Chapter 9:
Intelligence and IQ Testing
Brown Unit 10:
The Measurement of Mankind
 The historical roots
of I.Q. testing
 Phrenology
 Brain size and
intelligence
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
___________
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Origins of Intelligence Testing
Brain Size & Intelligence
 Paul Broca – (founder of the
Anthropological Society) the
measurement of head size should
answer the most important question of
the day – the relative worth of
different people!
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George Cuvier
Broca’s Claim
 Founder of the field of ___________, &
the greatest anatomist of his day.
Broca dissected Cuvier’s brain on Mayy
15, 1832. Cuvier’s brain weighed 1830
grams (about 400 grams above
average). This was the first direct
evidence that ___________and brain
size go together.
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 “In general, the brain is larger in men than in
women, in eminent men than in men of mediocre
talent, in _______races than in _________races.
Other things being equal, there is a remarkable
relationship between the development of
intelligence and the volume of the brain.”
 “I have noticed for a long time that, in general,
those who deny the intellectual importance of
the brain’s volume have ______heads.”
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1
Brain Size
 Broca’s brain = 1,480 grams.
 Walt Whitman = 1
1,282
282 grams
grams.
 American poet.
 Franz Joseph Gall = 1,198 grams.
Sex Differences
 Broca measured:




292 male brains = 1,325 grams
140 female brains = 1,144 grams
Body mass was not measured.
Broca stated that size cannot account for
the difference because we know that
women __________as intelligent as men.
 Founder of phrenology.
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Gustave Le Bon 1879
 “In the most intelligent races, as among the
Parisians, there are a number of women
whose brains are closer in size to those of
gorillas than to the most developed male
b i
brains.
This
Thi inferiority
i f i it is
i so obvious
b i
that
th t no
one can contest it for a moment; only its
degree is worth discussion. All psychologists
who have studied the intelligence of women,
as well as poets and novelists, recognize
today that they represent the most inferior
forms of human evolution and that they are
closer to children and savages that to the
adult, civilized man.
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Le Bon
 They excel in fickleness, inconstancy,
absence of thought and logic, and
incapacity to reason. Without a doubt
there exist some distinguished women,
very superior to the average man, but
they are as exceptional as the birth of any
monstrosity, as for example, of a gorilla
with two heads; consequently we may
neglect them entirely.”
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1879
Technical Terms
 Could women be admitted to Harvard
University?
 Could women own property?
 Could women vote?
 _______________– the use of bogus
biological arguments to reinforce social
discrimination.
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 Moron – ______________
 Imbecile – ______________________
 Idiot – _________________________
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In a World with Multi-Tasking
Shouldn’t This Technical
Jargon Be Updated?
Moron – barely able to drive
and talk on a cell phone at
the same time.
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Woodsian Idiocy
 A condition characterized by a driver of a
car who causes a vehicular accident due
to distraction induced by the use of a cell
phone while driving, discloses this fact to
the other driver, and is subsequently sued
for this disclosure!
Imbecile
 Any individual who tries to drive and text
-message at the same time.
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Race and Intelligence
 Dr. John Langdon Haydon Down (1866)
 Believe that there was a parallel between human
fossils, sequence of abilities of adults of lower
races and whites afflicted with __________, or
races,
arrests, of development.
 Some Caucasian idiots must represents arrests of
development and owe their mental deficiency to a
retention of traits and abilities that would be
judged as normal in adults of lower races.
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Trisomy-21
Cesare Lombroso
 A failure to split the 21st chromosome during
meiosis.
 Down’s syndrome (mongolism) 1/600 births.
 “…a
a great number of typical Mongols are congenital
idiots…the child’s aspect is such that it is difficult to
realize that he is the child of Europeans, but so
frequently are these characteristics presented, that
there can be no doubt that these ethnic features are
the result of degeneration…”
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 Founder of criminal anthropology.
