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Transistor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Transistor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current
applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher
than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some
transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices,
and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in
1947 by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the
way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other
things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics, and the
inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their
achievement.
Assorted discrete transistors.
Packages in order from top
to bottom: TO-3, TO-126,
TO-92, SOT-23
Contents
1 History
2 Importance
3 Simplified operation
3.1 Transistor as a switch
3.2 Transistor as an amplifier
4 Comparison with vacuum tubes
4.1 Advantages
4.2 Limitations
5 Types
5.1 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
5.2 Field-effect transistor (FET)
5.3 Usage of bipolar and field-effect transistors
5.4 Other transistor types
6 Part numbering standards / specifications
6.1 Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
6.2 European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association
(EECA)
6.3 Joint Electron Devices Engineering Council (JEDEC)
6.4 Proprietary
6.5 Naming problems
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7 Construction
7.1 Semiconductor material
7.2 Packaging
7.2.1 Flexible transistors
8 See also
9 Directory of external websites with datasheets
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, propelled the
electronics age forward, enabling amplified radio technology and longdistance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that
consumed a lot of power. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent
for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925, which was
intended to be a solid-state replacement for the triode.[1][2] Lilienfeld
also filed identical patents in the United States in 1926[3] and 1928.[4][5]
However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his
devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working
prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor
materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas
would not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if
such a device had been built.[6] In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil
A replica of the first working
transistor.
patented a similar device.[7]
From November 17, 1947 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and
Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in the United States, performed
experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were
applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal was produced with the
output power greater than the input.[8] Solid State Physics Group leader
William Shockley saw the potential in this, and over the next few
months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors.
The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a portmanteau of
the term "transfer resistor".[9][10] According to Lillian Hoddeson and
Vicki Daitch, authors of a biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had
John Bardeen, William Shockley and
proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on
Walter Brattain at Bell Labs, 1948.
the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed
Lilienfeld’s patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell
Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as
a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact
transistor.[6] In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded
the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor
effect."[11]
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In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and
Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary located in
Paris. Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German
radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in
1947. By witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had
accomplished earlier in December 1947, Mataré by June 1948, was able to produce consistent results by using
samples of germanium produced by Welker. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented the transistor
before them, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in France's telephone
network.[12]
The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium
transistor developed by Philco in 1953, capable of operating up to
60 MHz.[13] These were made by etching depressions into an N-type
germanium base from both sides with jets of Indium(III) sulfate until it
was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into
the depressions formed the collector and emitter.[14][15] The first alltransistor car radio, which was produced in 1955 by Chrysler and
Philco, used these transistors in its circuitry and also they were the first
suitable for high-speed computers.[16][17][18][19]
The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on
January 26, 1954 by Morris Tanenbaum.[20] The first commercial
silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954.[21] This
was the work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of high
purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.[22] The first MOS
transistor actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell Labs in
1960.[23]
Philco surface-barrier transistor
developed and produced in 1953
Importance
The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the
greatest inventions of the 20th century.[24] Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be massproduced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low
per-transistor costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[25]
Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) transistors
every year,[26] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC,
microchips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to
produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced
microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[27] "About 60 million
transistors were built in 2002 ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."[28]
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic
circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and
cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to
design an equivalent mechanical control function.
Simplified operation
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The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a
small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much
larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It
can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, that is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a
circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current
is determined by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how
they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled
base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that
is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a
much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a
field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and
drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source
and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.
Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on
the current in the base. Because internally the base and emitter
connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop
develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The
amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.
A Darlington transistor opened up so
the actual transistor chip (the small
square) can be seen inside. A
Darlington transistor is effectively
two transistors on the same chip. One
transistor is much larger than the
other, but both are large in
comparison to transistors in largescale integration because this
particular example is intended for
power applications.
Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for highpower applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for
low-power applications such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit
shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise
A simple circuit diagram to show the
exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced
labels of a n–p–n bipolar transistor.
resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between
the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current
would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This
is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter freely.
