SYMPOSIA
T
HsE
sequence
in this
section
of the
Journalof ofAgronomy
Agronomic
Education
is based Society
onthree
ymposia
at of
thepapers
annualprinted
meetings
of the
American
Society
(ASA),
Crop Science
of America (CSSA), and Soil Science Society of America (SSSA).
Teaching Soil Microbiology
1
Laboratories
2A. G. Wollum, II,
and H. D. Skipper
Webelieve that laboratoryexercises shouldbe an integral part of every soil microbiologycourse taught. To
optimize the laboratoryexperience, enrollmentsshould
remain small, about 8 to 12 students, even though it
might meanmultiple sections. Whilethis increases the
time demandsfor the instructor, the intimate contact
with the students enhancesthe probability of providing
a high quality educational experience. Several factors
pose serious constraints for teaching soil microbiology
laboratories. These include but are not limited to: 1)
limited teaching funds, 2) inadequate microbiological
training on the part of the students, 3) lack of suitable
soil microbiologymanuals,4) poor quantitative techniqueson the part of thestudents, and5) lack of general
agronomic experience by non-departmental majors.
Compared
to other disciplines, soil microbiologyexercises are expensive to conduct, but hands-onexperiments are essential for senior/lower graduate level
courses. Autotutorial and audiovisual demonstrations
may be used where procedures are extremely complicated or require special equipmentor to supplementthe
lecture and laboratoryinformation. Theseunits provide
great flexibility andcan be madeavailableto the student
over a long period. The lack of a modernsoil microbiology manualis a hindrancein soil microbiologyinstruction. Ourview is that the manualshould contain
morethan the classical exercises in soil microbiology.
Rather we feel the manualshould be, in addition, a
handbookof practical soil microbiologicaltechniques.
Whereappropriate,alternative proceduresshould be included whichallow instructors to select those exercises
suitable for their time schedulesor spaceand equipment
capabilities. Also, if the manualis constructedin this
fashion, it can be used as a reference by students conductingmicrobiological
researchlater in their careers.
T
EhACHING
a soil microbiology
is a
ighly personalized
endeavor. laboratory
Manyinstructors
have found that a single laboratory format has not been
’Joint contributionof the NorthCarolinaState Univ.,Raleigh,
NC27650and ClemsonUniv., Clemson,SC29631.Presented: Symposium-Teaching
Soil Microbiology.
I Dec.1980in Detroit, Michigan.SeeJ. Agron.Educ.10:75-84.
2Professor
of soil scienceandprofessorof agronomy
andsoils, respectively,NorthCarolinaState Univ.andClemson
Univ.
61
successful for every location or even from year to year.
This lack of standardization
has several probable
causes. First, laboratory exercises are usually designed
according to the experiences and interests of the instructor. Local conditions, such as space, equipment, or supplies preclude the use of someessential exercises despite
the instructors’ interest or expertise. A further complicating factor leading to individualized soil microbiology
laboratories maybe related to the academiclevel of the
course. Some institutions
offer soil microbiology
courses at the senior level, graduate level, or even combined advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate,
or the advanced graduate student level. For these reasons, many lab manuals are locally designed and produced. Indicative of this was the relatively large number
of locally produced manuals exhibited at the Symposium on Teaching Soil Microbiology. Examples were
presented by individuals representing a wide geographic
area.
Rather than try to establish a dictum for teaching soil
microbiology laboratories,
we would like to explore
some principles for teaching in this subject area.
Specifically, we want to: 1) share our philosophies of
laboratory instruction, 2) propose a general format we
feel has been successful, 3) identify somepossible problem areas associated with laboratory instruction, and 4)
relate our experiences with coping with some problem
areas to maximizesoil microbiology laboratory instruction.
PHILOSOPHIES
Webelieve that laboratories should be an integral
part of every soil microbiology course (Table 1). While
demonstrations maybe used to illustrate certain points
and concepts, exercises must be designed to provide for
a maximum of "hands-on" experience. We have observed that doing reinforces the basic principles previously discussed. Whenone is intimately associated with
explaining work previously undertaken, understanding
tends to be more thorough and remembered longer than
facts just read in a textbookor heard in a lecture.
To optimize the laboratory experience, laboratory enrollments should remain shall, about 8 to 12 students.
Obviously in classes with large enrollments this means
multiple sections, difficulty in scheduling, and increased
demands on the instructor. However, the cost-benefit
ratio is extremely favorable for the student and well
worth the extra effort. Minimizing laboratory enrollment per section tends to maximizethe student-instructor interaction.
This intimate contact enhances the
62
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
probability of providing a high quality education for today’s students.
Graduate teaching assistants are freely used in the
laboratory. The enrolled students receive additional attention, the teaching assistant gains valuable experience
dealing with students in a supervised fashion, and the
senior instructor obtains a degree of "release time" to
deal with extraordinary student problems. However, we
do not advocate assigning the entire responsibility of
laboratory instruction to teaching assistants, as students
should have ready access to the senior instructor.
Finally our experiences have shown us that student
participation in both laboratory and instructor evaluation is essential for continued course improvement.Students are informed early in the course that they will be
asked to participate in an evaluation procedure. Examples of how suggestions have been used in the past
alert students to the importance of the evaluation procedure and tend to enhance the constructive comments.
Wealso encourage students to meet with us privately
(after grade assignment) to discuss suggestions for
course improvement. These one-on-one encounters have
proved to be especially beneficial. Those students taking
part seem to welcome this more directed suggestion/
evaluation session and have been particularly frank in
identifying
both strengths
and weaknesses. As
instructors,
we have appreciated the candor of those
students whotook the time to participate in an open discussion.
In our courses, the laboratory grade contributes from
30 to 40°70 of the total grade, and the lab grade is based
on several contributing items. All students are required
to maintain a laboratory data book. These books are
collected periodically after a week’s warning, although
the students are informed at the beginning of the
semester that the books may be collected on demand
(without prior warning). Formal laboratory reports are
not required.
Webelieve a lab examis essential; it contributes significantly to the lab grade. This exam emphasizes calculations used for dilution factors, standard curve construction, use of standard curves, purposes of media
constituents, or elaboration of principles underlying
certain basic procedures.
Table1. Cataloginformationdescribingcurrentsoil
microbiology
coursesoffered at Clemson
Univ.
andNorthCarolinaState Univ.
Course number
Title
Hours
Prerequisites
Description
Clemson
NCSU
AGRON490, 690
Soil Organisms in Crop
Production
3 (2, 3)
AGRON202, MICRO305,
PLPA401, or Consent of
instructor
Interrelationships of soil organisms, soil properties, and crop
production. Aspects of biological nitrogen fixation, mycorrhizae, and microbialpesticide interactions. Biochemical and nutrient transformations related to plant
growth.
SSC (MB) 532
Soil Microbiology
4(3,3)S
MB401, CH 220, or
Consent of instructor
Soil as a mediumfor microbial growth, the relation
of microbes to important
mineral transformations
in soil, the importanceof
biological equilibrium
and significance of soil
microbes to environmental quality.
OBJECTIVES OF LABORATORY EXERCISES
Takenin their entirety, laboratory exercises have multiple objectives. Each exercise is designed to supplement
lecture topics and should lead to a better understanding
of basic soil microbiological processes. The initiative to
integrate laboratory findings with lecture reading materials remains with the student. However,the scheduling of lecture and lab topics, so as to facilitate this
process, remains with the instructor. Fortunately, most
students do a reasonably good job of integrating the
various concepts presented in different parts of the
course. The different repetitions of hearing and doing
serve to emphasize important points.
Developmentof selected skills represents a significant
laboratory objective. In the laboratory, the students
practice someof the basic techniques learned in earlier
microbiology courses and learn how to apply them to
problems in soil microbiology. For students undertaking additional studies in soil microbiological processes,
the skill development provides a valuable insight into
limitations and strengths of various protocols for evaluating either numbers or activities of microorganisms in
soil.
Wefavor the concept that the laboratory requires a
special project. Fromthis experience students gain additional benefits of learning to use the scientific methodin
a directed fashion. This is particularly valuable for
seniors expecting to continue in graduate programs and
for graduate students just beginning a course of study.
The benefits are not just limited to the student in soil
microbiology, but are equally beneficial to students
from other disciplines.
While not a primary objective, laboratory exercises
contribute to a sharpening of communicativeskills. This
is achieved in a numberof ways. First, each student is
required to maintain a lab notebook. Included in the
notebook is a summaryof the data collected, either in
tabular or figure form. The students are encouraged to
utilize several different waysto express the data. Sul;sequently, data from each exercise are written in the form
of an interpretative
summary. The emphasis is not on
methods/materials but rather on what do the data mean
in relation to a biological process or howdoes it affect
an agronomic practice. Here the students are encoaraged to look at the "big picture" and integrate soil
microbiology with sound principles of soil/plant sciences.