 Atavisms of development result in the spontaneous
reappearance of __________features.
a b ea e s act on
o biological
b o og ca co
compulsions
pu s o s because a
 Lawbreakers
brutish past lurks within them.
 Individuals born to become criminals can be
identified by the stigmata of apish morphology (long
arms, receding forehead, prominent chin), and could
be incarcerated to prevent a the occurrence of a
future crime. (Tom Cruise movie “Minority
Report”).
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Origins of Intelligence Testing
Alfred Binet and his
colleague Théodore
Simon started modern
intelligence testing by
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future progress
in the Paris school
system.
 The French government wanted to objectively
identify _______and _______learners
 Alfred Binet and Simon (1904) - first
e ge ce test
es
intelligence
 Diverse content:
 object naming
 word meanings
 drawing pictures from memory
 completing incomplete sentences
 constructing a sentence from three words
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Lewis Terman
Binet
 The test should not measure specific
knowledge acquired in school, but
should measure knowledge acquired
__________special
special training
training.
 30 items: imitate gestures, follow simple
commands, repeat a sentence containing
15 words, tell how two common objects
differ, complete a sentence begun by the
tester
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 Originally defined as the ratio of mental age
to chronological age, it now represents a
person’s performance relative to same-age
peers
peers.
 The formula of _____________________ (IQ) introduced by William Stern.
Mental Age
Chronological Age
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Lewis Terman, in the US, adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford‐Binet h
f d
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Intelligence Tests
Intelligence Quotient
IQ=(
Intelligence as Abstract
Thinking
) x 100
What do I.Q. Tests
Measure?
 An individual’s present _________to
perform certain kinds of tasks.
 Problem of labeling – a child’s past
experience
i
with
ith success or failure
f il
influences his or her achievement
motivation. The most potent factor for
success is not I.Q., but
_______________________.
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I.Q.
 The pine tree is evergreen; the poplar is
____.
________________
 Conifer is the botanical term that is
parallel with deciduous.
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PRS
I.Q.
 "Its an ill wind that blows nobody good".
 Matchless
 (Hobbit)
A
A. Something bad never does anybody any
good.
 B. Somebody always gets something out of
whatever happens.
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Vocabulary
 Unmatched, don’t go together (0).
I.Q.
 Sanctuary
 Nothing like it
it, priceless (+1).
(+1)
 Having no equal, peerless (+2).
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Vocabulary
 Peace and quiet, seclusion (0).
 A place of retreat
retreat, a hiding place (+1)
(+1).
Assessing Intelligence
 _____________
 defining meaningful scores by comparison
with the performance of a pretested
“standardization
standardization group”
group
 Normal Curve
 A place where birds can’t be harmed (+2).
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The Normal Curve
 the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that
describes the distribution of many physical
and psychological attributes
 most scores fall near the average, and fewer
and fewer scores lie near the extremes
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Stability or Change?
Intelligence scores become stable after about seven years of age. In numerous studies such stability of intelligence scores have been ascertained (Angoff, 1988; Deary et al., 2004).
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Stability of I.Q.
 Do I.Q. scores change over time?
 About 10% of the population exhibit a 15 point
change (1 SD) over an interval of 6-8 years.
 In extreme instances a score may change from a 90
to 150 (or the reverse) over the course of several
years.
 As CA is incremented, your MA may keep pace with
your peers, lag behind your peers, or out-pace your
peers.
 There is nothing fixed or ____________about one’s
score. However, most people retain their relative
standing.
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Intelligence Tests
The Wechsler Scales
David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for preschoolers.
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Wechsler I.Q Tests
 One drawback on most I.Q. tests is that
they are mainly verbal in content.
 An architect who designs a building is
relying
l i on his
hi or her
h intelligence,
i t lli
yett
this ability is not assessed by most I.Q.
tests.
 Wechsler I.Q. tests were one of the first
to include performance (non-verbal)
items.