When saturated, the switch is said to be on.[29]
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar
transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively
large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base
terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and
even for a particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example
light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to
ensure the transistor will be saturated.
BJT used as an electronic
switch, in groundedemitter configuration.
In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that the output is either completely off,[30] or
completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where
only "on" and "off" values are relevant.
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Transistor as an amplifier
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage
(Vin ) changes the small current through the base of the transistor; the
transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit
mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some
providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include
amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal
processing. The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a
few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as
better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are
common and relatively inexpensive.
Amplifier circuit, common-emitter
configuration with a voltagedivider bias circuit.
Comparison with vacuum tubes
Prior to the development of transistors, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves")
were the main active components in electronic equipment.
Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications
are
No power consumption by a cathode heater; the characteristic orange glow of vacuum tubes is due to a
simple electrical heating element, much like a light bulb filament.
Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices.
Low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells.
No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 50 years.
Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-symmetry circuits, something not
possible with vacuum tubes.
Greatly reduced sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus reducing the problem of microphonics in
sensitive applications, such as audio.
Limitations
Silicon transistors can age and fail.[31]
High-power, high-frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better
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achieved in vacuum tubes due to improved electron mobility in a vacuum.
Solid-state devices are more vulnerable to electrostatic discharge in handling and operation
A vacuum tube momentarily overloaded will just get a little hotter; solid-state devices have less mass to
absorb the heat due to overloads, in proportion to their rating
Sensitivity to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used for spacecraft devices).
Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-called tube sound, that some people find to be more tolerable to
the ear.[32]
Types
Transistors are categorized by
Semiconductor material (date first used): the
metalloids germanium (1947) and silicon (1954)
PNP
P-channel
NPN
N-channel
— in amorphous, polycrystalline and
monocrystalline form; the compounds gallium
arsenide (1966) and silicon carbide (1997), the
alloy silicon-germanium (1989), the allotrope of
carbon graphene (research ongoing since
2004), etc.—see Semiconductor material
BJT
Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET),
insulated-gate bipolar transistor, "other types"
JFET
BJT and JFET symbols
Electrical polarity
(positive and negative):
n–p–n, p–n–p (BJTs);
P-channel
n-channel, p-channel
(FETs)
Maximum power
rating: low, medium,
N-channel
high
Maximum operating
frequency: low,
medium, high, radio
(RF), microwave
JFET
MOSFET enh
MOSFET dep
JFET and IGFET symbols
frequency (the maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term
, an abbreviation for
transition frequency—the frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain)
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair
Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modules
—see Packaging
Amplification factor hfe, βF (transistor beta)[33] or gm (transconductance).
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Thus, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, highfrequency switch.
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar
junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is
formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n
transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p
transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction,
separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together
without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).
BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a
collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a
relatively small base current."[34] In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is
forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are
formed at, and move away from the junction) base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps
one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current.
By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can
be controlled.[34] Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is
typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power
applications.
Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low–input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter
voltage (Vbe) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (Ice) increase
exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential
relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET.
Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, because absorption of photons in the base region
generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β times the
photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called
phototransistors.
Field-effect transistor (FET)
The field-effect transistor, sometimes called a unipolar transistor, uses either electrons (in n-channel FET) or
holes (in p-channel FET) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain, and
body (substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be
assumed for the following description.
In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain
region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate
and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied
between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (Vgs) is increased, the drain–source current (Ids)
increases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (
)
(where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)[35] in the "space-charge-limited" region above
threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology
node.[36]
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For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more
commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from
layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n
diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the
solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode.
Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct
current under the control of an input voltage.
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a
metal–semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a
two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for
use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz).
FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel
is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a
gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate
potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more
positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel
devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they
were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.
Usage of bipolar and field-effect transistors
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after
MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as
amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties
of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can be
applied in transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and
motor drivers.
