Chapter 1
1. artwork
2. perceive
3. folk artists
4. artists
5. action painting
6. symbol
7. elements of art
8. principles of art
9. subject
10. nonobjective art
11. composition
12. content
13. credit line
14. medium
Chapter 2
1. Criteria
2. aesthetics
3. art criticism
4. aesthetic experience
5. description
6. analysis
7. interpretation
8. judgement
9. literal qualities
10. formal qualities
11. expressive qualities
12. Imitationalism
13. Formalism
14. Emotionalism
15. art history operations
16. individual style
Chapter 3
1. medium/media
2. shading
3. print
4. printmaking
5. reproduction
6. edition
7. sculpture
8. fine art
9. applted art
10. photography
11. digital systems
12. multi media programs
Exploring Art - Ms. MacRae
Semester Test: Study Guide
Chapter 4
1. line
2. dimension
3. outline
4. implied lines
5. value
6. crosshatching
7. contour line
8. gesture
9. calligraphy
Chapter 5
1. shape
2. geometric shapes
3. free-from shapes
4. forms
5. space
6. halograms
7. point of view
8. chiaroscruro
9. highlights
10. perspective
11. positive space
12. negative space
Chapter 1 Summary
Art in Your World
Lesson 1: What Is Art?
A work of art is the visual expression of an idea or experience. Visual art includes many types of
media. It is used to communicate with others in ways that go beyond words. To understand a work of
art, you must develop the ability to perceive. To perceive is to become deeply aware through the
senses of the special nature of a visual object. People create art to serve many functions. (1) They
create art to express personal feelings. (2) They use art to express a family, community, or civilization’s
identity. (3) Often, artists create art to express spiritual beliefs. (4) Some artists use new ideas and
technologies to give functional objects, such as cars and buildings, new and interesting forms. (5)
Artists often create art to teach people. This book will help you understand and recognize all the
visual arts.
Lesson 2: Why Do Artists Create?
The urge to create art is universal. Artists are creative individuals who use imagination and skill to
communicate in visual form. They are driven by their sense of wonder and curiosity. However, the
impulses that drive artists to create vary. Different artists can represent the same event or idea in very
different ways. Artists get their ideas from many different sources. (1) Some artists, like the landscape
painters of the Hudson River School, get ideas from nature. (2) Other artists get ideas from people
and real-world events. (3) Many artists interpret myths and legends in their work. (4) In every culture,
art is used to express spiritual and religious beliefs. (5) Many artists develop creative techniques to
create their art. For example, Jackson Pollock expressed his personal feelings by creating a new
technique—dripping paint onto canvas (Figure 1.13, page 14). (6) Artists also learn from and build on
the work of artists of the past. (7) And some artists get ideas from the people who hire them to create
art. Artists keep sketchbooks for inspiration. They use them to record images and jot down ideas. A
sketchbook is also very useful to practice skills and techniques.
Lesson 3: The Language of Art
The language of art is made up of certain elements arranged according to basic principles. Learning
to use this language will help you understand art and create your own artworks. We use the elements
of art, which are basic visual symbols in the language of art, to communicate ideas. These symbols
are line, shape and form, space, color, value, and texture. By learning to read one element at a time,
you will see how the elements work together to communicate the language of art. These elements
are organized according to the principles of art. The principles of art are basic rules that govern how
artists organize the elements of art. These rules are rhythm, movement, pattern, balance, proportion,
variety, emphasis, harmony, and unity. You will learn more about these rules as you read this book.
When you look at a work of art, you should first identify its three basic features: subject, composition,
and content. The subject is the image viewers can easily identify in a work of art. The composition is
the way the principles of art are used to organize the elements of art. The content is the message the
work communicates. Works of art in this book also have credit lines below them. Credit lines include
important facts that will help you further understand each work of art. The six facts most credit lines
include are name of the artists, title of the work, the year the work was created, the medium used by
the artist, the size of the work, and the location of the work.
CH 2 Summary
Art Criticism and Aesthetic Judgment
Lesson 1: Art Criticism: Learning from a Work of Art
Art critics use different criteria, or standards of judgment, to assess works of art. By using some
of these same criteria, you can learn to interpret works of art. The process of interpretation will
improve your aesthetic experience, or your personal interaction with a work of art. Aesthetics is
the philosophy or study of the nature and value of art. Art criticism is an organized approach for
studying a work of art. It is made up of four steps that must be taken in order. (1) Description:
Ask yourself, what do I see? Make a list of all the things you see in the work, including the work’s
subject and the elements of art that are used. Include information from the credit line about the
size of the work and its medium. (2) Analysis: Ask, how is the work organized? Look at how the
principles of art are used to organize the art elements of line, space, color, form, and texture. (3)
Interpretation: Ask, what is the artist trying to communicate? Try to explain the meaning or
mood of the work, based on your clues from the first two steps. You can make guesses about the
artwork as long as they are supported by what you see in the work. (4) Judgment: Now ask, is
this a successful work of art? You determine the degree of artistic merit. You can decide whether
you like or dislike the work and whether the work is successful aesthetically.