Additional communicative skills are developed using
the report for the special project although it follow.,; a
somewhat different format. The report has two basic
parts, a written and an oral portion. The written report
takes the form of a journal article and students are ~ncouraged to follow that form which corresponds to th~.~ir
own professional journal. In addition each report is
given orally before the entire class. The use of visual
aids is strongly encouraged. Strict time limits are i~nposed, much the same as would occur at professional
meetings. Students have the opportunity at the conclusion of each presentation to raise questions about the
project rationale, scientific protocol, validity of data,
63
SYMPOSIA: TEACHING SOIL MICROBIOLOGY
soundness of coi,clusions, etc. For each student whorequests it, a private session is scheduled to constructively
evaluate the mechanics of presentation, including topic
organization, use of visual aids, and clarity of presentation.
SKILL
DEVELOPMENT
In a one semester course, one cannot expect students
to master all skills that are important for a career in soil
microbiology "or related areas. However, we expect to
build on skills already attained and provide a foundation for further skill development in other more advanced microbiological courses or during graduate research. There are four basic areas that we tend to emphasize: 1) use of the microscope, 2) obtaining and
maintaining pure cultures, 3) enumerating microorganisms in soil, and 4) measuring activities of soil microorganisms important to crop production.
In somecases activities are overlapping and have multiple objectives with respect to skill development. Nowhere is this better illustrated than in the use of the
microscope. Both stereo binocular scopes and compound microscopes are used. An exercise utilizing the
buried slide procedure illustrates the form, spatial distribution and relative abundance of soil microorganisms. Measurementof size is also an important activity.
One cannot conduct these sorts of evaluations without
learning something about using a microscope. This section always proves to be enjoyable, as the students are
intrigued by the detail that is observable whena little
care is taken during slide preparation. Preparation and
observation of mycorrhizal specimens also seems to be a
topic with a high interest level.
Pure cultures of soil microorganismsare obtained in a
variety of ways, using selective or enrichment materials,
Pasteurization, and wet sieving. Differential staining
procedures are also introduced and used to study
various microbial groups and cellular components.
Bacteria from leguminous plant nodules are isolated
and verified as rhizobia using plant infectivity tests,
with the appropriate host plant.
The enumeration of organisms is stressed primarily
for bacteria,
actinomycetes and fungi. Baermann
funnels and wet sieving techniques are used to isolate
and enumerate endomycorrhizal spores and as a demonstration to illustrate nematodes, arthropods, and other
soil animals. Differential media, acidification of media,
addition of specific inhibitors, or different incubation
conditions are used to enhance or retard the growth of
specific groups of microorganisms.
We have found most-probable-number (MPN) techniques to be particularly useful in the enumeration of
ammonium
or nitrite oxiders, denitrifiers, or specific
species of rhizobia when coupled with an appropriate
plant infectivity test. In our advanced courses we have
introduced some basic serological procedures to illustrate serotyping of Rhizobium japonicum. These exercises could be expanded to other organisms if antisera
were available.
Table2. Estimated
costsfor conducting
selectedsoil
microbiology
laboratories.t
Laboratory
Populations
Denitrification
Biological nitrogen fixation
Mycorrhizae
Media/supplies*
Labor
50
29
52
10
35¶
42
67
34
Minimalcosts for 8 to 12 students.
Includes only nonrecyclable supplies; excludes loops, glass slides, test tubes,
microscopes and other permanent equipment which we consider to be equipping/replacement cost expense.
In terms of 1981 dollars.
Based on federal minimumwage standard.
HIGH COST
~. LACKOF ADMINISTRATIVE
AWARENESS
j LITTLE COORDINATION
WITH LECTURE
-~- NOCONTINUITY
LIMITATIONS-- NON- RESULTS
~ INADEQUATE
TRAINING
"-~ LACKOF SPACE-LAB/GREENHOUSE
~ LACK OF MANUAL
/
Fig. 1. Diagramaticpresentationof the limitations in
teachingsoil microbiology
laboratories.
Techniques such as titration,
colorimetry, use of
specific ion electrodes, and gas chromatographyare frequently employed to measure activities of soil microorganisms. Surprisingly, these quantitative measurements are difficult for many students. Wesense that
they are seriously deficient in quantitative and analytical
skills. Perhaps this is a weaknessin someof our soil and
crop science curricula. Wetry to minimize this deficiency in our laboratories by matching the bettertrained (quantitatively)
students with those who may
need special help. This is particularly useful when
laboratory sections are larger than desirable. This solution is two edged, in that the instructor gains valuable
time, while skills are reinforced in students trying to
help other students.
LIMITATIONS
Goodlaboratories don’t just happen; they require the
enthusiasm of the instructor and the financial support
of the administration (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, moral
support isn’t enough since it doesn’t buy petri dishes,
pipettes, or provide space for growing plants. Teaching
soil microbiologylaboratories is expensive, particularly
if the laboratory must be equipped with suitable instruments.
The minimal costs for selected laboratories are listed
in Table 2. These costs range from 10 to $52 just for the
media and supplies, while minimumlabor inputs range
from 34 to $67. Costs for autoclaves, gas chromatographs, microscopes, greenhouse space, maintenance/
repair contracts, etc., are left to the judgment of each
64
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
Table3. Distributionof originatingdepartments
of
studentsenrolledin Soil Microbiology.
Institution
Department
Soil Science
CropScience
Agronomy
Forestry
Plant Pathology
Horticulture
Agricultural Engineering
Other¶
N.C.State Univ.~"
ClemsonUniv.~
22
6
--§
19
19
4
10
18
--§
--§
80
2
9
9
0
0
1976-1980.
1978-1980.
North Carolina State Univ., has no Agronomy
Department,while at Clemson
Univ., Cropsand Soils are combinedinto Agronomy.
Departmentsin order of decreasing enrollment--Botany, Microbiology,
Zoology,Statistics, and Entomology.
reader. Most of the time we are forced to borrow some
of these larger but essential items from our research programs. Graduate students and technicians are also borrowed from research efforts.
Even with a cooperative administration which recognizes the long-term benefits of practical laboratories for
agronomyand soil science courses, it is not possible to
develop the necessary facilities instantly. Wemaintain
lists of different priced instruments which can be purchased at the last minute if funds becomeavailable. In
the past, end-of-the-year funds were sometimes available within the school, and we were never bashful about
asking for the money.In addition, it is helpful for the
laboratory instructor to lobby for critical needs and for
an attitude among the administrators to support instructional needs comparably to research needs. With
less cooperative administrations or in lean years, many
may wish to investigate Federally funded programs for
funds to renovate laboratories,
provide greenhouse
space, or to buy new or specialized equipment too expensive for most state budgets. Rememberalso, a selfsufficiency doesn’t come overnight but requires longterm commitments from the administration as well as
the instructor.
Another problem frequently associated with teaching
soil microbiology laboratories is the diverse background
of students taking the course. In the last 5 years 13 different departments have been represented
among
students taking soil microbiology at our two universities
(Table 3). Their academic background ranges f~om
having only minimumprerequisites (introductory soils
and microbiology) to highly trained students (microbial
genetics, physiology, etc.). Wepropose to handle this,
dicotomy by offering two courses. One course will be on
an introductory level with prerequisites of general
microbiology and introductory soil science. The other
course will be offered at an advancedlevel. It will have
as prerequisites: introductory soil microbiology, biochemistry, and consent of instructor. Both courses will
have laboratories. For the former, emphasis will be on a
set of prescribed exercises, while for the latter the emphasis will be on a special project which will provide op-
portunity for the student to attempt to integrate someof
the concepts being presented.
Someof the problems or limitations of laboratory instruction are more difficult to solve. Because of the
long-term nature of someexercises, there is not an adequate opportunity to provide background information
before the experiment begins. Weresist using lab time
for lecture, but occasionally are forced in this route. Alternatively this might be an opportunity to make use of
the numerous autotutorial/audiovisual
centers now
available in many departments. Special materials for
laboratory preparation could then be prepared and used
at the convenienceof the student.
Also repeated daily or weekly measurements cause
problems for some students. And yet we can’t overemphasize the essentiality of these data to respiration
studies, to population dynamics, and other experiments
that generate a continuum of data rather than a single
point. Perhaps a preview of the anticipated data in
graphic form wouldstimulate their interest.
Sometimes, for numerous reasons, the student may
be unsuccessful in obtaining adequate experimental
data. Wetry to maintain a file of lab data from previous
years to provide data to these unfortunate students.
This allows the student to have real data to complete the
interpretative summary.
The lack of appropriate laboratory and greenhouse
space is especially troublesome. There are probably no
immediate or easy solutions. Rather the long-term solution is raising the awareness of the need in the minds of
the administrators as discussed previously. If we are
convinced of the importance of laboratories, we must
convince the administrators to the point of action. We
must be diligent, persistent, consistent, and enthusiastic. Long-term commitment will generally be rewarded
by action.
While it may appear we have spoken out earlier
against a unified laboratory manual, we conceive there
is a need for a manual that is modular in its approach.
Special sections could be included for nonmicrobiological analytical procedures and where possible alternative
protocols could be included for more advanced applications. Perhaps it might serve equally well as a handbook
of techniques for basic and practical soil microbiology.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Teachingsoil microbiologyis not an easy responsibility. Hopefully this presentation has offered a few words
of encouragement, provided a useful thought, or stimulated someoneto pursue a better solution. Certainly we
do not represent ourselves as ultimate authorities for
teaching Soil Microbiology laboratories.