Other transistor types
Bipolar junction transistor
Heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several
hundred GHz, common in modern ultrafast and
RF circuits
Schottky transistor
Avalanche transistor
Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected
together to provide a high current gain equal to the
product of the current gains of the two transistors.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a
medium-power IGFET, similarly connected to a
Transistor symbol drawn on Portuguese
pavement in the University of Aveiro.
power BJT, to give a high input impedance.
Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are
particularly suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The Asea Brown Boveri (ABB)
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5SNA2400E170100 illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced.[37]
Intended for three-phase power supplies, this device houses three n–p–n IGBTs in a case measuring
38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle
2,400 amperes.
Photo transistor
Multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic
Multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments such as the
pickup of a record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large number of transistors in
parallel where, at the output, the signal is added constructively, but random noise is added only
stochastically.[38]
Field-effect transistor
Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET)
JFET, where the gate is insulated by a reverse-biased p–n junction
MESFET, similar to JFET with a Schottky junction instead of a p–n junction
High-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT, HFET, MODFET)
MOSFET, where the gate is insulated by a shallow layer of insulator
Inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET)
FinFET, source/drain region shapes fins on the silicon surface.
FREDFET, fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor
Thin-film transistor, in LCDs.
Organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic compound
Ballistic transistor
Floating-gate transistor, for non-volatile storage.
FETs used to sense environment
Ion-sensitive field effect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in solution.
EOSFET, electrolyte-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (Neurochip)
DNAFET, deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor
Diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and FET
Unijunction transistors can be used as simple pulse generators. They comprise a main body of either P-type
or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction with
the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal
(Emitter).
Single-electron transistors (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions. The tunneling
current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[39]
Nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled channels.[40]
Multigate devices
Tetrode transistor
Pentode transistor
Trigate transistors (Prototype by Intel)
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Dual-gate FETs have a single channel with two gates in cascode; a configuration optimized for highfrequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
Junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), developed at Tyndall National Institute in Ireland, was the first
transistor successfully fabricated without junctions. (Even MOSFETs have junctions, although its gate is
electrically insulated from the region the gate controls.) Junctions are difficult and expensive to fabricate,
and, because they are a significant source of current leakage, they waste significant power and generate
significant waste heat. Eliminating them held the promise of cheaper and denser microchips. The JNT uses a
simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically isolated "wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of
electrons through the wire. This method has been described as akin to squeezing a garden hose to gate the
flow of water through the hose. The nanowire is heavily n-doped, making it an excellent conductor.
Crucially the gate, comprising silicon, is heavily p-doped; and its presence depletes the underlying silicon
nanowire thereby preventing carrier flow past the gate.
Vacuum-channel transistor: In 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab Center in South Korea were
reported to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only 150 nanometers in size, can be
manufactured cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor processing, can operate at high speeds even in
hostile environments, and could consume just as much power as a standard transistor.[41]
Part numbering standards / specifications
The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor naming
standards; in each the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device.
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part
numbers starts with "2S",[42] e.g. 2SD965, but
sometimes the "2S" prefix is not marked on the
package – a 2SD965 might only be marked "D965"; a
2SC1815 might be listed by a supplier as simply
"C1815". This series sometimes has suffixes (such as
"R", "O", "BL"... standing for "Red", "Orange", "Blue"
etc.) to denote variants, such as tighter hFE (gain)
JIS Transistor Prefix Table
Prefix
Type of transistor
2SA
high-frequency p–n–p BJTs
2SB
audio-frequency p–n–p BJTs
2SC
high-frequency n–p–n BJTs
2SD
audio-frequency n–p–n BJTs
groupings.
