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The Human Body
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
Black and white edition
By Bruce Wingerd
Included in this preview:
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• Preface
• A Note to Students
• Table of Contents
• Chapter 1
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THE HUMAN BODY
Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology
Second Color Edition
Bruce Wingerd
Bruce Wingerd is Associate Dean of Biology at Broward Community College in
Florida and previously taught at San Diego State University for 25 years. He has
taught human anatomy, advanced human anatomy, medical terminology, and
anatomy and physiology. Between his numerous writing projects, he has run
workshops on teaching anatomy and physiology for the benefit of local high
school and junior high school teachers.
Copyright © 2008 by Bruce Wingerd
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or using any other
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
First published in the United States of America in 2007 by University Readers
12 11 10 09 08
12345
Printed in the United States of America
The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology is a revised and condensed version of
The Human Body: Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology, first published by Brooks/Cole in 1994.
Illustration program provided courtesy of Thomson Learning and Jennifer Riggin.
ISBN: 978-1-934269-11-4 (paper)
A study guide along with full-color versions of all illustrations
are available to students enrolled in a class using this textbook.
Go to http://www.universityreaders/publish/wingerd/students
PREFACE
gling through the mountains of terminology in anatomy and
dents learn the essential information by using the process of
concept building. If a student is able to form a mental image
of a technical term’s meaning or a process, learning becomes
easier and lasts longer due to the mental connections that
or literal description, the student is encouraged to visualize
course, some memorizing is unavoidable, but providing stu-
mation and technologies.
THE APPROACH AND
MAIN THEME
Human anatomy and physiology is a challenging topic for
introductory-level learners, and mastering the material requires an investment of time and effort. The second edition
of The Human Body meets this challenge by providing an approach that encourages learning. The approach includes three
the aid of concept-building tools, and using the process of
of learning, the result can lead to personal and professional
Integrating Structure and Function
The Human Body: Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology
to make the book an even better tool for learning. Many sug-
book’s main approach is to establish a comfortable balance of
structure and function for the beginning student. At the outtion of a particular system. The more detailed information
ideas have arisen from the changes that have occurred in sciterms needed to fully understand and communicate function
are provided. Then function is described, using the buildingan improved learning tool for students. It remains my hope
discussion, the functional importance of a structure is emphasized.
Learning with Concept-Building Tools
The book’s approach is also based on the notion that learn-
NEW TO THE SECOND
EDITION
complete if a conceptual foundation is provided. Numerous
concept-building tools are employed to establish this foundation. Each tool enables a student to establish a mental image
-
in the original text, in addition to recognizing opportunities
The conceptual foundation is reinforced by logical explanageneral, this second edition is a more balanced text that inmore reader-friendly style. The level of information has been
terms added and others deleted. Explanations of many physi-
information, and many high-quality illustrations that correspond directly to the text material.
ii
Preface
The Theme of Homeostasis
The main theme of the text is the body’s remarkable ability to
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despite changing conditions, the body components involved
in its maintenance, and the consequences of the body’s failXUHWRPDLQWDLQLWHIIHFWLYHO\DUHWRSLFVWKDWDUHLQWHUZRYHQ
throughout. In many chapters, the role of body tissues, organs, and systems in maintaining and supporting homeostasis
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the importance of homeostasis in the daily maintenance of
health, this vital body function is also presented as a separate
topic at the end of most chapters. This feature serves to conQHFWKRPHRVWDVLVZLWKWKHPDLQIXQFWLRQVRIWKHERG\V\VWHP
discussed in the chapter.
IMPROVED COVERAGE
Every chapter in the second edition of The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology includes improvements
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than others.
Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis
of the Body
&KHPLVWU\LVDFRPPRQVWXPEOLQJJURXQGIRUEHJLQQLQJVWXdents, but it doesn’t need to be if it is presented clearly. To
make the introduction of chemistry more accessible for stuGHQWVWKLVFKDSWHUZDVUHZULWWHQZLWKDQHPSKDVLVRQFODULW\
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Chapter 3: Cells: The Basis of Life
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the past decade, mainly due to an increased understanding
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membrane function.
Chapter 4: Tissues
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illustrations.
Chapter 8: Organization of the
Nervous System
The nervous system is an extremely complex body system.