Hopefully
these commentswill cause each reader to reevaluate his
or her ownsituation and seek to improve it. Only then
would students emerge better equipped to tackle the
challenging problems that lie ahead for soil microbiology. If past history provides any key, soil microbiologists will be called upon to play an every increasing
and important role in increasing food production, main-
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDERESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
taining a high quality environment, using limited energy
resources more efficiently, or providing sources of lowcost energy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Wewouldlike to express our appreciation to the students
whohave contributed manyideas for improvingour instruction of soil microbiology.A special wordof thanks goes to J.
E. Struble for his manycontributions to soil microbiology
laboratories at ClemsonUniv.
The value of ARCPACS
professional-in-training
certification
John Schafer’
The certification of Professional-in-Trainingby the
AmericanRegistry of Certified Professionals in Agronomy, Crops, and Soils (ARCPACS)is a natural outgrowth of the ARCPACS
Certification Program. The
organizationseeks to establish a registry of professionals
and to certify and recertify their professional competence. Membershipcould be used to establish expertise for employment,as a court witness, and in other
circumstances.The Professional-in-Trainingcertification has been established for individuals with the
academicrequiremensbut who lack the experience required for full certification. This paper examinesthe
present requirementsfor certificiation as a Professionalin-Training, and the current and potential benefits of
certification.
THE American
Registry of Certified Professionals
¯ in Agronomy, Crops and Soils (ARCPACS)began registering qualified professionals in 1977. Its purpose is to identify professionals qualified for educational, science, and service activities with public and private
agencies. It has developed standards for certification
and registers only those whose scholarly preparation,
knowledge, and experience meets these standards. Individuals must agree to abide by a code of ethics published by ARCPACS.
There is a provision for periodic
recertification to insure that the individual continues to
maintain established standards and is growing professionally.
A Professional-in-Training
program was established
to be analogous to a certification of apprenticeship. An
individual wholacks the qualifications necessary for full
professional certification but is working toward achiev’Presentedat a symposium
on, "EducatingAgronomists
to Meet
their Worldwide
Responsibility," at the annual meetingof the
AmericanSociety of Agronomy,
1 Dec. 1981, at Atlanta, Ga. The
addressof ARCPACS
is 677S. SegoeRoad,Madison,WI53711.
2 Professorof agronomy,
IowaState Univ.,Ames,IA50011.
65
ing those qualifications maybe certified as Professional-in-Training. Normally, the individual has the required academic background but lacks the necessary
work experience. The minimumexperience required is 5
years with a Bachelors Degree, 3 years with a Masters
Degree, and 1 year with a Ph.D. Degree.
To be certified as a Professional-in-Training,
one
must present to ARCPACS
transcripts from all colleges
attended, a resume, and the endorsement of two members of ARCPACSand/or the American Society of
Agronomy(ASA), the Crop Science Society of America
(CSSA), or the Soil Science Society of America (SSSA).
The two endorsing individuals must be familiar with
either the academic background or the work experience
of the person applying for certification. They are asked
to monitor the progress of the candidate. At this point
their duties are informal and not specified.
The cost of processing an application for Professional-in-Training certification is passed on to those applying. The application can be submitted prior to graduation at a reduced fee. An additional fee is required for
processing the full certification application. Only work
experience is reviewed in step 2. The academic credentials already have been reviewed at the time the Professional-in-Training
was granted. A current fee
schedule is available from ARCPACS
(see footnote 1).
ARCPACS: IN PERSPECTIVE
The American Registry of Certified Professionals in
Agronomy,Crop, and Soils began with the concept that
society would benefit if it could turn to a group of
certified professionals when facing agronomically related problems. At its founding, ARCPACS
was faced
with a problem. Society could not require certification if
no certified individuals existed. On the other hand, it
was unnecessaryfor individuals to be certified if society
did not require certification. Somehow
this cycle had to
be broken.
The organization was founded by those who believed
in the concept and the benefits of certification.
They
applied for certification and becamethe initial pool of
certified agronomists at a time when there were no assured benefits to members. Gradually we are beginning
to hear of cases where ARCPACS
certification is benefiting individuals (Openshaw, 1981). Employers are
searching the ARCPACS
roster for prospective employees. Individuals certified by ARCPACS
are sometimes given an advantage over those who are not
certified. Certification seems to be beneficial whenone
must establish credibility as an expert witness in court
cases. In a few instances, ARCPACS
certification is required for employment.These examples are still the exception rather than the rule. But they are evidence that
the goals of ARCPACS
are beginning to be realized.
This realization has occurred in large part because advocates of the program joined ARCPACS
even though
they did not expect to benefit personally. The early
members, excluding those who were the organizers and
prime movers of ARCPACS, contributed
three
important factors in its early development.
66
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
I. Their dues provided money to support the organizers as they pursued these goals.
2. They provided numbers, so that the leadership
could show it had the support of professionals as
they promoted the program with legislators,
personnel managers, and others.
3. They provided a group of people on whomto gain
experience.
The Review Board of ARCPACS
had
to learn the appropriate questions to ask of candidates and the types of answers that indicated a
worthy candidate.
These early members of ARCPACS
were individuals
with vision. They believed that our nation would progress if agronomically related problems were solved by
trained and recognized professional agronomists. The
early memberswere willing to go through the process in
order to assist the leadership as it worked through the
growing pains of development.
PROFESSIONAL-IN-TRAINING CERTIFICATION
The next logical step in the certification programwas
to explore an apprenticeship or an in-training category
of membership: a category to fill the void between no
recognition and full recognition.
Initially, these applicants too joined because they supported the concepts and ideas. They had no assurance of
personal gain from their in-training certification. They
were willing to take satisfaction and personal pride in
having been a part of the programin its formative years.
The Professional-in-Training
program is now going
through its growing pains. At this point, a degree in
crops, soils, or agronomyfrom a recognized institution
is the minimumrequirement. Bidwell3 and Cardwell and
Flowerday’ have raised questions concerning a minimumeducational requirement.
Questions include,
should there be general or specific minimumcourse requirements for all applicants to ARCPACS
or for the
various specialty areas of certification with ARCPACS?
Howshould we handle those with degrees in other subject matter areas who have becomeagronomists on-thejob? The records of the current applicants for the Professional-in-Training
category provide a base to help
answer these and other important questions.
At the moment,the individuals writing letters in support of an applicant as a Professional-in-Training are
asked to monitor the candidates progress. But how are
they to accomplish this? What are they to do for the
applicant? What are they to expect from the applicant?
In what format will their knowledgeof the applicant be
passed on to ARCPACS
during the in-training
period
and when the applicant applies for full certification?
Howwill the ARCPACS
Review Board react to this information? These questions have yet to be answered.
3 Bidwell, O. W. 1981. Whatcourses are we requiring of our soil science majors? Am.Soc. Agron. Abstr., p. 1.
’ Cardwell, V. B., and A. D. Flowerday. 1981. Course requirements
for crop science majors. Presented to the American Society of
Agronomy,Atlanta, Ga. 1 Dec. 1981.
FUTURE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF
TODAY’S UNDERGRADUATES
The historic thrust of ARCPACS
and the three affiliated societies has been primarily directed toward meeting the needs of individuals in university, government
and private industry whoare engaged in upper level research, teaching, extension, or administration. Statistics
from USDAindicate that approximately 2,000 B.S.
degrees are granted each year in agronomy, crop science, and soil science. Fewerthan half these individuals
will ever join any of the affiliated societies. Their needs
are not currently being met by these organizations.
If the goal of the Professional-in-Training certification is strictly
to swell the membership of ARCPACS
and the affiliated societies, it is self-serving and as such
an unworthy goal. But if, as its supporters hope,
ARCPACS
certification
becomes important for professional improvement and advancement, it is essential
that individuals at all levels of training be included.
Therefore the program must include those whose formal
training ends with a B.S. degree. To accomplish this
end, a method is needed to maintain contact between
the applicant and those who will eventually serve as a
references during the period the individual is acquiring
the required experience. This is a special problem as
more agronomy graduates join multidisciplinary teams
as the agronomyspecialist. Unless the individual strives
to maintain ties, no one who is eligible to provide a
letter of recommendation to ARCPACS
has first-hand
knowledge of their professional progress and growth
since graduation. This cutoff could prevent otherwise
qualified individuals from becoming certified and from
enjoying the benefits
and opportunities
that
certification could eventually provide.
MONITORING
PROCESS
Professional-in-Training
certification
by ARCPACS
could provide a procedure to assure that qualified individuals can be certified upon completion of the experience requirement. However, this can only be accomplished after a monitoring process is in place. It must be
a rigorous process with specific expectations from both
the applicant and the sponsor. It must provide for and
assure contact and guidance by the sponsor and growth
by the applicant. This is the big challenge ahead of
ARCPACS.
The success or failure in the development
of the monitoring process will determine the success or
failure of the Professional-in-Training certification.
CONCLUSIONS
The documented tangible benefits to the individual
whois currently certified as a Professional-in-Training
by ARCPACS
are few. But evidence is accumulating
that this situation maybe changing as this category matures along with ARCPACS
itself.
Most individuals
whoare presently certified as a Professional-in-Training
did not becomecertified principally for personal gains.