2SJ
P-channel FETs (both JFETs and MOSFETs)
European Electronic Component
Manufacturers Association (EECA)
2SK
N-channel FETs (both JFETs and MOSFETs)
The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering
scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for
materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor,
etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this
indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in:
BC549C[43]) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854800A[44]). The more common prefixes are:
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Pro Electron / EECA Transistor Prefix Table
Prefix Type and
Example Equivalent
class
usage
Reference
AC
Germanium
small-signal
AC126
AF
transistor
NTE102A Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/NTE102A.pdf)
AD
Germanium
AF power AD133
transistor
NTE179
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte179.pdf)
AF
Germanium
small-signal
AF117
RF
transistor
NTE160
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte160.pdf)
AL
Germanium
RF power ALZ10
transistor
NTE100
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte100.pdf)
AS
Germanium
switching
ASY28
transistor
NTE101
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/NTE101.pdf)
AU
Germanium
power
AU103
switching
transistor
NTE127
Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nte127.pdf)
BC
Silicon,
small-signal
transistor
BC548
("general
purpose")
2N3904
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BC/BC547.pdf)
BD
Silicon,
power
transistor
BD139
NTE375
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BD/BD135.pdf)
BF
Silicon, RF
(high
BF245
frequency)
BJT or FET
NTE133
Datasheet (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/BF245AD.PDF)
BS
Silicon,
switching
transistor
BS170
(BJT or
MOSFET)
2N7000
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BS/BS170.pdf)
NTE325
Datasheet
(http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)
BL
Silicon, high
frequency,
high power BLW60
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(for
transmitters)
BU
Silicon, high
voltage (for
CRT
BU2520A NTE2354
horizontal
deflection
circuits)
Datasheet
(http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)
CF
Gallium
Arsenide
small-signal
CF739
Microwave
transistor
(MESFET)
—
Datasheet
(http://www.kesun.com/pdf/rf%20transistor/CF739.pdf)
CL
Gallium
Arsenide
Microwave
CLY10
power
transistor
(FET)
—
Datasheet
(http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)
Joint Electron Devices Engineering Council (JEDEC)
The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dualgate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number
with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For
example 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter
suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.
Proprietary
Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices
are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola
FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of
other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic
case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100
devices).
Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the British Military CV Naming System.
Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers", identifying a
particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized registered number. For
example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor[45][46] which is also assigned the CV number:
CV7763[47]
Naming problems
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With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the devices,
ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the J176 low-power
Junction FET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176).
As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned
many different part numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the variety in pinout
arrangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n+p–n–p devices in one pack. So even when the original
device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and well known by engineers over
the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming.
Construction
Semiconductor material
The first BJTs
Semiconductor material characteristics
were made
Junction forward
Max.
from
Electron mobility Hole mobility
Semiconductor
voltage
junction temp.
germanium
material
m2 /(V·s) @ 25 °C m2 /(V·s) @ 25 °C
V @ 25 °C
°C
(Ge). Silicon
(Si) types
Ge
0.27
0.39
0.19
70 to 100
currently
Si
0.71
0.14
0.05
150 to 200
predominate
but certain
GaAs
1.03
0.85
0.05
150 to 200
advanced
—
—
150 to 200
microwave and Al-Si junction 0.3
highperformance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the
semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described
as elemental.
Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the table to
the right; these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry
other factors.
The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the
base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased.
The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes).
The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the
transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical
silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.[48] In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be
used to compensate for such changes.
The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel
and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are
introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior.
The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse
through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general,
the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material
than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:
Its maximum temperature is limited;
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it has relatively high leakage current;
it cannot withstand high voltages;
it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n
transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the
three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent
FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between
different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has
twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs
are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and
aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed
for various applications.
Max. junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This
temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.
Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode, commonly known
as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse
Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a
nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.
Packaging
Discrete transistors are individually packaged transistors. Transistors
come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The two
main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount,
also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array
(BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently only for large
integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of
leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections,
SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power
rating.
Assorted discrete transistors
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating
and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for
enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the
metal enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
Often a given transistor type is available in several packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the
assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can assign other functions to the
package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a
suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K).
Flexible transistors
Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect transistors.[49][50][51]
Flexible transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible electronics.
