each"other,"the"court"must" decide"which"one"enforceable"" o If"legislative"act"contrary"to"Constitution,"court"must"decide"which"one"supreme"" o Marshall"CJ"–"“the"constitution"is"either"a"superior"paramount"law"unchangeable"by"ordinary" means”"–" in!which!case!legislative!act!contrary!to!constitution!would!be!void
"
OR"“it"is"on"a"level"with"ordinary"legislative"acts"and"like"acts"is"alterable"when"the"legislature"shall" please"to"alter"it”"–" this!can’t!be!true!since!it!would!defeat!constitution’s!role!of!conferring!and!
limiting!the!power!of!gov!bodies
"" o Thus"judiciary"can"declare"void"a"legislative"act"contrary"to"constitution"
In!this!case,!judicial!review!is!tied!strongly!to!the!fact!that!the!Constitution!is!written.!
Is"judicial"review"consistent"with"a"democratic"system"of"government?"
•
In"many"respects,"the"process"of"judicial"review"appears"to"be"inconsistent"with"a" democratic"system"of"government." o The"democratic"notion"of"representative"government"is"based"on"elected" representatives"of"the"people.""However,"judges"and"judicial"officers"are"not" elected."
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o The"judges"also"represent"a"very"small"demographic,"given"they"tend"to"be"white," male,"and"relatively"old." o This"process"may"also"be"undemocratic"given"that"the"Constitution,"to"which" legislation"is"analysed,"was"not"approved"by"the"current"generations"of"Australia.""
Rather,"it"was"put"in"place"by"the"will"of"our"forbears,"whose"characterstics"and" social"viewpoints"clearly"differ"markedly"from"our"own."
• However,"movement"away"from"such"prima"facie"observation"suggest"that"there"are" elements"of"democracy"present"in"both"the"theory"and"application"of"judicial"review." o Primarily,"it"must"be"recognised"that"the"concept"of"democracy"transcends"simple"
“majority"rule”.""There"are"various"values"and"principles"involved,"not"least"that" of"equality"and"minority"rights." o Judicial"review"is"instrumental"in"the"protection"of"democracy"and"the"rights"of" the"people,"which"are"contained"or"at"least"implied"in"wording"of"the" constitution.""By"ensuring"that"the"legislative"arm"of"government"does"not" transgress"beyond"those"limits"imposed"by"the"Australian"Constitution,"the" judiciary"is"able"to"act"as"one"of"the"“checks"and"balances”"that"prevent"arbitrary" and"abusive"use"of"power"against"the"citizens." o As"such,"the"lack"of"direct"election"of"judges"by"the"people"does"not"represent"a" major"issue"to"society."
•
Judges"are"not"intended"to"be"the"“average"person”,"but"rather"are" primarily"mouthpieces"of"the"law.""With"the"interpretation"and"application" of"statute,"in"line"with"the"intention"of"Parliament,"theoretically"being"one" of"the"primary"roles"of"the"judiciary,"most"important"is"a"sophisticated" understanding"of"the"law.""It"is"not"necessary"that"popular"personalities"be" present"on"the"Bench."
• In"addition,"the"appointment"of"judges"is"by"Parliament,"and"given" members"of"Parliament"are"elected"by"the"people,"there"is"some"sense"of" extended"or"delegated"democracy"in"operation." o Not"inconsistent"with"democratic"system"–"there"are"limits"on"power"of"judicial" review""
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• Court"can"only"adjudicate"disputed"cases"–"powers"confined"to"questions" on"which"citizens"are"not"agreed""
• Court"restrained"by"Constitution"itself,"which"both"confers"and"limits"its" powers""
"
"
Note:!judicial!review!is!not!so!prevalent!in!the!State!context.!
!
Note:!if!we!don’t!have!judicial!review,!what!are!the!other!checks!and!balances!in!operation?!
•
The!entire!parliamentary!process,!whereby!bills!must!pass!through!and!be!approved!by!both!houses!of!
parliament.!!Parliamentary!debate!and!“question!time”!also!serves!for!analysis!on!proposed!laws.!
•
The!opposition!can!bring!an!inquiry.!
•
The!political!party!in!government!is!“voted!out”!or!removed!from!power!through!elections,!given!the!
concept!of!representative!government.!
3.'The'Separation'of'Powers'
"
The"separation"of"powers"is"the"concept"which"allocates"legislative,"executive"and"judicial" functions"to"distinct"institutions"at"least"partially"independent"from"one"another."
In"basic"terms,"the"separation"is"to"prevent"arbitrariness"and"avoid"the"abuse"of"power."
The"three"arms"of"government:"
1.
The"legislature"–"branch"involved"in"the"making"of"new"law,"and"the"alteration"or" repeal"of"existing"law." a.
In"Australia,"the"legislature"is"a"parliament"comprising"democratically"elected" members,"with"each"representing"an"electorate."
2.
The"executive"–"the"arm"of"government"entrusted"with"the"administration"of"policy" and"the"carrying"of"laws"into"effect." a.
This"includes"the"supervision"of"defence,"order"and"justice"(e.g."policing),"the" finance"required,"and"a"vast"variety"of"social"services"such"as"public"health," education"and"transport." b.
Although"the"formal"executive"power"is"vested"in"the"Crown,"the"executive"in"
Australia"(federal"level)"is"composed"of"the"Governor`General,"PM,"other" ministers,"and"government"departments"composed"of"public"servants." i.
E.g."ASIO,"ASIS,"Ombudsman."
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Ashan!Sanjeeva!
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ii.
The"states"also"have"their"own"executives,"just"as"they"have"their"own" legislatures"and"judiciaries."
3.
The"judiciary"–"refers"to"the"system"of"courts"and"their"judges,"considered"together.""
It"involves"interpretation"of"the"law,"and"its"application"by"rule"or"discretion"to"the" facts"of"particular"cases."
"
This"separation"of"powers"is"at"least"formally"expressed"in"Ch"III"of"the"Australian"
Constitution,"whereby"legislative"power"vests"in"the"Parliament"(s"1),"executive"power" nominally"in"the"Queen"(s"61)"and"judicial"power"in"the"courts"(s"71)."
However,"the"separation"of"powers"is"not"strictly"observed"in"Australia."
•
While"some"degree"of"overlap"between"the"functions"is"inevitable"in"a"system"of" government,"the"executive"is"integrated"into"the"legislature"as"per"UK"notions" regarding"responsible"government." o In"addition,"there"is"the"power"for"legislative"power"to"be"delegated"to"the" executive,"as"per" Victorian!Stevedoring!and!General!Contracting!Co.!Pty!Ltd!v!
Dignan.!
"
In"particular,"the"courts"should"be"held"separate"and"independent"the"executive"and"the" legislature."
•
This"is"especially"evident"when"the"power"of"judicial"review"is"relied"upon"to"enforce" the"limits"on"governmental"(i.e."executive)"and"legislative"power."
"
"
Under"the"Westminster"system,"there"was"no"strict"separation"between"the"executive"and" the"legislature,"but"rather"the"executive"is"integrated"into"the"legislature"by"the"requirement" that"Ministers"be"Members"of"Parliament.""As"such,"those"responsible"for"the"various" departments"of"government"are"held"accountable"through"mechanisms"such"as"question" time."
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