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Intelligence as Abstract
Thinking
 In 1921, a forum of 14 experts agreed that
intelligence consists of the abilities to:




Reason abstractly
Adapt to novel environmental circumstances
Acquire knowledge
Benefit from experience
 Americans tend to view intelligence as:
 the capacity to reason well and learn quickly (“to think
on one’s feet”)
 the ability to amass large amounts of knowledge
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
What is Intelligence?
 _________Analysis
 statistical procedure that identifies clusters of
related items (called factors) on a test
 used to identify different dimensions of
performance that underlie one’s total score
 General Intelligence (__)
 factor that Spearman and others believed
underlies overall mental abilities
 measured by every task on an intelligence
test
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Intelligence Tests
Group Aptitude Tests
 During World War I, the U.S. Army
developed two tests that could be
group-administered.
 “Alpha”
Alpha for those who could read English
 “Beta” for all other recruits
 Group tests are now common.
 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)
 American College Test (ACT)
 Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
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What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. In research studies, intelligence is __________the intelligence tests measure … which tends to be school smarts.
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The Nature of Intelligence
Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence
 Spearman theorized that
individuals differ in
general intelligence (g).
 To explain why
correlations among tests
are not perfect, he
theorized that each test
score is also affected by
the specific ability being
tested (S).
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Are There Multiple Intelligences?
Assessing Intelligence
 ____________
 ___________Syndrome
 condition in which a person otherwise limited in
mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
 computation
 drawing
 the extent to which a test yields consistent
results
 assessed by consistency of scores on:
 two halves of the test
 alternate forms of the test
 retesting
 ___________
People with savant syndrome excel in abilities
not related to general intelligence.
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Assessing Intelligence
 the extent to which a test measures or
predicts what Revision
it is supposed
to
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Assessing Intelligence
 ____________Validity
 ___________Validity
 the extent to which a test samples the
behavior that is of interest
 driving test that samples driving tasks
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Assessing Intelligence
Football 10
linemen’s 9
success
Greater correlation
over broad range
of body weights
8
7
6
5
Little correlation within
restricted
range
4
3
2
1
0
180
250
 success with which a test predicts the
behavior it is designed to predict
 assessed by computing the correlation
between test scores and the criterion
behavior
 also called criterion-related validity
 As the range of
data under
consideration
__________,
its predictive
power
diminishes
Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes. The mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135) are significantly different.
290
Body weight in pounds
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The Dynamics of Intelligence
Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded
individuals required
constant supervision a few
decades ago
ago, but with
supportive family
environment and special
education can now care for
themselves.
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Are Intelligence Tests Biased
Raven's “Culture-Fair” Test
The Nature of Intelligence
General Intelligence (g)
Neural Speed and Intelligence
 Person is given a
series of matrices
and must complete
each by selecting
the correct symbol
for the available
choices.
 Designed to be free
of _________bias
 Recorded time
required for brain to
react to visual stimuli.
 Ordered subjects
from slowest (1) to
fastest (5) on this
measure.
 Subjects with higher
conduction speed also
had higher scores on
an intelligence test.
Sample Item
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Brain Function and Intelligence
 People who can
perceive the
stimulus very
________tend
tend to
score somewhat
higher on
intelligence tests
Processing Speed
 Quick witted, fast-learner…
 High I.Q. is correlated with rapid
inspection time, and high nerve
conduction
d ti velocities.
l iti
 PET studies show that high I.Q. is
correlated with lower rates of brain
metabolism.
Stimulus
Mask
Question: Long side on left or right?