See also
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Band gap
Digital electronics
Moore's law
Semiconductor device modeling
Transistor count
Transistor model
Transresistance
Very-large-scale integration
Directory of external websites with datasheets
2N3904 (http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3903-D.PDF)/2N3906
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3906-D.PDF), BC182
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF)/BC212
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC212-D.PDF) and BC546
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC546-D.PDF)/BC556
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC556B-D.PDF): Ubiquitous, BJT, general-purpose, low-power,
complementary pairs. They have plastic cases and cost roughly ten cents U.S. in small quantities, making
them popular with hobbyists.
AF107: Germanium, 0.5 watt, 250 MHz p–n–p BJT.
BFP183: Low-power, 8 GHz microwave n–p–n BJT.
LM394 (http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM194.pdf): "supermatch pair", with two n–p–n BJTs on a single
substrate.
2N2219A (http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9288.pdf)/2N2905A
(http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9037.pdf): BJT, general purpose, medium power,
complementary pair. With metal cases they are rated at about one watt.
2N3055 (http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF)/MJ2955
(http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF): For years, the n–p–n 2N3055 has been the
"standard" power transistor. Its complement, the p–n–p MJ2955 arrived later. These 1 MHz, 15 A, 60 V,
115 W BJTs are used in audio-power amplifiers, power supplies, and control.
2SC3281/2SA1302: Made by Toshiba, these BJTs have low-distortion characteristics and are used in
high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely counterfeited [1]
(http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm).
BU508 (http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/4491.pdf): n–p–n, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for
television horizontal deflection, its high voltage capability also makes it suitable for use in ignition systems.
MJ11012/MJ11015 (http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MJ11012-D.PDF): 30 A, 120 V, 200 W,
high power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching.
2N5457 (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5457.pdf)/2N5460
(http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5460.pdf): JFET (depletion mode), general purpose, low
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power, complementary pair.
BSP296/BSP171: IGFET (enhancement mode), medium power, near complementary pair. Used for logic
level conversion and driving power transistors in amplifiers.
IRF3710 (http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf)/IRF5210
(http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf): IGFET (enhancement mode), 40 A, 100 V,
200 W, near complementary pair. For high-power amplifiers and power switches, especially in
automobiles.
References
1. ^ Vardalas, John, Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor
(http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp) IEEE-USA Today's Engineer, May 2003.
2. ^ Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" U.S. Patent 1,745,175
(https://www.google.com/patents/US1745175) 1930-01-28 (filed in Canada 1925-10-22, in US 1926-10-08).
3. ^ "Method And Apparatus For Controlling Electric Currents" (http://www.google.com/patents?
id=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and Trademark Office.
4. ^ "Amplifier For Electric Currents" (http://www.google.com/patents?
id=jvhAAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and Trademark Office.
5. ^ "Device For Controlling Electric Current" (http://www.google.com/patents?
id=52BQAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and Trademark Office.
6. ^ a b "Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor"
(http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
7. ^ Heil, Oskar, "Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other control arrangements and devices"
(http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=GB&NR=439457&KC=&FT=E), Patent No. GB439457,
European Patent Office, filed in Great Britain 1934-03-02, published 1935-12-06 (originally filed in Germany
1934-03-02).
8. ^ "November 17 – December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor"
(http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). American Physical Society.
9. ^ David Bodanis (2005). Electric Universe. Crown Publishers, New York. ISBN 0-7394-5670-9.
10. ^ "transistor". American Heritage Dictionary (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1992.
11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956" (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/).
12. ^ "1948 - The European Transistor Invention" (http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1948European.html). Computer History Museum.
13. ^ Proceeding of the IRE, Dec 1953, Author: W.E. Bradley - Philco Corp.,Research Division, Volume 41 issue 12,
pages 1702-1706
14. ^ Wall Street Journal, Dec 04 1953, page 4, Article "Philco Claims Its Transistor Outperforms Others Now In
Use"
15. ^ Electronics magazine, January 1954, Article "Electroplated Transistors Announced"
16. ^ Wall Street Journal, "Chrysler Promises Car Radio With Transistors Instead of Tubes in '56", April 28th 1955,
page 1
17. ^ Los Angeles Times, May 08, 1955, page A20, Article: "Chrysler Announces New Transistor Radio"
18. ^ Philco TechRep Division Bulletin, May–June 1955, Volume 5 Number 3, page 28
19. ^ Article" Some Recollections of the Philco Transac S-2000", Author: Saul Rosen - Purdue University Computer
Science Dept., June 1991, page 2
20. ^ IEEE Spectrum, The
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20. ^ IEEE Spectrum, The Lost History of the Transistor, Author: Michael Riordan, May 2004, pp 48-49
21. ^ J. Chelikowski, "Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms", Silicon: evolution and future of a technology (Editors:
P. Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.1, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.
