Delivery Methods in Constructive Alignment :
Anne Marie Courtney, Joan Cleary & Elizabeth Brunton
Following the Teaching & Learning Workshop on May 10th, the organizers have been
asked to write up materials relating to the topics delivered. This paper relates to some
methods of delivery in the classroom. The question posed in a feedback form was:
“What are the alternatives to lectures”?
Delivery Methods in Constructive Alignment
Methods of delivery and assessment must align with the stated learning outcomes
(Ramsden 1992). Choose delivery and assessment methodologies that align with what
you expect of your students and what they hope to achieve or need in their chosen
profession. If your students will end up working within a profession, teach in a way
that supports professional practise. For example, if you wish your graduates to excel
at teamwork, use problem based learning (PBL), small group work and group project
assessments. If you wish your graduates to become reflective practitioners, use
inquiry/probing questions and research, PBL in practice situations/real world settings
and reflective journals/learning portfolios. If your students will have to present within
their profession then emphasise presentation both within delivery and assessment.
What works best for your situation?
Lectures
“I am always ready to learn, but I do not always like being taught.”
(Winston Churchill)
Advantages of lectures:
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To give students a shared learning experience
To clarify expected learning outcomes, and standards
To provide a focus where everyone (especially where large groups of
students are concerned) gets together regularly
To give students the opportunity of learning by doing, where they can get
feedback from an “authority” and from each other
To add the power of tone of voice, emphasis, facial expression, and body
language to printed words, helping learners see what is important, and
what is not
To provide material for later discussion
To challenge assumptions and beliefs
To change or develop attitudes and perspectives
To give large groups of students a common “briefing” for major tasks they
are to undertake as they study the subject further
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To whet students’ appetites, so they go away and really get down to
studying
To give students the chance to make sense of things they already know
Disadvantages of lectures:
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Lectures fail to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of
student learning.
In lectures students are often passive because there is no mechanism to
ensure that they are intellectually engaged with the material.
Students' attention wanes quickly after fifteen to twenty-five minutes.
Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive.
Lectures presume that all students learn at the same pace and are at the
same level of understanding.
Lectures are not suited for teaching higher orders of thinking such as
application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation; for teaching motor skills, or
for influencing attitudes or values.
Lectures are not well suited for teaching complex, abstract material.
Lectures require effective speakers.
Lectures emphasize learning by listening, which is a disadvantage for
students who have other learning styles.
How can lectures be improved if they are the most suitable method of delivery in
your circumstances?
Use visual aids: overheads/ PowerPoint, handouts, task sheets including pre-posed
questions on content of session, question and answer breaks, summary pauses.
Brainstorm on concepts, use snowballing techniques where students discuss on a 1 to
1 first, then combine 2 with 2 and maybe 4 with 4. Tiered seating will prevent use of
larger groups. Allow groups to report on small group work and discuss outcomes.
These reports can feed into seminars and tutorials. Allow students time to summarize
and reflect on what was learnt and at the same time (5 minutes at end) engage in your
own reflection and jot down notes on what went well, any changes – follow on work
etc.
How can you get more students to be active in their learning?
Brainstorming:
This can be a valuable way of stimulating creative freethinking and is particularly
useful when looking for a solution to a problem or in generating diverse ideas. Collect
all responses on a flipchart or whiteboard. Do not censor or comment on any
responses at this stage. Brainstorming is often the basis of a technique for gathering
feedback, known as “Nominal Group Technique”, where groups of participants
generate then prioritise ideas before reporting them back.
Buzz groups:
This can be used to generate ideas or to complete small timed tasks given to
subdivisions of a class or group. These outcomes can then be shared with the whole
group through a method of feedback (e.g. Flip chart sheets, overhead transparencies).
This method is useful when dealing with large groups as it allows greater input from
each member than brainstorming would allow.
Snowballing (pyramiding):
This method aims to encourage the involvement of every participant in a given task
and to encourage his or her contribution towards the outcomes. It starts with
individual members giving thought to a problem. Individuals then regroup in pairs,
threes, fours, fives, etc. until finally the whole group discusses the problem (can be
modified into small group reports (6 to 8 per group) if in a tiered seating situation
where movement is restricted).
Fishbowls:
The fishbowl is another popular group method used during discussion and problemsolving sessions. This method can be useful for managing students who are overdominating a group, because it allows them to be the centre of attention for a period
of time. After a suitable interval, you can ask others from the outer circle to replace
them, thus giving the less vocal ones an opportunity for undisturbed air time.
Rounds:
Often used as an icebreaker or when winding up a session. It is usually used in groups
of approx 20 or less. Contributions tend to be quite short, since only a few minutes are
usually allocated to this type of activity. Rounds ensure that everyone speaks and is a
good way of ensuring active participation by all students.
Gagne’s Instructional Events
The Instructional Events, developed by Robert Gagne (1975), highlight a nine-step
process to be implemented within a teaching session. It incorporates both didactic and
active approaches to learning, therefore taking into account attention span and
chunking of material into 15/20 minute deliverables. The presentation of content
(event 4) needs to be matched to the attention span of the students. Event 6, eliciting
performance, needs to be long enough to allow the student to engage in practice, ask
questions for clarification if necessary, and gain feedback on their efforts.
INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT
1. Gain Attention
INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESS
Stimuli activities receptors
2. Inform learners of objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present the content
5. Provide “learning guidance”
6. Elicit performance (practice)
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9.Enhance retention and transfer to the
job
Creates level of expectation for learning
Retrieval and activation of short-term
memory
Selective perception of content
Semantic encoding for storage to longterm memory
Responds to questions to enhance
encoding and verification
Reinforcement and assessment of correct
performance
Retrieval and reinforcement of content as
final evaluation
Retrieval and generalization of learned
skill to new situation
1. Gain Attention
You must first capture the student’s attention. Curiosity motivates the students to
learn. Present a problem or a new situation. Ask them a question or demonstrate. It
lets the student know the importance of the subject and lets the teacher get the main
points across.
2. Inform learners of objectives
Early as possible in the lesson list the goals, state what the students will be able to
accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge. This allows the students
to organize their thoughts in and around what they are about to see hear and/or do.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
When introducing new information or skills they should be associated with prior
knowledge. This makes it easier for the student to learn it. A simple way to recall old
information is to ask questions and then link the new information to the old.
4. Present the content
The way the information is presented is very important, this allows the student to
recall and associate the information with prior knowledge. The teacher should have
the information in an organised and condensed way so it is easily learnt by the student
e.g. use of graphs, audio narration, video and/or text.
5. Provide “learning guidance”
To help learners hold on to the new information examples, case studies, graphical
representations and analogies can be used.
6. Elicit performance (practice)
The learner should now be able to practice their new skill or knowledge. This
provides the learners the opportunity to get the correct understanding of their new
skill or knowledge.
7. Provide feedback
It’s important for the learner to receive feedback on the quality of their application of
the new skill or information.
8. Assess performance
A question and answer session, a quiz or observation could be used to determine
whether the information has been properly understood and used in the right way.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
The teacher can pose similar problems or situations for the learner to review and work
through after the session in order to enhance retention.
Support structures may be necessary to help students retain knowledge or skill
Seminar: keep groups small. One student prepares presentation while all students
produce a summary of prescribed reading, Impose a SANCTION: students are
admitted to seminars on production of evidence of prepared work.
Facilitate/chair discussion amongst students following the presentation, allow peer
teaching and evaluation. Develop a safe environment where students get the
opportunity to express their ideas and thoughts without fear of failure.
Tutorials: as back up for lectures tutorials are best carried out by the same lecturer
around questions posed by students. Tutorials offer an opportunity for students to
brainstorm, work in buzz groups, and clarify misconceptions through interaction with
fellow students or with lecturer.
Other back-up delivery methods: practicals, workshops, field-trips, laboratories (See
Race & Brown for further information).
Problem Based Learning
Advantages of Problem Based Learning:
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Increased self-direction
Higher Comprehension and Better Skill Development
Increased Retention of Data
Highly Motivating
Promotes deep rather than superficial learning
The students determine their learning issues and develop their unique
approach to solving a problem
The development of key skills such as the ability to work in a group and to
communicate, and present, information effectively.
Promotes interaction between students and faculty
The learning environment is more stimulating and more humane
Disadvantages of Problem Based Learning:
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Demanding of staff time and resources
May be difficult to implement when class sizes are large or when there is a
lack of enthusiasm for the idea
Stressful for both students and staff
The content covered is reduced compared to the amount that is covered in
lecture-based courses
PBL may be a new experience for staff and students and they may require
some support or training
Group work often suffers from non-participation or personality clashes and
strategies have to be put in place to deal with groups that do not work
Some students may not take the need for independent study seriously and
some time may be required to make clear the outcomes and commitment
required.
Library Resources:
For further information on delivery methods use the following references from the
library at Institute of Technology, Tralee. Some of these sources were used in the
preparation of the above materials.
Valuable source of materials for all lecturers
Race, P. & Brown, S. (1998) The Lecturer’s Toolkit: a guide to teaching, learning
and assessment. Kogan Page.
(at present on restricted loan in South Campus Library)
Biggs, J. (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham Open
University Press, Buckingham.
Corder, N. (2002) Learning to Teach Adults – An Introduction. Routledge Falmer
FinVoc at www.FinVoc.info
Fox, R. (1995) Teaching Through Discussion. Ch.7 in Desforges, C. (Ed.) An
Introduction to Teaching Psychological Perspectives. Blackwell, Oxford.
Gagne, R M. (1975) Essentials of Learning and Instruction. Dryden Press, Illinois.
Minton, D. (1991) Teaching Skills in Further and Adult Education. City &
Guilds/MacMillan
Race, P. & Brown, S. (1998) The Lecturer’s Toolkit: a guide to teaching, learning
and assessment. Kogan Page.
Ramsden, P. (1992) Learning to Teach in Higher Education. Routledge, London.
Rogers, A. (1996) Teaching Adults. Open University Press, Buckingham.