Lesson 2: Aesthetics: Thinking About a Work of Art
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and value of art. Once
concerned with judging the physical beauty of artworks, aesthetics is now used to determine
whether a work of art is successful. Thus aesthetics can be used in Step 4 of art criticism. Aestheticians, who are specialists in aesthetics, look at the literal qualities, the design qualities, and the
expressive qualities of works of art. When looking at literal qualities, they judge the realistic
qualities that appear in the subject of the work. When looking at formal qualities, they study
how well a work is organized. To judge expressive qualities, critics consider those qualities that
convey ideas and moods. The theories that rate these different qualities most highly are called
Imitationalism, Formalism, and Emotionalism. Imitationalism focuses on realistic representation;
Formalism places emphasis on the design qualities; and Emotionalism requires that a work
arouse a response of feelings, moods, or emotions in the viewer. You can use all three theories to
judge how successful a work of art is. You can also use the four steps of art criticism to judge
functional objects, but in your interpretation, you should consider the purpose of the object as
its meaning. Then to judge whether the object is successful, you can ask whether it works
correctly in addition to being beautiful. You can also use the steps of art criticism to judge your
own works of art. It will help you decide whether your work needs improvement or is a success.
Lesson 3: Art History: Learning About a Work of Art
To further appreciate a work of art, you can gather information about the artist and time period in
which the work was created. There are four steps to gathering information which are called the art
history operations. The names of the steps are the same as those for art criticism, but the questions
are different. (1) Description: Ask, when, where, and by whom was the work created. You can get the
basic information from the credit line, but you would need to do further research to learn about the
artist. (2) Analysis: Ask, what is the style of the work? Can the work be associated with an art movement? To analyze an artist’s individual style, look at how the artist uses the elements and principles
of art to express personal feelings and ideas, and compare several works by the same artist. (3)
Interpretation: Ask, how did time and place affect the artist’s style in terms of subject matter, composition, and content? Find out about the artist’s life and surroundings and which other artists
influenced him or her. (4) Judgment: Now, ask whether this work is significant in the history of art.
For clues, you can read what art historians say about the artist and make your own assessment.
Chapter 3 Summary
The Media and Processes of Art
Lesson 1: Two-Dimensional Media
Artists use many different materials, or media, to create art. In two-dimensional artworks, such as
drawing and painting, artists use media such as crayons, paints, pastels, and pencils. Drawing is
often the first step in making an artwork. The most popular drawing media are graphite pencils,
colored pencils, crayons, colored markers, pens, pastels, and chalk. Painting is the process of
applying color to a surface such as canvas, paper, or wood, using tools such as a brush, a painting
knife, a roller, or even your fingers. All paints are made up of pigments (colored powders),
binder (a material that holds the grains of pigments together), and solvent (a liquid that
controls the thickness of the paint). In printmaking, an artist repeatedly transfers an original
image from one prepared surface to another. There are three basic steps in printmaking. (1) The
artist creates the printing plate, a mirror image of the final print. A print is the impression created
on a surface by the printing plate. (2) He or she applies ink to the plate, and (3) presses paper
against the plate to transfer the ink to it. Together, all the prints made from the same plate, or set
of plates, form an edition. In addition, there are four main printmaking techniques: relief
printing, intaglio, lithography, and screen printing. It is important to take into account these
different media and techniques when looking at works of art.
Lesson 2: Three-Dimensional Media
In three-dimensional artworks, artists use media, like clay and plastic, to make solid forms that
have height, width, and depth. Sculpture is a three-dimensional work of art, which sculptors can
use clay, glass, plastics, wood, stone, or metal. There is sculpture in the round and relief sculpture.
The first type—sculpture in the round, or freestanding sculpture—is surrounded on all sides by
space. The second type, relief sculpture, projects into space from a flat background and is
viewed from only one side. There are four basic sculpting techniques. (1) In modeling, a soft
material—such as clay, wax, and plaster—is built up and shaped. (2) In carving, the sculptor cuts,
chips, or drills from a solid mass made of wood or stone. (3) In casting, molten metal or another
substance is poured into a mold and allowed to harden. (4) In assembling or constructing,
various materials are gathered and joined together to make a sculpture. Crafts, works of art
created by hand, are often three-dimensional. These objects are functional as well as decorative.