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teach and learn. To make this task more reasonable, the chapWHUZDVUHZULWWHQWRLPSURYHXSRQLWVFODULW\RISUHVHQWDWLRQ
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Chapter 13: The Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system has been studied intensively for
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incorporated into the text to assist student learning.
Chapter Openers
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introductory paragraphs summarize and integrate the main
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Concepts and Concepts Checks
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concept statements are provided. The concept statement idenWL¿HVWKHNH\LGHDWREHGLVFXVVHGWHOOLQJWKHVWXGHQWWKHHVsential information that should be learned. For each chapter
there is a list of questions called Concepts Check. The questions are designed to engage the student in thinking about the
key points in the section in order to extend a helping hand
in learning. The questions are located in the free online stuGHQWUHVRXUFHVDWKWWSZZZXQLYHUVLW\UHDGHUVFRPSXEOLVK
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Tables and Figures
Tables concisely organize and summarize large blocks of inIRUPDWLRQDQGWKH\VHUYHDVDXVHIXOUHYLHZWRRO$QDEXQGDQWQXPEHURI¿JXUHVLVSURYLGHG(DFK¿JXUHOHJHQGLVDFcompanied by a question that challenges the student to take
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legend questions are provided in the free online student resources.
Preface
Health Clinic and Sports Clinic
6HOHFWHGWRSLFVLQELRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKDQGPHGLFLQHDUHSURvided in special boxes called Health Clinic in every chapter.
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in the second edition. In each case, they are based on recent
information from research publications, such as The New
England Journal of Medicine, 6FLHQWL¿F $PHULFDQ, Nature,
and Science. Also, selected topics that relate text material to
sports activities are provided in special boxes called Sports
Clinic. This information has also been updated. The careful
selection and placement of Health Clinic and Sports Clinic
topics in the text serve to reinforce the concepts, and also
may spark further interest in the learning material. Additional
Clinics are located in the free online student resources.
Pronunciation Guides and
Word Part Origins
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parentheses. The learning process is also strengthened if students are informed of the actual meaning of terms, based on
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Chapter Review Questions
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in the online student resource guide. Additionally, the online
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Glossary
A Glossary is provided in the online student resources. It contains all of the terms emphasized in boldface and italic type
in the text.
iii
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Preface
Note to the Student
v
A NOTE TO THE STUDENT
A NOTE TO THE STUDENT
The Human Body: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
Second Edition, contains a number of features that are defrom these features you must be able to recognize them and
the material.
-
same body organ or to the same condition often share the
card = heart + itis =
card = heart + ology
derma = skin + itis
epi = outer + dermis
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sources for students at:
that usually appears in the text after the term in parentheses.
If a pronunciation cannot be found, look up the term in the
Glossary in the online resources. Pronunciation guides are
goals of the chapter. It is best to return to this list after study-
the Glossary.
primary learning goals and learn if you have achieved them.
PRONUNCIATION KEY
Concepts
vided in parentheses next to the term. To pronounce the term
properly, read the phonetic spelling literally and out loud if
Concepts Check
questions immediately after reading the section. If you’re
mind.
vided in the online resource pertaining to each chapter of the
text, giving you an opportunity to quiz yourself after read-
Concepts Check boxes in the online resources.