22. ^ Grant McFarland, Microprocessor design: a practical guide from design planning to manufacturing, p.10,
McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006 ISBN 0-07-145951-0.
23. ^ W. Heywang, K. H. Zaininger, "Silicon: The Semiconductor Material", Silicon: evolution and future of a
technology (Editors: P. Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.36, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.
24. ^ Robert W. Price (2004). Roadmap to Entrepreneurial Success (http://books.google.com/?
id=q7UzNoWdGAkC&pg=PA42&dq=transistor+inventions-of-the-twentieth-century). AMACOM Div American
Mgmt Assn. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8144-7190-6.
25. ^ "Milestones:Invention of the First Transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947"
(http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Invention_of_the_First_Transistor_at_Bell_Telephone_Labora
tories,_Inc.,_1947). IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
26. ^ FETs/MOSFETs: Smaller apps push up surface-mount supply (http://www.globalsources.com/gsol/I/FETMOSFET/a/9000000085806.htm)
27. ^ "ATI and Nvidia face off (http://news.cnet.com/8301-13512_3-10369441-23.html)." Oct 7, 2009. Retrieved on
Feb 2, 2011.
28. ^ Jim Turley. "The Two Percent Solution" (http://www.embedded.com/electronics-blogs/significantbits/4024488/The-Two-Percent-Solution) 2002.
29. ^ Kaplan, Daniel (2003). Hands-On Electronics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–54, 60–61.
ISBN 978-0-511-07668-8.
30. ^ apart from a small value due to leakage currents
31. ^ John Keane and Chris H. Kim, "Transistor Aging,"
(http://spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/processors/transistor-aging) IEEE Spectrum (web feature), April 25,
2011.
32. ^ van der Veen, M. (2005). "Universal system and output transformer for valve amplifiers"
(http://www.mennovanderveen.nl/nl/download/download_3.pdf). 118th AES Convention, Barcelona, Spain.
33. ^ "Transistor Example" (http://www.bcae1.com/transres.htm). 071003 bcae1.com
34. ^ a b Streetman, Ben (1992). Solid State Electronic Devices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. pp. 301–305.
ISBN 0-13-822023-9.
35. ^ Horowitz, Paul; Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 115.
ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
36. ^ W. M. C. Sansen (2006). Analog design essentials (http://worldcat.org/isbn/0387257462). New York ; Berlin:
Springer. p. §0152, p. 28. ISBN 0-387-25746-2.
37. ^ "IGBT Module 5SNA 2400E170100"
(http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/E700072B04381DD9C12571FF002D2CFE/$Fi
le/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA1555-03Oct%2006.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-30.
38. ^ Zhong Yuan Chang, Willy M. C. Sansen, Low-Noise Wide-Band Amplifiers in Bipolar and CMOS
Technologies, page 31, Springer, 1991 ISBN 0792390962.
39. ^ "Single Electron Transistors" (http://snow.stanford.edu/~shimbo/set.html). Snow.stanford.edu. Retrieved 201206-30.
40. ^ Sanders, Robert (2005-06-28). "Nanofluidic transistor, the basis of future chemical processors"
(http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/06/28_transistor.shtml). Berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2012-0630.
41. ^ The return of the vacuum tube? (http://www.gizmag.com/nasa-vacuum-channel-transistor/22626/)
42. ^ "Clive TEC Transistors Japanese Industrial Standards" (http://www.clivetec.0catch.com/Transistors.htm#JIS).