The different categories of functional crafts are weavings, quilts, baskets, pottery, handmade
glass objects, and jewelry. Architecture is another three-dimensional art form. It is the planning
and creation of buildings. Architects must study engineering, as well as the visual arts, to create
buildings that are functional and pleasing to the eye. They must consider the environment in
which a structure will be placed as well as the strengths of the media they will use.
Lesson 3: Technological Media
Artists constantly seek out new media, leading to many new forms of art, such as photography,
film, video, and computer art. Many artists use photography to express their artistic vision. Photography is the technique of capturing optical images on light-sensitive surfaces. Today, film is
the main photographic medium. Unlike still cameras, motion picture cameras have the ability to
move the film through the camera. Today, cinematographers, artists who use movie cameras, can
use many different film media and production processes to create exciting, artistic films. A newer
way to record moving events is video technology, which imprints both sound and pictures onto a
tape. Many artists use video since it does not require any special processing—they can record an
event and watch it immediately. Artists also increasingly use computers with special software
programs such as paint and draw programs. In paint programs, images are made by filling in the
tiny dots, called pixels, where the images are stored. These dots are filled in by using a variety of
brush tools. In draw programs, each line or curve drawn is stored as a separate object. This allows
for more crisp, sharp edges, and images can be resized without distortion. Artists also use tools
such as digital cameras and scanners. With all of these options available, artists can create multimedia art, using computer software to combine text, graphics, video, and sound into a single
artwork. Multimedia art expands the boundaries of art by including more sensory experiences.
Chapter 4 Summary
Line
Lesson 1: The Element of Line
The world is full of lines, such as tree trunks, spider webs, and wires. Artists use line to lead your
eyes through a work of art. A line is an element of art that is the path of a moving point
through space. A line has width as well as length, but usually the width of a line is very small
compared with its length. In fact, a line is thought of as being one-dimensional. Dimension
means the amount of space an object takes up in one direction. Sometimes, the edges of
shapes look like lines; so artists often use outlines to define shapes. They can also arrange
things in rows to create implied lines. There are five basic kinds of lines. (1) Vertical lines
move straight up and down—they do not lean at all. (2) Horizontal lines lay down, parallel to
the horizon. (3) Diagonal lines slant. (4) Zigzag lines are made from a combination of diagonal
lines. (5) Curved lines change direction gradually. Lines can also vary in length, width, texture,
direction, and degree of curve. These variations are caused by differences in the media, tools,
and surfaces used. Lines can also vary in value. Value is the element of art that describes the
lightness or darkness of an object. Artists can vary the number of lines and the spaces between
them to indicate shading. The lines may be parallel, or they may cross one another. Crosshatching is the technique of using crossed lines for shading. Different media and tools create
lines with different values.
Lesson 2: The Expressive Qualities of Line
Line is an important element in the language of art because of its expressive capabilities. For
example, vertical lines are static and appear to be at rest, expressing stability. Horizontal
lines are also static, expressing feelings of peace, rest, and quiet. Since curved lines change
direction, they express activity. Diagonal lines express instability, tension, and excitement
while zigzag lines create confusion. Three special types of drawing will develop your understanding of line. (1) In contour drawing, you use a continuous line to define the edges and
surface ridges of an object. (2) In gesture drawing, you can draw short, loose lines to capture
movement. While contour drawing captures the exterior of an object, gesture drawing
represents the interior. (3) Calligraphic drawing is often associated with Asian writing and art.
The word calligraphy means beautiful handwriting. In China and Japan, calligraphy is used to
form characters that represent the language. You can make calligraphic lines with a paintbrush,
creating brushstrokes that change from thin to thick in one stroke.
Chapter 5 Summary
Shape, Form, and Space
Lesson 1: Shapes and Forms
All objects are either shapes or forms. A shape is a two-dimensional area that is defined in some
way. There are two types of shapes: geometric and free-form. Geometric shapes are precise shapes
that can be described using mathematical formulas. Geometric shapes include circle, square, triangle, oval, rectangle, octagon, parallelogram, trapezoid, pentagon, and hexagon. Free-form or
“organic” shapes are irregular and uneven shapes. Forms are three-dimensional. They are like
shapes because they have length and width, but they also have depth. Shapes like squares and
triangles can “grow” into forms such as cubes and cones. Like shapes, forms can also be geometric
or free-form. Houses are usually geometric forms while your body is a free-form form. Artists create
both shapes and forms. In two-dimensional works, they can use lines and shapes to represent
forms.