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDE RESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
They did so because they were visionaries. Our affiliated
societies, and on a broader scale, our nation, has grown
because of its visionaries. Dreamers who were willing to
work to make a dream a reality. Only time will tell if this
dream will be realized. At this point, there is reason to
be optimistic.
Training agronomists to
meet projected
opportunities in the
private sector1
Donald N. Duvick2
Industry will need agronomists with thorough training
in biology, chemistry, and mathematics, reinforced by
advanced training in soil science, biochemistry, plant
physiology, plant pathology, entomology, plant anatomy, plant morphology, ecology, genetics, and statistics.
Full command of spoken and written English will be required for best performance; knowledge of one or more
foreign languages could be useful. Final degree requirements will range from 2-year degrees through the Ph.D.
In general, a broad but thorough scientific training will
be preferred above narrow specialization and training
in technique. Emphasis should be on training for work
in interdisciplinary teams. In addition to training in science, agronomists in industry will be helped by training
in and appreciation of the humanities, economic theory,
and sociology, in light of present-day concerns with the
societal impacts of applied science.
A
GRONOMY for profit" is a more direct way of
stating the rather awkward phrase "projected
opportunities for agronomists in the private sector." It
is now fashionable to disguise a business profit motive
behind a facade of statements about the public interest,
ecology, sociology and perhaps even coevolution. The
truth is that we in the private sector must make a profit
or we go under. As responsible members of the human
race and inhabitants of the earth we of course must
conduct our affairs in ways that are ecologically and
1
Presented at a symposium on "Preparing for the Challenges of the
1980's", at the annual meeting of the American Society of Agronomy,
2 Dec. 1980, at Detroit, Mich.
2
Director of Plant Breeding Division, Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., Johnston, IA 50131.
67
sociologically right. The profit motive must be accommodated to responsible long-range considerations of
ecological and sociological principles. But ecological
and sociological needs can be met in ways that give fair
and just consideration to the needs of the profit makers
—the producers.
I begin with this philosophical statement because it
gives background to the comments I am going to make
regarding training needs of agronomists for the private
sector. My comments will summarize statements given
to me in personal or written interviews by representatives of businesses that employ agronomy graduates. Although these business people's needs are diverse, I find
a certain amount of uniformity in their requirements. I
will start by discussing a sample of their specialty needs,
and then will present, in summary, those requirements
that we in the private sector hold in common regarding
training of agronomy graduates.
You will understand that despite my intention to be
broad and objective I necessarily will see and interpret
the survey results from my own perspective, that of a
plant breeder and administrator who has spent his entire
career in the farm seeds business.
SPECIALTY REQUIREMENTS
Seed Company Employees
I will start by describing training needs for prospective seed company employees. Educational requirements are varied, ranging from B.S. to Ph.D,
graduates, from people with training in general agriculture to specialists in such fields as entomology or
population genetics. Specific training needs are 1) in the
scientific basics—mathematics, chemistry, biology, 2) in
the agronomy basics—crop culture, soils, plant physiology, and 3) in such specialties as genetics and plant
breeding, statistics, computer science, plant pathology,
and entomology. All respondents mentioned that a farm
background is very helpful at all levels and that, lacking
this background, practical training in farm operations
was desirable. All mentioned the absolute need for skill
in accurate use of spoken and written English; or as we
now say, they must have expertise in communication
skills. They also agreed that communication skills were
the greatest deficiency in training of current graduates.
The B.S. graduates also were said to be insufficiently
trained in plant breeding and statistics, subjects normally reserved for graduate study. Computer specialists
were said to be poorly trained in agronomy; perhaps this
statement could be rephrased to say we need computer
specialists with a minor in agronomy, somewhat like
patent attorneys with degrees in engineering or chemistry. The B.S. graduates also were most valuable when
they had good working knowledge of farm machinery
and some training in mechanics. A look at the future:
employees with skill in electronics will be needed, as
computers and their attachments take over more data
measuring and collecting. Another future need will be
for skills in genetic engineering techniques such as tissue
68
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
culture and recombinent DNAtechnology. But these
needs likely will be in low demandduring the 1980’s for
the seed companies, unless unforeseen technological advances make genetic engineering of more practical use
sooner than now seems likely to the seed company
representatives.
Within the seed companies, their seed production,
agronomic service, and sales departments have need for
graduates with training in crop culture and general
agronomy.Somespecialty training, as in soils and plant
nutrition, weed science, engineering, and management
skills, is useful for employees in seed production and
agronomic service specialties.
Business training and
managementskills are emphasizedfor sales people.
Crop Monitoring, Integrating Pest Management,
Scouting
These are names for facets of a growing industry, that
of helping the farmer doctor his crops. Most of these
firms are small but growing. They can use observant,
energetic undergraduates with little specific training but
with good powers of observation. Full-time field-level
employees can usually be B.S. or M.S. graduates, with
some training in entomology, plant pathology, weed
science, soils, and fertilizer use. Since these people work
directly with customers, meet potential customers, and
also supervise employees, they need to have tact, managerial ability, and pleasing personalities. I’m not sure
which courses one takes to improve one’s tact and personality. The larger firms employ Ph.D. graduates with
specialties in soil science, weedscience, plant pathology
or entomology, and at least some of these specialists
also should have good understanding of statistics
and
computer science. These people (the Ph.D.’s) are
usually managers as well so they need to be able to design research, organize programs and people, and plan
for the future. The pest managementconsultants, like
the seed companyemployers, emphasize the need for all
graduates to be able to read, speak, write, and spell
clearly and correctly. As one employer said, "I just
want them to be able to tell me what they’re doing in
words I can understand!" Also, like the seed company
employers, the consultants want people with broad, not
narrow, training and with at least somefield experience,
not just book learning.
Fertilizer and Agricultural ChemicalDealers
These business people seem to be enlarging their
sphere of activity to include consulting in crop culture as,
well as selling goods, so their needs are similar to those
of the pest managementconsultants. The B.S. graduates
are more likely to be used for sales positions, and the
M.S. graduates for larger-scale
consulting. General
agronomytraining, emphasizing soil science and pla~it
nutrition, is useful. Someof the agricultural chemical
fertilizer dealers are providing somefacets of farm management counseling as part of their service. They need
people trained not only in soil fertility and crop pro-
duction practices, but also in marketing, accounting,
and economics. They need to be able to help the farmer
decide on the most profitable mixes and amounts of
fertilizers,
pesticides, and cultural practices. One
respondent told me that because new technology in
fertilizer or pesticide use is madeavailable to everyone
by universities and experiment stations his only key to
uniqueness--his only sales tool--is to offer superior advice as to howto use the best mix of those superior new
practices which utilize the products he sells. The fertilizer and agricultural chemical dealers joiined others in
saying that recent graduates often don’t know how to
use the spoken and written word, especially as it applies
to their needs as salespeople. They do not excuse the
agriculture colleges for graduating illiterates. They also
say that new graduates increasingly "don’t know the
real world"; they don’t know how to use machinery,
howto put together realistic farm operation plans, and
as one person said to me, "The colleges turn out people
with no appreciation of the free enterprise system!" On
the other hand, these employers are generally satisfied
with the technical scientific training of agronomyB.S.
and M.S. graduates.
Manufacturers and Producers of
Agricultural Chemicals
The agricultural chemical manufacturers, developers,
producers (and often sellers) of herbicides, insecticides,
and fungicides have many needs in commonwith the
agricultural chemical dealers in regard to people who
sell their products. But their research and testing operations call for agronomygraduates with a different mix
of skills, usually with an M.S. or Ph.D. degree. These
highly trained people need to be knowledgeable in entomology, crop physiology, biochemistry, soil science
(including soil microbiology), plant pathology, statistics, and computer science. No one person can be skilled
in all of these areas but each must have broad enough
training that he can shift fields rapidly and effectively
when necessary, in order to keep up with the rapidly
evolving pesticide business. Practical experience-knowledge of farming as practiced today--and compatibility with fellow workers and with potential customers were mentioned as important needs. In the research headquarters of the larger companies, interest
(and research) is increasing in use of genetic engineering
and sophisticated plant biochemistry and physiology to
develop knowledge of basic plant functions, and compounds that affect them. This knowledge can suggest
new classes of useful chemicals for growth regulation,
disease protection, insect protection, or even absorption
of nutrients from the soil. On the one hand, companies
are looking for new compounds to produce. On
the other hand, they are considering new biological
ways (as with genetic engineering) to produce useful
chemicals. They need agronomists (people who know
crop plants, how they behave, and how they are best
grown with current farm techniques) who are also
skilled in tissue culture, plant physiology, the biochemistry of plant pathology, recombinant DNAtechniques,
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDERESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
microbiological ecology, and genetics (especially of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria). Individuals with skills in
agronomy and genetic engineering combined are rarely
found but increasingly they will be in demand. Agronomydepartments are criticized for not cooperating more
often with other departments to turn out people with
this kind of multidisciplinary training.