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42. ^ "Clive TEC Transistors Japanese Industrial Standards" (http://www.clivetec.0catch.com/Transistors.htm#JIS).
Clivetec.0catch.com. Retrieved 2012-06-30.
43. ^ "Datasheet for BC549, with A,B and C gain groupings" (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BC/BC549.pdf)
(PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-30.
44. ^ "Datasheet for BUK854-800A (800volt IGBT)" (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/philips/BUK854800A.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-30.
45. ^ "Richard Freeman's HP Part numbers Crossreference" (http://www.hpmuseum.org/cgisys/cgiwrap/hpmuseum/archv010.cgi?read=27258). Hpmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-06-30.
46. ^ Transistor–Diode Cross Reference – H.P. Part Numbers to JEDEC (pdf) (http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/hpparts/300-hpxref.pdf)
47. ^ "CV Device Cross-reference by Andy Lake" (http://www.qsl.net/g8yoa/cv_table.html). Qsl.net. Retrieved
2012-06-30.
48. ^ A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic circuits (Fifth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
pp. 397 and Figure 5.17. ISBN 0-19-514251-9.
49. ^ Jhonathan P. Rojas, Galo A. Torres Sevilla, and Muhammad M. Hussain. "Can We Build a Truly High
Performance Computer Which is Flexible and Transparent?"
(http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130910/srep02609/full/srep02609.html?WT.ec_id=SREP-639-20131001).
50. ^ Kan Zhang, Jung-Hun Seo1, Weidong Zhou and Zhenqiang Ma. "Fast flexible electronics using transferrable
silicon nanomembranes" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3727/45/14/143001/article). 2012.
51. ^ Lisa Zyga. "Carbon nanotube transistors could lead to inexpensive, flexible electronics"
(http://phys.org/news/2011-02-carbon-nanotube-transistors-inexpensive-flexible.html). 2011.
Further reading
Amos S W & James M R (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 07506-4427-3.
Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). "The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A Bit of Wire
Changed The World" (http://books.google.com/?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover). Bonnier
Corp.: Popular Science, retrieved from Google Books 2009-03-22 (Bonnier Corporation) 192 (6): 80–
84. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370).
Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of Electronics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-37095-7.
Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited. ISBN 0393-31851-6. The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age
Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Electronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 0-333-65820-5.
"Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment"
(http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm). The New York
Times. 24 February 2003.
Michael Riordan (2005). "How Europe Missed the Transistor" (http://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155). IEEE
Spectrum 42 (11): 52–57. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2005.1526906).
C. D. Renmore (1980). Silicon Chips and You. ISBN 0-8253-0022-3.
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Wiley-IEEE Press. Complete Guide to Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Edition.
External links
The CK722 Museum (http://www.ck722museum.com/).
Website devoted to the "classic" hobbyist germanium transistor
Jerry Russell's Transistor Cross Reference Database
(http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html).
Wikibooks has a book on
the topic of: Transistors
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Transistors.
The DatasheetArchive (http://www.datasheetarchive.com/).
Searchable database of transistor specifications and datasheets.
The Transistor (http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/function/index.html) Educational
content from Nobelprize.org
BBC: Building the digital age (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm) photo history of
transistors
The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors (http://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics
(http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics). All about the history of
transistors and integrated circuits.
Transistorized (http://www.pbs.org/transistor/). Historical and technical information from the Public
Broadcasting Service
This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First
Transistor (http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). From the American Physical
Society
50 Years of the Transistor (http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html). From
Science Friday, December 12, 1997
Charts showing many characteristics and giving direct access to most datasheets for 2N
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2n.html), 2SA
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sa.html), 2SB
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sb.html). 2SC
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sc.html), 2SD
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sd.html), 2SH-K
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-2sh-k.html), and other
(http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-3up.html) numbers.
Common transistor pinouts (http://hamradio.lakki.iki.fi/new/Datasheets/transistor_pinouts/)
Large table of transistor characteristics (http://www.classiccmp.org/rtellason/transistors-3up.html)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transistor&oldid=618906405"
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