Lesson 2: Space
We exist in space and move through it. Our bodies take up space as do all shapes and forms. In art,
space is the element that refers to the emptiness or area between, around, above, below, or
within objects. In both two- and three-dimensional art, the shapes and forms are called the
positive space, or the figure. Empty spaces around shapes and forms are called negative spaces,
or ground. The shape and size of negative spaces affect the way you interpret positive spaces.
Some artists give equal emphasis to both negative and positive space in order to confuse the
viewer. Over, under, through, behind, and around are words that describe three-dimensional space.
Architects create buildings that both occupy and enclose spaces. Artworks that are freestanding are
surrounded by negative space whereas relief sculpture projects into negative space. When the
positive areas project slightly from the flat surface, the work is called bas-relief or low relief. When
the positive areas project farther out, the work is called high relief. To experiment with space,
artists add three-dimensional, or relief, features to two-dimensional artworks such as prints and
fabrics. Photographers create holograms, which are images in three-dimensions created with a
laser beam. Sculptors make kinetic sculpture, which moves through space.
Lesson 3: How We Perceive Shape, Form, and Space
Your eyes and brain work together to allow you to see in three dimensions—height, width, and
depth. Each eye sees an object from a different angle; so your brain merges the two views into one
three-dimensional image. But this image depends on your point of view—the angle from which
your eyes see the object. You see a shape or form very differently if you are standing above it as
opposed to lying beside it. Your hand can look very different depending on the way you turn or
move it, and a rectangular table may not look rectangular if you sit across the room from it. When
your relationship to an object changes, what you see also changes.
Lesson 4: How Artists Create Shapes and Forms in Space
Shapes and forms can be classified as natural or manufactured. Artists use many materials
and techniques to make shapes. They concentrate on both outline and area. They also model,
mold, and carve three-dimensional forms. Artists who work on two-dimensional surfaces can
create the illusion of three-dimensional form. To show forms, they use changes in value. They
arrange light and shadow on shapes in ways that mimic reality. This arrangement of light and
shadow is called chiaroscuro. To create the illusion of depth—the impression that some
objects and shapes are closer to you than others—they use perspective. Perspective is a
graphic system that creates the illusion of depth and volume on a two-dimensional surface.
Artists use six main techniques to give their artworks perspective. (1) They overlap objects,
where one object covers part of a second object, and the first object seems to be closer to the
viewer. (2) They include differences in size, where large objects appear to be closer to the
viewer than small objects. (3) They place objects at different levels on the picture plane to be
closer to the viewer than objects placed near eye level. (4) They include differences in detail.
(5)They alter the value and intensity of colors. (6) They incorporate converging lines to show
distance and depth. To create the illusion of forms and depth, artists must try to represent the
way we perceive things in real life.
Lesson 5: What Different Spaces, Shapes, and Forms Express
Shapes, forms, and spaces in art can cause us to feel certain ways since we associate them with
similar shapes, forms, and spaces in real life. Smooth, curved outlines and surfaces can be
soothing. Angular shapes with zigzag outlines and forms with pointed projections can cause
us to feel uncomfortable. Perfectly geometric shapes seem orderly and stable, perhaps
expressing a lack of emotion. The density or mass of an object refers to how compact it is.
Dense materials seem strong and unyielding and may suggest protection. Less dense forms are
soft and fluffy and seem comfortable. An open shape, form, or space, which you can see
through or inside, can be welcoming. For example, an armchair is an open form that invites you
to sit; an open door invites you to enter. On the other hand, closed forms, such as windowless
buildings, can look forbidding and say, “Keep away.” Just as lines can be active and static, so can
shapes and forms. Active shapes and forms slant diagonally and seem energetic. Static shapes
and forms are usually horizontal or arranged like an equilateral triangle. These forms evoke
quiet and calm feelings.
Critiquing the Artwork
Write your critique in complete sentences.
The critique is worth 20 points.
Deborah Butterfield. Woodrow. 1988. Bronze.
99 x 105 x 74”. Walker Art Center, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
1. Describe: What do you see?
• What object is depicted in the sculpture?
• What is unusual about the medium listed in the credit line?
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2. Analyze: How is the work organized?
• Is the work two dimensional or three dimensional? Geometric or free-form?
• Is the form opened or closed? Static or active?
• Compare and contrast the use of form in this space.
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3. Interpret: What message does the sculpture communicate to you?
• How do you think it would feel to walk around the sculpture?
• Would the horse appear the same from every viewpoint? Explain.
• What feeling about horses does the work communicate?
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4. Judge: What do you think of the work?
• Do you think the artist constructed the horse with appropriate materials? Why?
• Do you think this was a successful work of art? Why or why not?
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