Farm Management
Another group, heterogenous but hard to sort out
into separate disciplines, is the farm managers. Banks,
other credit agencies and private farm management
firms for example, do a lot of direct or indirect farm
managing. These employers need people with skills in
general agriculture and marketing. The credit agencies
feel they can teach finance (their own specialty)
agronomists, but they want the agronomist to come to
the job already equipped with knowledge about the
technical aspects of crop production, and often animal
production. In commonwith other employers, they
mentioned broad rather than narrow training, practical
experience either by farm upbringing or from college,
and good communication skills in reading, speaking,
and writing.
Financial AdvisoryServices
A subsection of the credit groups is the financial advisory services. They employ stock analysts, money
management advisors,
etc. These businesses need
agronomists who have a solid appreciation of the
scientific and practical aspects of farming and farming
trends but who also have the educational background
that lets them communicate with those people wh~
manage large blocks of capital for investment and who
need to know which agriculture ventures are sound and
which are unsound. Economics, sociology, world politics, and history are important extras for agronomists
in this field.
Farming
I made no effort to specifically interview that important class of private sector agronomists, the farmers.
I assumed, as I did mypreparation for this invitational
paper, that my assigned subject "private sector" meant
business in the traditional sense. Perhaps this was a mistake. Specialization in crop raising, and the large scale
of many individual or family farm operations, surely
puts farmers firmly in the class of private sector enterpreneurs. In questioning other business people, and
from my own contacts with grain farmers around the
country, I believe that I have learned enough to enable
me to make a few observations. First, today’s farmer is
much more than a producer--he is an expert in marketing. Those who weren’t good marketers have long since
failed and gone into something easier, like corn breeding or college teaching. Aside from marketing skills,
today’s grain farmers also are expert mechanics and
69
machinery operators. Finally, they must be experts in
crop culture, especially regarding choice and amounts
of seed varieties and fertilizers, timeliness of operation,
and needs for extra inputs such as pesticides and irrigation water. The percentage of degree-holding farmers is
going up. The college-educated farmer tries to get longlasting useful knowledgein college in science, management, finance, and marketing. He then looks to crop
counseling services for expert up-to-date assistance in
areas of rapidly changing technology, such as insect,
weed, and disease control, fertilizers,
and seeding
recommendations.
COMMON REQUIREMENTS
Howshould agronomy graduates prepare for employment in agriculture-related business in the 1980’s? Employers repeatedly listed certain employeerequirements,
as follows:
1. Solid training in basic science and agronomy.All
businesses were satisfied with the quality of this training.
2. Proficiency in use of the spoken and written word.
Graduates must be able to read with understanding and
must be able to write, spell, and speak with precision,
clarity, and accuracy. Colleges of agriculture are severely criticized for failure in this area. Theyare held to be
responsible for the literacy of their graduates; no excuses are accepted.
3. Business training and managerial skills. After all,
we are businesses, in addition to being specialists in crop
protection, plant breeding, or fertilizer sales and service. Business training usually is absent from the list of
skills of agronomy graduates, especially those most
likely to need it, the recipients of higher degrees.
4. Training in use of computers. Because of the continuing rapid changes in computer hardware and software, graduates need training in concepts and principles
as well as in practical skills such as programming. I
heard no significant complaints about current training,
perhaps because employers, often of my "middle-aged"
generation, did not themselves know what they were
missing.
5. Broad training in science. Employerssaid they are
the best teachers of the specific techniquesof their field,
but that broad, general training made it easier for employees to keep up with rapid changes in emphasis,
product line, and farming techniques.
6. Skills in salesmanship. Virtually every collegetrained employeein every business is used to help sell
the product in one way or another; or as one employer
told me, "At the least he’s got to be able to sell me on
the effectiveness of his research developments." Every
research or production job includes hosting tours of potential customers; and of course, the biggest single job
specialty in agriculture and agriculture-related business
3(26%of total) is in sales and service.
~Coulter,J., and M.Stanton(eds.). 1980. Graduatesof higher
educationin the foodandagriculturalsciences:Ananalysisof supply/
demandrelationships. USDA,
SEA.
70
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
7. Farm experience. This experience is increasingly
lacking in agronomy graduates. Respondents told me
they think agriculture colleges should include practical
on-the-farm training in their curricula to impart at least
somepart this skill, one that used to be brought to college automatically by farmers’ sons.
8. A final numerically small but technologically important need is for agronomists with superior training in
the genetic engineering techniques. Brilliant, superbly
trained molecular biologists with no understanding of
agronomy, farming, or plant breeding are making unrealistic claims as to what they can do for us. They are
sometimes undertaking hopelessly impractical research
problems with the avowed aim of solving world hunger
or eliminating energy shortages for agriculture. Professors in the colleges of agriculture need to work cooperatively with faculty membersin the new disciplines
involving tissue and cell culture, recombfnant, DNA,
and the entire field of molecular biology. Their aim
should be to produce a new generation of competent
agronomists with solid understanding of farmer needs
who also are trained in top-flight molecular biology
laboratories, so that reasonable, useful, and yet pioneering agriculturally oriented genetic engineering research
can be undertaken in the future. This is not to say that
good interdiciplinary
work is not being done, but its
rarity underscores the problem.
stand how or why we are being attacked. Agronomists
at all levels must be educated in such subjects as ecology, evolution, coevolution, political science, economics,
sociology, systems of government, and the history of
revolutionary movements in order to understand and
withstand the assaults on modernagriculture.
Perhaps I have been too negative. I should say also
that much in agriculture must be changed and changed
rapidly (but wisely) to make better ecological and
sociological sense in this new world of potentially 7
billion people, with geometrically multiplying worldwide problems in soil erosion, food supply, and
environmental degradation.
Agronomists should be
trained in the broadest possible way in the biological
disciplines and the humanities, as well as in agronomy,
so that they, having the background to make wise and
informed decisions, can take the initiative to lead agriculture into the future.
Forensic Agronomy:
Testifying as an
1
expert witness
sFred P. Miller
FINAL REMARKS
A few personal additions. Agricultural business is international today. Most large U.S. firms send agronomists abroad for short or for long periods of time for research, sales, production, management, or consulting
purposes. And increasingly,
U.S. companies may be
owned by overseas firms. There is no excuse for our
agronomists not to be skilled in reading and speaking at
least one other important language: Spanish or German,
for example. There is no excuse for our agronomists not
to be well educated in world geography (broadly defined) or in world history, sociology, or world politics.
In a strictly
business sense, it pays to know your
customer and your customer’s territory.
In a human
sense, it is only commoncourtesy to know something
about your host’s home, mores, language, and expectations. In the patriotic American sense, we can be most
effective and make the most enduring friends abroad if
we are knownto be informed, understanding, and literate about the foreign countries in which we visit and
work, and from which people come to visit and work
with us.
A second point. Modern agriculture and agriculturerelated business are under direct and unremitting attack
from organizations committed to the principle that
modern agriculture is poisonous and unnecessarily
wasteful of energy, and that the surest way to correct
the problem is to destroy, by legislative and regulatory
means if possible, the businesses that support modern
agriculture. Most of us in agronomyare totally unprepared to defend ourselves, or even are unable to under-
Americaseems well on its wayto becominga Htigation society. Agronomistsare being called uponmore
frequently as expert witnesses. As scientists, agronomists are often confronted with rendering opinions and
drawingconclusions from incompletedata or data that
preclude conclusions of absolute certainty. Thenatural
systems that agronomistsstudy are inherently variable,
necessitating the use of statistical scrutiny to determine
the degree of confidencein trends and conclusions. An
element of doubt alwaysaccompaniessuch evidence. Althoughthe courtsstill strive for certainty, they haverecently recognizedthe validity of statistical evidence.The
courts have always accordedscientists and experts a
"’reasonabledegreeof professional certainty." Agronomists should be familiar with the protocol expected of
an expert witness, including whento acknowledgethe
limits of their knowledgeand recognition of the confidence limits of their evidence. Cautions, pitfalls, and
guidelinesfor the potential expert witnessare reviewed.
AMERICA
seems well onits way to becoming alitigation society. The USAhas 20 times as many
lawyers per capita as Japan but only one-fifth as many
engineers per capita. The cost of legal services in the
USAnow accounts for about 2°70 of the gross national
product (Howard, 1981).
’ Presentedat a symposium
on, "EducatingAgronomists
to Meet
their Worldwide
Responsibility,"at the annualmeetingof the American Societyof Agronomy,
1 Dec.1981,at Atlanta, Ga. Contribution
of the Dep.of Agronomy,
Univ.of Maryland,
CollegePark.
2Former
professorof soil science, Univ.of Maryland;
currently
head,Dep.of Agronomy,
Univ.of Arkansas,Fayetteville,AR72701.
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDERESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
The last few decades have witnessed a surge of legal
disputes involving agriculture and its technology, land
use issues, and a broad spectrum of environmental conflicts. Scientists are frequently called on to provide or
interpret technical evidence in these disputes where they
have required legal decisions. The calls for agronomists,
plant scientists, and soil scientists as expert witnesses in
these legal disputes are increasing.
Because most of these disputes do not involve comprehensive data bases and clear-cut evidence, judgements, opinions, and interpretations
of data are
solicited from experts. Such judgements are subject to
challenge under the adversary nature of the American
court system. Even hard data often do not allow the
luxury of certainty either because of the inherent variability of the ecosystem studied or because of experimental error in the data acquisition process. Thus, there
is usually an element of uncertainty in any conclusion or
testimony regardless of the academic stature or experience of the expert.
