NOTES: 3/6/12
Tonight: Read pp. 78-81 “Logical Fallacies” to
“Organizing Your Argument”
Read pp. 81-87 “Sample Argument Paper”
Analyze newspaper editorial (provided in notes)
Classical Argument Format Overview
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Begin in an interesting way (remember imaginative leads?)
Provide background or context that was relevant to their specific audience
State claim and evidence clearly and emphatically
Take account of opposing viewpoints and anticipating objections
Conclude in an effective way—your last chance to state your case.
The CLASSICAL ARGUMENT FORMAT traditionally consists of 4 major parts:
(Here’s the basic skeleton)
I. INTRODUCTION
A. LEAD
B. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
C. THESIS STATEMENT
II. ARGUMENT BODY
A. POINT 1
i. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
ii. FACTS, AUTHORITY QUOTES
iii. EXPERIMENTAL DATA
B. POINT 2
i. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
ii. FACTS, AUTHORITY QUOTES, EXPERIMENTAL DATA
iii. EXPERIMENTAL DATA
C. POINT 3
i. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
ii. FACTS, AUTHORITY QUOTES, EXPERIMENTAL DATA
D. POINT 4
i. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
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ii. FACTS, AUTHORITY QUOTES, EXPERIMENTAL DATA
III. REFUTATION & REBUTTAL (A.K.A. ‘CONCESSION’ & REBUTTAL)
A. ACKNOWLEDGE OPPOSITION’S ARGUMENT POINT
i. EXPLAIN WHY OPPOSITION’S POINT IS LESS VALID THAN YOUR
OWN
B. ACKNOWLEDGE OPPOSITION’S ARGUMENT POINT
i. EXPLAIN WHY OPPOSITION’S POINT IS LESS VALID THAN YOUR
OWN
IV. CONCLUSION
A. SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT
B. DEEPER SIGNIFICANCE
C. CALL TO ACTION—
i. WHAT DO YOU WANT YOUR READER TO DO?
NOW, LET’S FLESH IT OUT
I. INTRODUCTION
A. LEAD TYPES—grab your reader’s attention
1. provocative lead: catch the reader's
attention with an outrageous statement,
"Boys are smarter than girls" and then
illustrate your position in contrast to this
belief (or give reasons why it's true).
2. contrast-and-conflict : establishes the
focus by reversing reader's expectations;
begin with a common belief and take the
opposite position.
3. question lead : most common but most
easily misused; pose a question your essay
will answer; be sure it is answered in your
essay and that it doesn't arouse multiple answers.
4. descriptive/narrative lead : illustrates the subject with anecdotes
or description of a scene so the reader knows what an issues looks
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like; they can sympathize with and visualize it
5. cumulative-interest lead: creates reader's interest by piling up
facts or details related to the essay
B. HISTORICAL CONTEXT
1. What’s the issue’s history?
2. Why is it an issue now?
3. How did we get here?
4. What must be defined that the reader might not know?
C. THESIS STATEMENT Debatable statement that can be supported with
facts, testimony, statistics, scientific evidence
III. REFUTATION & REBUTTAL
Some Questions to Ask as You Develop Your Concession/Refutation
 What are the most important opposing arguments?
 What concessions can I make and still support my thesis adequately?
 How can I refute opposing arguments or minimize their significance?
 What are the possible objections to my own position?
 What are the possible ways someone can misunderstand my own
position?
 How can I best deal with these objections and misunderstandings?
WAYS TO REFUTE & REBUT OPPOSITION’S CLAIMS
 SHOW OPPOSITION’s INFORMATION is WRONG Show by the use of facts,
reasons, and testimony that the opposing point is totally wrong.
You must show that the opposing argument is based on any of the
following:
1) incorrect evidence
2) questionable assumptions
3) bad reasoning
4) prejudice
5) superstition
6) ill will
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 SHOW OPPOSITION has MERIT but is FLAWED
Show that the opposition has some merit but is flawed in some way.
For instance, the opposing viewpoint may be:
1. Opposing viewpoint may be true only in some circumstances or
within a limited sphere of application
2. Opposing viewpoint may apply only to certain people, groups, or
conditions.
3. When you point out the exceptions to the opposition rule’s, you
show that its position is not as valid as its proponents claim it is.
 SHOW OPPOSITION has MERIT but OUTWEIGHED by OTHER CONCERNS
Show that the opposition has merits but is outweighed by other
considerations.
(When a difficult choice has to be made, we must put first things first.)
Example 1: The opposition may claim that it’s undesirable for young girls to
have abortions, but when girls as young as ten become pregnant, they’re too
young to take on the burdens of motherhood and must not be forced to carry
the pregnancy to term.
Example 2: The opposition may claim that my proposal is expensive, but
consider the costs if we do not undertake it, or how much the price will go up
if we wait to undertake it, etc.