examples:
oo as in blue
oh as in boat
air as in fair
oy as in oil
ah as in father (FAH-ther)
ture of the human body’s incredible design of structure and
tools that are intended to give you a helping hand. But suc-
vi
Note to the Student
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my personal experience, and the experience of thousands of
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Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Human Body
Introduction
1
Basic Terminology
The Body Plan
Homeostasis
Chapter 2. The Chemical Basis of the Body
Introduction
Chapter 3. Cells: The Basis of Life
Introduction
The Extracellular Environment
The Intracellular Environment
The Nucleus
Interphase
39
17
vii
viii
Contents
Chapter 4. Tissues
63
Introduction
Epithelial Tissue
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Glandular Epithelium
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Bone
Blood-Forming Tissue and Blood
Muscle Tissue
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Nervous Tissue
Membranes
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Mucous Membranes
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Chapter 5. The Integumentary System
Introduction
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Epidermis
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Hair
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Chapter 6. The Skeletal System
Introduction
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Types of Bone
Parts of a Long Bone
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Intramembranous Bones
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Homeostasis
Chapter 7. The Muscular System
143
Introduction
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Muscles of the Head and Neck
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Homeostasis
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Contents
Chapter 8. Organization of the Nervous System
179
Introduction
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Nervous Tissue
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Homeostasis
Chapter 9. Special Senses and Other Functional Aspects
of the Nervous System
Introduction
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Contents
Chapter 10. The Endocrine System
Introduction
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Hormones
Hormonal Action
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The Endocrine Glands
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Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Gonads
Pineal Gland
Thymus
Homeostasis
Chapter 11. The Blood
263
Introduction
Functions of Blood
Properties of Blood
Plasma
Plasma Proteins
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Formed Elements
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Homeostasis and the Blood
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Contents
Chapter 12. The Cardiovascular System
Introduction
The Heart
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Heart Physiology
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Chapter 13. The Lymphatic System
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Innate Immunity
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Chapter 14. The Respiratory System
Introduction
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Nose
Pharynx
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Lungs
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Chapter 15. The Digestive System
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xiii
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Contents
Chapter 16. The Urinary System
389
Introduction
Kidneys
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Kidney Functions
Ureters
Urinary bladder
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Micturition
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Chapter 17. The Reproductive System
407
Introduction
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Testes
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Chapter 18. Human Development and Inheritance
Introduction
Prenatal development
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Genetic Inheritance
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction to the
Human Body
Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives
Introduction
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Movement
Growth
Reproduction
Basic Terminology
Directional Terms
Body Planes
The Body Plan
Body Regions
Body Cavities
Homeostasis: The Balance of Life
Process of Homeostasis
Health and Disease
1
2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Anatomy
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This chapter begins your study of human body structure
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Anatomy and
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Structural Levels of
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Chapter 1
System Level
combined function is the digestion of food into nutrients that
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The Characteristics
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Basic Terminology
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you wish to describe the location of the heart to someone who
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The universally accepted position of the body that is used
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arms at the sides and the toes and palms turned forward (FigXUH 7KLV SRVLWLRQ SURYLGHV D SRLQW RI UHIHUHQFH PXFK
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that you will be using throughout your study are presented
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Chapter 1
8
7DEOHDescriptive Terms
____________________________________________________________________________________
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Superior (cranial)
Toward the head end or
XSSHUSDUWRIWKHERG\ The heart is superior to
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Inferior (caudal)
Away from the head end or
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The chest is inferior
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anterior side of the
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down the posterior
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Deep (internal)
Away from the surface of the
ERG\ The heart lies deep
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Sectional Planes
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three-dimensional bodies is partly solved by the use of
planes$SODQHLVDÀDWVXUIDFHWKDWUHVXOWVIURPDVOLFHRU
section WKURXJK WKH ERG\ 7KH VHFWLRQ PD\ EH RULHQWHG LQ
any direction so that it may pass through the body at a certain
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6$MLKWDODQGKRUL]RQWDO )LJXUH
The frontal planeH[WHQGVWKURXJKWKHORQJD[LVRIWKH
ERG\WKDWLVDORQJWKHERG\¶VOHQJWK$OVRFDOOHGWKHcoronal planeLWGLYLGHVWKHERG\LQWRDQWHULRUIURQWDQGSRVWHULRUEDFNSRUWLRQV:KHQWKHVXEMHFWLVVWDQGLQJXSULJKWLQ
WKHDQDWRPLFDOSRVLWLRQWKHIURQWDOSODQHH[WHQGVLQDYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQ
The sagittal planeDOVRH[WHQGVWKURXJKWKHERG\¶VORQJ
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is called midsagittalZKHUHDVRQHWKDWGLYLGHVXQHTXDOO\LV
called parasagittalSDUDPHDQV³DZD\IURPQRUPDO´
Introduction to the Human Body
9
10
Chapter 1
Body Regions
able are called regions
trunk
upper appendages
thorax,
pelvis.
simply called the back
transverse plane
cross
section
Concepts Check
ing the location of body parts instead of more common
on top of below
to the side?
tures?