Because of the potential to compromiseone’s scientific purity and objectivity as well as to subject one’s
reputation (and ego) to public scrunity, manyscientists
and academicians have declined to involve themselves in
the litigation process. Whatis our responsibility to our
profession and society regarding this question? Reluctance to becomeinvolved subjects our profession to
the risk of allowing forensic agronomyto be the refuge
of incompetents.
Most scientists usually encounter the Americanlegal
system as an expert witness either through a subpoena
or as a consultant to a client who becomesa party to a
legal suit. In either case, the scientist is usually inexperienced as a witness or ignorant of the process and
protocol of being an expert witness. Academictraining
seldom touches on the subject. Neither does our professional
society provide guidance on forensic
agronomy.
Althoughthere is a certification programand registry
associated with the American Society of Agronomy,
3, the professional agronomist, crop or soil
ARCPACS
scientist is not legally certified and licensed in most
states. Theseprofessionals carry no expert credentials as
recognized by state certification and licensing boards.
Therefore, these professionals
must present their
academic and professional credentials before the court
and be accepted by the court as experts in each case.
The purpose of this paper is to present some cautions
and guidelines for those agronomists and crop and soil
scientists whoare involved in subject areas or vocations
where they are likely to be called upon as expert witnesses. These guidelines and suggestions draw heavily
from those established for the forensic engineer (Specter
et al., 1980). Myexperience as an expert witness verifies
the relevance to our profession of manyof these engineer-oriented guidelines.
~AmericanRegistry of Certified Professionals in Agronomy,
Crops,andSoils.
71
DO WE SWEAR TO TELL THE
WHOLE TRUTH?
Science blooms in the shadowof doubt. Scientists are
trained to be skeptical. Scientists are often delighted in
an experiment which has a 5% probability of being the
result of randomchance (Willard, 1981a).
Variability is a natural attribute of the systems that
agronomists study. Furthermore, agronomists can
usually examine only samples of the entire population.
Knowledgeof these natural systems is derived from observations, sample measurements, deductions, inferences, and probability theory. The conclusions and
interpretations drawn from this information base have
limited degrees of confidence.
For the scientist who becomesa legal witness, he or
she must tell the whole truth. Andthe truth includes the
degree of doubt in the conclusions based on the evidence
at hand. Thus, even though we are the experts, we can
seldom be sure beyond "a shadow of doubt." And yet,
the American court system is based on advocacy. It
strives for certainty, confidence, and simple clarity.
Natural scientists can rarely provide these absolutes. It
is little wonder that environmental decision-making is
such a mess (Willard, 1981a).
LAW, FACTS AND EVIDENCE
Whenevercontroversy is decided by litigation, trial
courts perform two functions. The first concerns the determination of facts involved in the controversy. The
second refers to the application of the law to these facts
(Barksdale, 1957).
Facts and evidence presented to the courts are the responsibilities of the litigants. The courts haveno investigating or research mission to furnish evidence in a case.
The American court system is based on the adversary
trial procedure, wherebytheory holds that the litigants
will reveal the strength of their case and attempt to
demonstrate the weakness of their opponent’s case. The
evidence presented through this procedure is the basis
upon which the court renders its decision. The adversary
systemof trial is definitely not a scientific investigation
for the discovery of truth. Rather, this procedure is a
means of finding a factual basis, as close to truth as
possible, for the orderly settlement of disputes (Barksdale, 1957).
Legal reasoning and scientific-statistical
logic are not
synonymous. Data fail regularly to sway opinions in
court trials (Willard, 1980). Scientific and statistical
evidence commonlycarry no greater weight in a case
than testimony from an uneducated witness. This observation can prove traumatic to the first-time expert
witness (as well as manyexperienced science witnesses).
For the pure scientist, the thought of facts being questioned or accorded various levels of significance in a
legal proceeding is incomprehensible, if not insulting.
But the admission of expert testimony and factual evidence in a court of law must be viewedin the context of
social factors which constitute the most significant de-
72
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
terminant in the evaluation and degree of acceptance of
such evidence (Richardson, 1961). As Richardson (1961)
points out, scientific evidence can develop and clarify
facts, fix liability, pinpoint damages, or effect settlements within the framework of procedure. Likewise,
scientific evidence has the potential for arousing prejudice, confusing the issues, or misleading the jury.
Such evidence must, therefore, be used under proper
controls and admitted only when the court is of the
opinion that their probative value is such as to aid the
triers of fact in seeking the truth of contested issues
(Richardson, 1961). Once again, legal reasoning contrasts sharply with scientific reasoning. The ultimate
goal of legal reasoning is to reach a fair decision.
The adversary court system can be likened to a decision by a "reasonable person." Despite the fact that
scientific evidence is not accorded supreme weight and
uncontested status in a case and despite the scientist’s
inability to always witness with absolute certainty, the
courts do respect the "reasonable degree of professional
certainty" principle. Thus, the "reasonable person"
concept can accommodate the scientist as well as the
layman and uneducated witness.
STATISTICAL
EVIDENCE AND CONFIDENCE
LIMITS
The courts have recently extended the "reasonable
degree of professional certainty" principle to the use of
a major tool of scientists, viz., probability theory and
statistics (Fienberg and Straf, 1981). Whereasscientists
cannot be conclusive with absolute certainty in many
situations, they can calculate the confidence limits of
their data and conclusions. But the courts have found it
difficult to accept or understand the meaningof this uncertainty, despite the fact it could be expressed numerically. This apparent crack in the wisdomand credibility
of scientists has often been seized upon by adversary attorneys to discredit an expert’s testimony, reducing the
weight of the statistical evidence to that of opinion.
During the 1970’s, the issues of nuclear power, toxic
wastes, environmental impacts, and many more technological issues requiring the promulgation of standards
and regulations ushered into Americancourts the era of
risk/benefit assessments and other statistical evidence
on which major decisions
were based (Ricci and
Molton, 1981; Jasanoff and Nelkin, 1981). Fienberg
and Straf (1981) surveyed nearly 84,000 Federal District
Court opinions over the period 1960-1979 and found an
increasing trend in the use and acceptance of statistical
evidence. This trend bodes well for the scientist as an,
expert witness, for now his or her assessments and
statistical inferences are more likely to stand as strong
evidence. But this trend also poses difficulties for the
courts and challenges for expert witnesses.
Conflicting statistical
testimony is nowcommonplace
in the court system (Fienberg and Straf, 1981). Although challenges to scientific ideas through crossexamination may make for stronger reasoning and serve
to bring out limitations of arguments and evidence, the
adversary nature of court proceedings may militate
against scientific inquiry as the numberand complexity
of these statistical conflicts increase. The difficulty of
rendering legal judgementsin the face of such scientific
complexities once again reemphasizes the difference
between statistical
or scientific and legal reasoning
(Fienberg and Straf, 1981).
Furthermore, the expert witness testifying on the
basis of scientific data or measured parameters is subject to challenge on the confidence limits of the data
base. It is incumbent on the expert witness to knowthe
confidence limits of his or her conclusions drawn from
the data base. If statistical scrutiny of the data is not
available, at least the expert should have some subjective idea of the confidence of his or her opinions and
conclusions and knowjust how strong a conclusion can
be drawn. A soil scientist testifying on the suitability of
a tract of land for waste disposal and renovation using a
few percolation tests must be mindful of the extreme
variability of such hydraulic measurements in soils. A
witness can be easily trapped in cross-examination by
having to back off from the strength of an earlier
opinion or conclusion. Manyattorneys are now exposed
to statistical reasoning and the confidence limits of scientific testimony. The unsuspecting witness can be
"crucified" by extending his or her conclusions beyond
the validity and limitations of test data and other evidence. To be unwaryof this potential trap is to be illprepared for a call as an expert witness.
GETTING INVOLVED: THE CALL
Upon receiving a call to be an expert witness, one
should be introspective.
One’s moral biases must be
segregated or separated from one’s technical training.
One must always know the situation at the outset.
Manytimes the caller does not knowprecisely what he
or she needs in the way of an expert witness. Therefore,
it is incumbent upon the expert to find out exactly what
the caller needs in the way of expertise. In effect, scientists are required to subscribe to a "truth in labelling"
bill for themselves (Willard, 1981b). Are you the expert
needed?
The potential expert witness must also know the
boundaries of their expertise. You will be pressured to
respond outside the boundaries of your discipline. Most
laymen and attorneys do not recognize or appreciate
discipline boundaries. You must be alert not to be
pulled outside your area of expertise.
QUALIFICATIONS AS AN EXPERT WITNESS
The point was made previously that many academically recognized disciplines are not recognized through a
certification and licensing procedure. Therefore, expertise in academic subject fields must be demonstrated
and accepted by the courts in each case, regardless of
howoften you mayhave been qualified as an expert previously. This process can often take longer than the expert testimony itself.
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDERESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
An expert witness is qualified in two ways. First, it
must be shown that the witness is expert. One’s
credentials must be submitted to the court. These include academic training, writings, experience, honors,
professional affiliations and certification. (An up-todate vitae should be submitted to your attorney early).