 SHOW OPPOSITION’s REASONING is FLAWED
Show the opposition’s reasoning contains logical fallacies.*
Example Argument: Anyone who does not support a retaliatory bombing of
Afghanistan to punish a regime that supports terrorism is not a patriotic
American.
Refutation: Demonstrate this is an “either/or” fallacy by showing there are
other patriotic responses than a retaliatory strike—for instance arresting
bin Laden and the Taliban leaders and turning them over to the World
Court, bringing them to trial in the US justice system, etc.
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Moreover, the argument hinges on an emotionally freighted word:
patriotic.
IV. The Conclusion
Conclusions are hard and there’s a temptation to simply repeat your thesis and
topic sentences. You might hark back to the background: why has this remained
a problem and why is it so important to solve it, your way, now? Or you might
hark back to the common ground you have with your audience: why does
accepting your argument reinforce your shared beliefs and values?
A weak conclusion leaves readers dissatisfied and less likely to accept your
argument. Spending a little extra time on the conclusion is almost always
worthwhile.
Some Questions to Ask as You Develop Your Conclusion
1. How can I best leave a strong impression of the rightness and
importance of my view?
2. How can I best summarize or exemplify the most important elements of
my argument?
3. What is the larger significance of the argument?
a. What long-range implications will have the most resonance with
my readers?
4. How can I bring the argument “full circle” and leave my readers satisfied
with the ending of my argument?
5. Is it appropriate to include a “call to action”?
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CRITICAL THINKING—closely related to forming and understanding persuasive
arguments
“The critical habit of thought, if usual in society, will pervade all its mores,
because it is a way of taking up the problems of life. Men educated in it [critical
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thinking] cannot be stampeded by stump orators ... They are slow to believe.
They can hold things as possible or probable in all degrees, without certainty
and without pain. They can wait for evidence and weigh evidence, uninfluenced
by the emphasis or confidence with which assertions are made on one side or
the other. They can resist appeals to their dearest prejudices and all kinds of
cajolery. Education in the critical faculty is the only education of which it can be
truly said that it makes good citizens.”
~ William Graham Sumner, 1906
(a sociologist, economist, historian)
So, what is critical thinking? (Savannah’s answer: freedom of choice and proper
defense against manipulation)
EACH ADVERTISEMENT THAT YOU SEE BELOW IS A MINIATURE ARGUMENT, A
MINIATURE PERSUASIVE ‘ESSAY’. LET’S SEE HOW WELL THEY DO IN PERSUADING US.
ARE THERE ARE FLAWS IN LOGIC?
(continued below)
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According to this advert, "It's the peppery dust left in tobacco by inefficient
cleaning methods that makes you cough". You may not be able to read it at this
size, the text under the logo reads "Mild... No cigaretty after-taste".
(continued on next page)
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This ad is mix of two completely different topics. At the top, the little girl is seen
telling her doctor she'll live to be a hundred, and the text more or less confirms
this, thanks to rapid progress of medical science and hard working doctors putting
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that science to use. In the lower half, Camel claims that a survey among 113, 597
doctors brought back Camel as the favorite brand. Mixing these two completely
different topics coincidentally leaves the happy impression that there's no
contradiction between smoking camels and living to be 100 years old.
Um, yeah. Who thought this was a good idea? Thanks for the cheesiness, 1970s.
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The ad’s small print says, “Why is it that PHILIP MORRIS finds special
favor among younger smokers? Simply because younger smokers—with their
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eager, unspoiled tastes—are quick to note the likeable gentleness and delicate
flavor that distinguish vintage tobacco. Do as Young American does. Enjoy
PHILIP MORRIS—King Size or Regular—in the convenient Snap-Open
pack.
o How is the idea of ‘unspoiled’, ‘likeable’ and ‘gentleness’ emphasized
by the image?
o What is the command or call to action in this ad.
Critical Thinking involves a person’s ability to use his/her intelligence,
knowledge and skills to question and carefully explore situations to arrive at
thoughtful conclusions based on evidence and reason.
A critical thinker is able to get past biases and view situations from different
perspectives to ultimately improve his/her understanding of the world.
o Thinking Actively by using our intelligence, knowledge, and skills to
question, explore, and deal effectively with ourselves, others, and life's
situations.
o Carefully Exploring Situations by asking--and trying to answer--relevant
questions.
o Thinking for Ourselves by carefully examining various ideas and arriving
at our own thoughtful conclusions.
o Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives to develop an in-depth,
comprehensive understanding.
o Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reason and Evidence to arrive at
thoughtful, well-substantiated conclusions.
LAST THING:
Finally, let’s (finally) do the run-on/fragment exercise we’ve skipped
since 2/14. (Note to Savannah: use the 2/14 notes).
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