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 Why??? Subjects with high I.Q. have more
efficient brains…have to work less hard
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Biological Basis
of Intelligence
 Brain size is weakly correlated with
intelligence
 Cerebral cortex development is slower in
gifted children
 Intelligence is intimately involved with
working and short-term memory
 Intelligence is located throughout the brain,
but the prefrontal cortex is especially
implicated
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Gardner's Frames of Mind
 Multiple Intelligences
 Gardner’s theory that there are seven
types of intelligence:
 Linguistic intelligence
 Logical - mathematical intelligence
 Spatial intelligence
 Musical intelligence
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
 Interpersonal intelligence
 Intrapersonal intelligence
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Gardner's Frames of Mind
Types of Multiple Intelligences
Biological Basis
of Intelligence
 In some functional brain imaging studies,
brain activity is lower in the highly
intelligent (the brain may be more
efficient or require less effort)
 People with higher intelligence also react
more quickly (reaction time)
 Working memory ability and intelligence
are highly related
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Gardner's Frames of Mind
Types of Multiple Intelligences I
 Linguistic Intelligence
 Verbal ability, consists of the skills involved in
speaking, listening, reading, and writing
 Logical-mathematical Intelligence
 Abstract reasoning ability, consists of the skills
necessary for solving puzzles and programming
computers
 Spatial Intelligence
 Visual ability, consists of the skills involved in
orienting oneself in space and navigation
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Gardner's Frames of Mind
Types of Multiple Intelligences
 Musical Intelligence
 Ability to appreciate the tonal qualities of sound,
consists of the skills necessary to compose and
play
l an instrument
i t
t
 Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
 Ability to control gross and fine body movements
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 Interpersonal Intelligence
 Abilityy to understand others,, social skills
 Intrapersonal Intelligence
 Ability to understand oneself, self-insight
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Are There Multiple Intelligences?
 _________Intelligence
 the know-how involved in
comprehending
p
g social situations and
managing oneself successfully
 ___________Intelligence
 ability to perceive, express, understand,
and regulate emotions
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High Emotional
Intelligence
 Yields good techniques for countering negative
moods…quick recovery.
 Able to motivate themselves to work longer and
h d
harder,
delay
d l ___________ (correlated
(
l t d with
ith
achievement motivation).
 Develop a knack for getting along with others,
able to coordinate the efforts of several
people…negotiate solutions to complex
problems…greater career success.
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Emotional Intelligence
 Recognizing and managing one’s own emotions,
motivating oneself, restraining _________,
handling interpersonal relationships.
 Some
S
people
l are highly
hi hl aware off their
th i own
emotions, while other seem oblivious to their
own feelings.
 People who are ____in recognizing their own
emotions, are also low in emotional
expressiveness.
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Gender Differences in
Emotional Intelligence
 Males tend to be less skilled at
recognizing and expressing emotions.
Males tend to over react to criticism,
and this mayy lead to emotional
withdrawal…prompting some spouses
to intensify criticism to induce any
reaction…this can backfire!!!
 Men need to learn that criticism may be
motivated by love, and women need to
learn that men tend to be hyper sensitive
to criticism.
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The Nature of Intelligence
The Nature of Intelligence
 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
 Analytic - “Components”
 Comparing, analyzing, and evaluating
 This type of process correlates best with IQ
 Creative
C ti - “Experiential”
“E
i ti l”
 Inventing or designing solutions to new
problems
 Practical - “Contextual”
 Adapting to the contexts of everyday life
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
 Sternberg’s theory that there are three
kinds of intelligence: analytic, creative,
and practical
practical.
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
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11
The Nature of Intelligence
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
 Creativity
 Intellectual and motivational processes that
lead to novel situations, ideas, artistic
forms, or products
 __________Thinking
 The ability to think flexibly and entertain a
wide range of possible solutions.
 __________Intelligence
 The ability to size up new situations and
adapt to real-life demands.
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Practical Intelligence
 Not correlated with analytic intelligence
 Not dependent upon academic knowledge
 Dependent upon ‘tacit’ knowledge:




Action oriented
Achieves goals individuals personally value
Acquired without direct help from others
_______________correlates with knowing how
to get along with others, higher salary, more
promotions, & greater success in life.
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Creativity
 The ability to produce work that is ______and
______________to the task.
 Recognize which idea is worth pursuing.
 Sufficient knowledge about a field to advance an
idea
idea.