The expert’s demeanoris examinedto see if he or she is
confident yet humble and if the expert knowsthe limits
of his or her learning and training. Secondly, it must be
shownthat the expert is unbiased, or at least able to give
the court objective information. The objective of the expert’s testimony generally is how convincingly the
expert answers the final question which goes by the
form "In your scientific opinion, is thus and so the
case?" The remainder of one’s testimony merely reinforces this statement (Willard, 1980).
While it may seem elementary, the potential expert
witness should always evaluate the premise upon which
his or her opinions are to be derived. Are they based on
deductions from moral presumptions and ideology,
training and experience, or intimate knowledge and
study of the issue at hand (Willard, 1980)? Not uncommonly, expert witnesses become compromised by testifying on the basis of training and experience without
having witnessed the case site or obtained any kind of
evidence directly dealing with the case. While testimony
based on one’s experience and training is a valid contribution of an expert, one must be vigilant of the trap
that awaits such a witness when the adversary attorney
attempts to draw the witness to more specific conclusions.
CLIENT RELATIONS
While to some it may be vulgar to speak of money, it
is appropriate to settle the fiscal conditions of your
expert witnessing at the outset (Willard, 1981b). You
must have a clear understanding with your client about
fees or fee schedules, who is responsible for payment,
coordination of-testimony with others, expenses, that
might be encountered, and to whomyou are to report
the information. The expert witness may not see or deal
directly with the client but with the attorney. Often
many other experts are involved in the case and you
must be aware of howyour expertise will be coordinated
with theirs. Youmust also ask the client what kind of a
work product is expected; will there be a deposition, is a
written report required, and just howwidely will this information be disseminated (Specter et al., 1980)?
Makesure the problem is well-defined at the beginning and that your expertise is needed. Determine
whether the client is on the right track. Often the client
and the attorney may have some preconceived notion of
the direction the testimony should take, but in talking
with the client and the attorney, the expert is often able
to advise them of other approaches that could be more
fruitful. This is part of your obligation as a witness for
the client.
The expert must, however, be wary of offering free
73
advice or informal opinions, even when asked. Often a
retainer is desirable. A retainer essentially commitsyou
to allowing yourself to give preliminary judgements.
The expert must be honest and impartial to the client.
And yet, one must be loyal to the client in the sense of
keeping him or her informed at all times, including
work progress and charges as they accrue. The client
must be notified of the need for specialists and other
types of expertise whennecessary. For example, an engineer might be needed to work out a particular part of
the problem. The client must be advised of findings and
the possible impact of these findings on the case, either
positive or negative. The expert is expected to keep all
information confidential.
A detailed file should be
maintained with all calculations, test data, dates, time
of visits, and the times and namesof all phonecalls that
have anything to do with the case (Specter et al., 1980).
FINANCIAL
ARRANGEMENTS
The expert witness should insist on payment for
services rendered regardless of the outcomeof the case.
Contingency fees based on the outcome of the case are
prohibited by the engineer’s code of ethics. It would be
advisable for agronomists to adopt this principle.
Anyservice agreement, whether by letter or by formal
contract, should include the statement, "Payment to be
made promptly and is not contingent upon the results of
any legal action, arbitration, or settlement" (Specter et
al., 1980).
Lumpsum commitments should be avoided. Monthly
invoices should be submitted where appropriate and
payments kept current, especially prior to testimony.
An astute adversary attorney can leave a jury with the
impression that your testimony is tainted as a result of
outstanding payments. Wherethere is the potential for a
case to drag on, one should be alert to put a fee escalation provision in the contract so that fees can be
adjusted from one year to the next (Specter et al., 1980).
GETTING ORGANIZED
In getting organized for preparing testimony, you
must know two things: how long do you have and what
precisely are you going to do (Willard, 1981b)? Answering these questions allows a work schedule and job sheet
to be established.
Is a site visit and evaluation necessary? Do samples
need to be taken or is the expert merely being asked to
interpret existing data? Are such data adequate to
render an opinion or are other data and information
necessary? Will a deposition or written report be required? And what about the necessity for graphics and
other illustrated materials? Will interviews with other
experts or other witnesses be necessary? And what
about the need for technical assistance or other expertise?
74
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
INVESTIGATION
AND PREPARATION
Lawsuits can result from challenges of particular ordinances, regulations, standards, codes, or various sections of legislation. In preparing testimony, it is always
advisable to knowthe legal background of the conflict
involved. An expert witness should be familiar with the
sections of the bill, ordinance, regulation, or code involved in the challenge. It can be highly embarrassing
and discrediting to an expert witness to be asked, "have
you ever read the section dealing with this particular
problem at hand" or "can you summarize the appropriate section of the code" and have to answer that you are
not familiar with it.
Opinions should be expressed only when founded on
adequate knowledge. No matter how trivial the problem
mayseem, a detailed investigation by the expert witness
should be done. The expert witness should ihsist, where
feasible, that he or she inspect the site or the evidence
personally (Specter et al., 1980). However, never take
the initiative to visit a site without first notifying your
attorney and getting permission. You may be walking
on the land of a hostile host, so one should always check
ahead with their attorney and make sure that permission
is granted through the attorneys involved. In visiting the
site, one should be prepared to take dimensions,
samples where appropriate, photographs and any other
evidence that one deems necessary. Again, it can be
highly embarrassing and discrediting to an expert witness after having gone through extensive testimony to
have to answer the question in the negative when asked,
"have you ever walked on the site or visited the site in
question?"
The expert witness should be familiar with all test results. Wherepossible, all sampling and analyses should
be witnessed personally or their authenticity verified
through personal or written communication. This is
especially appropriate in disciplines in which graduate
students or technicians are makingthe analyses, running
tests and taking other kinds of evidence without direct
observation by the expert witness. One should always
contact the technicians or graduate students to make
sure that they are available for call, if necessary, by the
courts. The expert witness should be familiar with all
units of measure and terms used in the evidence, the
procedures by which the data were generated, and the
data sources (Specter et al., 180). The point about the
confidence limits of the data and opinions has already
been emphasized. If weather stations or other kinds of
data are needed or used involving a watershed, one
should always know the extent of the watershed and
how far the data have to be extrapolated. It is also
necessary to pay heed to all notations that are made on
data sheets and reports. One can be asked about the
jargon or the notations in the margins of a particular
data set which mayhave been derived by the adversary.
At various steps in the investigation and preparation
stage, one should verify their qualifications and competency to deal with the problem and subject matter.
Again, one should always inform the client of the need
for specialists, either as a replacement or in conjunction
with yourself (Specter et al., 1980). One should always
keep in mind that the truth is usually larger than any one
person or discipline. For example, a soil classifier can
verify the taxonomic class of a soil at a site and make
certain interpretations about soil behavior based on the
taxonomic class. But, the interpretation pertinent to a
court case may involve heavy metal chemistry or the
latest theories of hydraulic flow to depths of 10 m or
more. It is often tempting for a scientist or expert in
one area to project an interpretation or offer an opinion
beyond their area of expertise. Always keeping in mind
the bounds of one’s expertise is an expert witness’s
"Golden Rule."
The expert witness should review all pertinent depositions, literature, manuals, standards, and other data related to the case. If the witness has written on the subject before, this review of data and literature should also
include his or her own writings on the subject. It is a
commonploy of adversary attorneys in cross-examination to review statements and writings of expert witnesses to see if previously held concepts and statements
contradict current testimony. A good expert witness will
always review and keep in mind previously-published
ideas; they may have changed through the years.
The expert witness should apprise the client of the
need for all calculations, analyses, and tests necessary to
confirm opinions. The client should be advised of the
potential conseqences if such efforts are not authorized
and performed in a competent and timely fashion. Also,
exhibits and demonstrations will have to be considered
as to whether they are necessary. And if exhibits and
demonstrations are prepared, one should use care so as
not to exaggerate exhibit items to clarify a point. Also,
care should be used in expressing the scale, boundaries,
and units on demonstrations and exhibits (Specter et al.,
1980).
The expert witness should insist on a pre-trial review
and analysis of his or her testimony. It is in this review
that the question sequence is established between the
witness and attorney. Responses can be clarified and
technical jargon can be expanded upon and perhaps
eliminated. It is also in this pre-trial testimony review
that one can establish just howfar the responses should
go. The expert witness can establish in this review the
points at which exhibits are entered. Also, the confidence limits of the evidence can be reviewed as well as
the strength of each conclusion and opinion. It is
through this process that your attorney can determine
the depth of the shadow of doubt in your testimony.
One should encourage the devil’s advocate role in such
examinations (Specter et al., 1980). The importance of
pre-trial
review of testimony cannot be overemphasized.
TESTIFYING AS AN EXPERT WITNESS
The expert witness must accept the fact that the attorney in the case conducts your part of the trial
SYMPOSIA: WORLDWIDERESPONSIBILITY OF AGRONOMISTS
(Specter et al., 1980). The pre-trial review of your testimonywill prepare both you and your attorney for this
portion of the case, lending confidence to the proceedings and lessening anxieties as to the direction of the
questioning. The expert witness must allow the attorney
to orchestrate the testimony, leading the witness to the
points to be made.