The Body Plan
Concept: The human body is divided into regions. Some regions contain spaces called cavities that house organs.
head, the neck
lower appendages.
abdomen, and
Introduction to the Human Body
7KHPDMRUERG\UHJLRQVWKHLUGLYLVLRQVDQGLPSRUWDQWVXUIDFHIHDWXUHVDUHVXPPDUL]HGLQ7DEOH
Body Cavities
7KHERG\LVLQWHUQDOO\GLYLGHGLQWRVHYHUDOVSDFHVRUcavitiesZKLFKFRQWDLQPDQ\RIWKHRUJDQV)LJXUH,QDGGLWLRQ WR KRXVLQJ RUJDQV HDFK ERG\ FDYLW\ LV DVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKWKLQVKHHWVRIFHOOVNQRZQDVmembranes (membranes
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DQ RXWHU PHPEUDQH OLQHV WKH FDYLW\ ZDOOV ZKLOH DQ LQQHU
membrane covers the outer surface of organs that are conWDLQHG ZLWKLQ WKH FDYLW\ ,Q JHQHUDO WKH RXWHU PHPEUDQH LV
referred to as the parietal layer while the inner membrane
is called the visceral layer7KHWHUPSDULHWDOPHDQV³ZDOO´
DQG YLVFHUDO PHDQV ³LQQHU RUJDQV´ 7KH RUJDQV FRQWDLQHG
ZLWKLQ D FDYLW\ DUH JHQHUDOO\ NQRZQ DV visceral organs
7KHUHDUHWZRPDMRUFDYLWLHVLQWKHERG\7KHVPDOOHURI
WKHWZRFDOOHGWKHdorsal cavityLVORFDWHGLQWKHSRVWHULRU
GRUVDOVLGHRIWKHERG\,WFRQWDLQVDcranial cavity within
WKHVNXOODQGDvertebral canal WKDWH[WHQGVWKURXJKWKHFHQWHURIWKHYHUWHEUDOFROXPQEDFNERQH7KHFUDQLDOFDYLW\LV
7DEOH Body Regions
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Head
Face
Cranium
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Abdomen
Pelvis
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Brachium (upper arm)
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Antebrachium (forearm)
Carpus (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Palm
Digits
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Femoral (thigh)
Knee
Crus (leg)
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Pes (foot)
Sole
Digits
12
Chapter 1
The larger ventral cavity is in the anterior (ventral) side
thoracic
cavity and a lower portion called the abdominopelvic
cavity. The two are
diaphragm
The thoracic cavity is bordered on its anterior side by
collectively referred to as the mediastinum
-
vic cavity is divided into two main cavities that are separated
The bones of the ribcage and vertebral column provide the
abdominal cavity
attached to the thoracic wall (the parietal pleura) and the
pelvic cavity
lies below the iliac crests and is in the shape of a bowl that
-
This narrow cavity is called the pleural (PLOO-ral) cavity
membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity include the large
between an outer membrane (the parietal pericardium) and an
pericardial (pair-ih-KARdee-al) cavity.
the peritoneal cavity
Introduction to the Human Body
The abdominopelvic cavity is divided yet further into
ternal body parts and in relating sources of pain on the sur-
Concepts Check
cavities does each contain in turn?
separated by invisible lines that are similar to the latitudinal
may be further divided into smaller regions?
quadrants
13
14
Chapter 1
Homeostasis:
The Balance of Life
vided by the contraction of small groups of muscles that are
Concept: Homeostasis is the process by which the internal environment of the body is kept relatively stable despite
changes in the world around us.
isms that are well-suited for invading our cells and destroying
How are we able to survive in this world of changing envi-
-
is called homeostasis
The term also refers
to the process by which the body maintains a stable internal
-
The Process of Homeostasis
functions are of vital importance because a failure in any one
of them can lead to disease or even death within a relatively
, functions as a thermothermostat in your house: when the temperature is perceived
. This reduces the
amount of heat that is normally lost through the surface of the
Introduction to the Human Body
15
The process of homeostasis is also active when the body
volume of heat-carrying blood from the deeper regions of the
homeostatic mechanisms are performed in one of two ways:
Negative Feedback
negative feedback
-
-
Positive Feedback
Positive feedback mechanisms are quite rare in the healthy
your house is wired so that an increase in room temperature
Health and Disease
steady state demands that all body systems are operating efprovides the individual with a level of physical health and
16
Chapter 1
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and moderately good health that falls somewhat short of the
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this continuum and the ideal state of optimum health much of
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