 Preference for novel ways of thinking and the
ability to see the big picture.
 Willingness to take risks and tolerate ambiguity.
 Intrinsic rewards for creative work.
 The environment must support creative ideas.
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Genetic Influences
 Heritability
 the proportion of variation among
individuals that we can attribute to
genes
 variability depends on range of
populations and environments studied
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The Great Debates: Nature and Nurture
Nature's Influence on IQ Scores
 The greater the
genetic similarity
between two
individuals, the
more similar are
their IQ scores.
 This suggests a
genetic component
to intelligence.
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12
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.
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Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores
 All other things
being equal, two
individuals raised
together will have
Q
more similar IQ
scores than those
raised apart.
Heredity and I.Q.








Identical twins (together) = .90
Indentical twins (apart) = .75
Siblings = .50
Cousins = .15
Parents & biological children = .40-.50
Parents & adopted children = .10-.20
Unrelated individuals (together) = .25
Unrelated individuals (apart) = .00
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Heredity & I.Q.
 Heredity and environment appear to be equally
important.
 Skeels (1938, 1966) showed that orphaned
children
hild
showed
h
d a 26 point
i t drop
d
from
f
age 2 to
t
age 5 if they remained in an orphanage, and a
29 point increase if they were raised by a
substitute ‘mother’. The 55 point difference is
attributed to the presence or absence of adult
stimulation.
 This is evidence
that the
__________
shapes intelligence
in important ways.
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Environmental Influences on
IQ
 Birth _______
 Robert Zajonc (1976) - IQ decreases with increasing birth
order (later studies suggested this was due to families with
low IQs tending to have more children)
 __________
 Number of school years correlates with IQ (0.5 - 0.6)
 Students who drop out of school end up with lower IQs
than those who stay in, even when starting out with the
same IQ
 Early Intervention
 Head Start program produces changes in IQ that last a few
years
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
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Effects of Schooling
 Children from
comparable schools
 One with 180-day year
 One with 210-day year
 Children began study
performing similarly
 At end of study,
extended-year
children performed
better on math
(shown here) and
reading tests.
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13
Environmental Influences on
IQ
 _______________Effects
 Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson gave fake
data to teachers suggesting some students would
experience large increases in IQ
 These randomly selected students experienced an IQ
gain of around 4 points
 Poverty
 Arthur Jensen (1977) studied poor families in
Georgia and found that children experienced a 1.5
IQ point drop per year
 Poverty could be associated with malnutrition,
exposure to lead, and less breast-feeding
Education
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:Three-Step Model
 The idea that a
person’s expectation
can lead to its own
fulfillment (as in the
effect of teacher
expectations on
student performance)
 Teachers with low
expectations of some
students may settle for
lower performance from
these students.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Group Differences
 Stereotype Threat
 A self-confirming
g concern that one
will be evaluated based on a
negative stereotype
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Race Differences in IQ
 On average, Hispanic and African
Americans score lower than Caucasians,
and Asian Americans tend to score higher
 African Americans have been reported to
score up to 15 points lower
 One common interpretation: inferior
schooling and other cultural disadvantages
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The Great Debates
Cultural Influences
 Asian American students get higher grades
and SAT math scores, are more likely to
graduate from college, and are more likely to
win
i various
i
scholarships
h l hi compared
d to
t their
th i
peers.
 However, research shows that their tests
scores are about average.
 Americans, relative to those in Asian
countries, may set __________standards and
place ________value
on educational pursuits.
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
The Racial Gap
Education: The Great Equalizer
 Cognitive test
scores from
grades 8 – 16
 Initial gap
between black
and
d white
hit
students was
narrowed
significantly by
the end of college
 Education has a
vital equalizing
role
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Sex Differences in IQ
 Few studies have found
differences in average IQ
 _______tend
tend to have a
wider distribution of IQ
Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females differ on various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2 Girls verbally fluent large vocabularies
2. Girls verbally fluent, large vocabularies
3. Girls are better at locating objects
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving but under perform at math computation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Sex Differences in Specific
Mental Abilities
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do
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Mental rotation task
 Differences tend to be small:
 Women do better on some verbal tasks,
including spelling and writing
 Women talk more than men
(F = 20,000 words per day; M = 7,000)
 Men tend to do better on spatial tasks,
especially mental rotation
 Sex differences could be due to environment
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Do Exceptional Children Stay Exceptional?
 Does early ‘ripening’ lead to early ‘rot’?
 1925 Terman initiated a longitudinal study of
1,528 children with an I.Q. of 130 or more
(30 year follow up).





Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
High Intelligence
High‐scoring people on intelligence tests—contrary to popular beliefs—tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically. 90% showed an increase in I.Q. scores
Superior health, social adjustment
Earned more academic degrees
Earned 4 times the average salary
No negative side effects were observed for being
gifted
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15
Adult Cognitive
Development
Genius and
Exceptional Intelligence
 Lewis Terman (1959) studied 1,500 students with
IQs of about 135 or higher
 Findings from the “Termites” disputed many
popular stereotypes of the highly intelligent:
 Most had above average health, and were taller
and heavier than the general population
 They were highly successful in adulthood
 They had lower rates of mental illness
 The best predictor of exceptional career success in
musicians is the amount of practice
 Old belief: all aspects of thinking except
the amount of factual information known
decline after the mid 20’s.
 New belief: intellectual ability continues
to improve with age until the onset of
trauma to the brain.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
PRS

Age and Peak Productivity
What confound supported the old idea that
IQ dropped with age?
Cross-sectional data @ 1970


A.
B.
C.
D.
Revision 2006 PSB
Age: 20
30
40
50
60
70
DOB 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900
Change from rural to urban environments.
Change in the average level of education.
Both A and B.
None of the above.
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IQ Ranges Among
Professions




Poetry
Chemistry
Medicine
Math
25-29
30-34
34-39
34
39
40-44
 Peak –productivity and creativity varies
between fields.
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Adulthood: Cognitive
Development
 ____________Intelligence
 one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal
skills
 tends to increase with age
 _________Intelligence
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
 ones ability to reason speedily and
abstractly
 tends to decrease
during late adulthood
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__________________Speed
 Crystallized intelligence – the ability to utilize
previously learned information.
 Fluid intelligence – the ability to form new
concepts,
t reason, id
identify
tif similarities.
i il iti
As
A
children grow older, their processing speed
increases, this increases the capacity of working
memory, and increments in working memory
contributes to fluid intelligence. Thus, fluid
intelligence correlates with processing speed.
This skill declines with old age.
Old Age and I.Q.
 65-73 years of age – small drop
 73-85 years of age – steep drop
 Pre-death drop – decline in average score may
be due to the performance of adults near death
(old healthy adults show no decline)
 Crystallized abilities hold up well with age
 Fluid abilities show a greater decline with age
Revision 2006 PSB
Cooperative Group Challenge









Only six are used.
1. Stanford-Binet
2. Flynn
3 test bias
3.
4. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
5. eugenics
6. validity
7. reliability
8. specific abilities
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Q1.
 1. According to Spearman, someone’s
intelligence is not only dependent on
his/her general intelligence or g, but also
on his/her _____.
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Q2.
Q3.
 2. The _____ movement sought to purge
low-IQ individuals from the gene pool
through mandatory sterilization.
 3. The most commonly used adult IQ test
is the _____.
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Q4.
Q5.
 4. The _____ of IQ tests indicates
whether these tests accurately measure
what they purport to measure.
 5. According to the _____ effect our IQ
scores are a full 15 points above those of
our grandparents.
Revision 2006 PSB
Revision 2006 PSB
Q6.
 6. When a test predicts outcomes better
in one group than in another group, this is
known as _____.
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