Keepyour schedule open and flexible around the trial
date. Be prompt and available at the time designated for
your testimony (Specter et al., 1980). A flexible schedule
is essential since you may be called much sooner or
muchlater than originally anticipated.
Whenarriving for your testimony, be unobtrusive in
both dress and manner. Be courteous while on the
stand, but be direct, clear, humble, and to the point
(Willard, 1981b). You should adjust your voice to the
acoustics in the court room. It is always wise, if possible, to visit the courtroom prior to your testimony and
get a feel for the acoustics and the layout of the roomto
determine where visual aids might be displayed (Specter
et al., 1980).
The expert witness should address the jury directly
and play all exhibits to them. Use lay terminology where
appropriate and explain technical terms where necessary. Analogies, gestures, and demonstrations are
allowable if approved by your attorney in the pre-trial
testimony. Never surprise your attorney with a fresh example. Keep in mind that demonstrations and examples
can backfire when used against you in cross-examination (Specter et al., 1980).
The expert witness must always remain alert, paying
close attention to the questions. Donot anticipate questions or answer them as if you had. Answer the questions briefly and supplement your responses with information only when it is essential to make the point.
Do not lecture. While lecturing is still held in high regard in the classroom, it is looked upon with scorn in
the courtroom. Here again the pre-trial preparation can
be helpful. You maybe itching to expound on some profound technological truth, but you may be embarrassed
to find out that after having done so, it was totally irrelevant to the case.
Haveyour exhibits prepared and available well in advance. Be prepared to draw sketches. Keep in mind that
blackboards and flip charts are standard accessories in
some court rooms and you may be asked to describe or
draw something that you had referred to in your testimony(Specter et al., 1980).
In cross-examination, the expert witness is totally
alone. The cross-examining attorney will no doubt draw
from the witness’s previous testimony as a starting point
in cross-examination. The witness should be prepared to
expand on points made in previous testimony. The witness should at all times be courteous, factual, complete,
and comprehensive in all responses. Keep in mind that
your attorney will have another opportunity to reemphasize major points in redirect examination. These
points may have been discredited or confounded in
cross-examination (Specter et al., 1980).
The expert witness must be constantly vigilant of the
limits of his or her knowledge and discipline bound-
75
aries. There will be several, perhaps numerous, occasions when the witness is asked, either innocently or
by design, to respond outside the scope of that knowledge or discipline. The witness must be prepared to
know when to say "I have no expert knowledge of
that" or "I do not know." The expert must tell the
whole truth about what he or she knows, and then stop.
Otherwise, one’s creditability is potentially jeopardized
when testifying at the margins of one’s expertise (Willard, 1980).
The expert witness must be mindful of the mission of
relaying of facts and knowledgeto the court, stopping
short of recommending policy. What the courts and
society do with the facts and evidence gathered through
the legal process falls in the arena of policy. The expert
maypossess strong views about an issue or the case at
hand, but the witness has been called to impart knowledge and factual evidence, not to expoundone’s political views or policy options (Willard, 1980).
In cross examination, the witness may become frustrated when the adversary attorney cuts responses short,
makes derogatory remarks, or casts unflattering reflections on the witnesses’ work and professional competence. The witness must keep emotions under control.
Cynical, curt, or pretentious responses jeopardize the
witness’s credibility. Such responses also provide ammunition to cross-examining attorneys to discredit previous testimony. Be prepared for critical reflections on
your testimony and do not fall into the trap of einotional behavior (Specter et al., 1980).
Expert witnesses should not allow themselves to be
badgered into hurried responses that may lead to erroneous or contradictory statements. The witness has a
right to take enough time for thoughtful responses. The
witness should not hesitate to have a question repeated
or clarified. The exercising of such rights can often
blunt the thrust and dull the sharpness of an attacking
adversary attorney.
As an expert witness, you are allowed to take whatever notes you need to the witness stand. Keepin mind,
however, that such notes and data may be subject to
seizure by the courts (Specter et al., 1980). Consult your
attorney as to what is permissible.
On stepping down from the witness stand, do not
expect applause (Willard, 1981b). The nature of the
courtroom process is to swallow and digest your
testimony as well as that of others. The courtroomis not
an institution
designed to reward the articulation
prowess of witnesses. And upon stepping down, never
discuss your testimony or the case with anyone other
than your attorney and client. Especially avoid the press
(Willard, 1981b).
Evenafter the trial, the expert witness learns to keep
files in good order, makingnotes to the file immediately
after testimony and after a debriefing session with the
attorney. Manycases are appealed and the expert witness maybe called again in the case years later, either as
a witness or as technical counsel to the attorney in the
case. This file should remain confidential and should
never be used as an information source in writings, lectures, and other professional pursuits.
76
JOURNAL OF AGRONOMIC EDUCATION, VOL. 11, 1982
SUMMARY
In practicing forensic agronomy, the agronomist,
crop and soil scientist is providing a professional
service. We are subject to a Code of Ethics as adopted
by ARCPACS.4 When practicing as an expert witness,
the reputation of every other professional agronomist is
carried on the witness's shoulders (after Specter et al.,
1980). If agronomists truly want to be recognized as
professionals, then they must accept the roles demanded
of them in an increasingly complex and litigating society. Entering the courtroom as an expert witness is
part of this role, despite the reluctance of many to
participate in this legal process.
" ARCPACS Code of Ethics is attached to each application form
and is sent to each new member.
SELECTIONS
The Leguminosae--A Source Book of
Characteristics, Uses, and Nodulation
--0. N. Allen and Ethel K. Allen.
The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, Wisconsin. 1981. 812 p.
Illus. $60.00.
This reference book is the capstone of
the long and distinguished careers of
Oscar and Ethel Allen. Forty-five years
of research effort preceded the publication of this global survey 0f leguminous
root nodulation. Although it was originally conceived as a survey of nodule incidence, the work grew to encompass a
comprehensive taxonomic description of
the family Leguminosae as a necessary
framework for assessing nodulation.
The introduction gives an overview of
the Leguminosae and a perspectve on
the distinguishing characteristics of the
rhizobial microsymbiont. Illustrations
of leaves, flowers, fruits, and nodule
shapes of various genera are shown. The
main body of the text contains 1) an alphabetical listing and taxonomic description of the 750 genera within the
three subfamilies of the Leguminosae,2)
a description of distinguishing characteristics,
ecological adaptation,
and
economic or potential uses for each
species, and 3) a summarythrough 1977
of the known nodulated and non-noduluted species.in each genus identified by
geographical origin.
The nodulation survey covers 3,108 of
the estimated 19,700 species in the family Leguminosae. Separate appendices
summarize nodulation data for the
Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae,
and
Papilionoideae. The synthesis of the
taxonomic and nodulation
surveys
prompted new hypotheses concerning
the host-controlled inability to nodulate
within the subfamily Caesalpinioideae.
Significantly, 79%of the species surveyed
are in the subfamily
Papilionoideae, which contains plants of
agronomic importance. Fifty-six pages
of references and an index of common
names complement this thorough
census.
Twocircumstances of current societal
importance make the appearance of this
bookespecially timely. First is the growing concern amongagricultural scientists
to develop legume-based cropping
systems with reduced dependence upon
synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. Second is
the continuing erosion of the germplasm
base of cultivated crops and related
species as centers of species origin are
either destroyed or disturbed. Eradication of a species will be soon followed by
FROM THE
BOOKSHELF
disappearance of efficient strains of its
rhizobial partner. Newnitrogen-fixing
partnerships within the Leguminosae
must be sought, and existing partnerships must be preserved. The Allens’
treatise sets the stage for these actions.
This book will be a valuable resource
for scientists working on nitrogen fixation and those interested in collecting
new crop germplasm to augment that
currently in use. It will be a valuable reference for advanced courses in agricultural microbiology, nitrogen metabolism, and taxonomy.
G. H. Heichel
USDA-ARS
Plant Science Research Unit
St. Paul, Minnesota
Nitrogen in Relation to Food, Environment and Energy--SamueI R. Aldrich.
Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
1980. 462 p.
Publication of this book was supported by a Rockefeller Foundation
grant following 3 years of conferences
on aspects of nitrogen utilization in the
food production system. The purpose of
the book is to discuss the use of nitrogen
in food production in relation to environmental and energy problems. It will
be especially useful to scientists, public
workers, and lay people who are interested in a comprehensive,non technical,
but professional
discussion
of
environmental effects of nitrogen usage.
About one-fourth of the book is devoted to providing a basic understanding
of sources, forms, and behavior of
nitrogen in nature and its role in food
production. The remaining portions are
devoted to effects of nitrogen from various sources on edvironmental pollution
and health and methods by which
dangers of pollution may be avoided.
A comprehensive review is given of
studies relating fertilizer and other nitrogen sources to nitrates in surface and
ground waters. Exaggerations in the
popular press of the influence of fertilizers on nitrate contents of rivers are refuted by presentation of factual data.
Information is given concerning the relationships of nitrates and nitrites to
humanand animal health, aquatic life,
and the protective ozone layer.
The book summarizes practices that
may be used by farmers in utilizing
nitrogen to maximize food production
and minimize environmental effects.
77
Studies comparing organic and conventional farming methods are reviewed in
detail and discussed in relation to total
food production, economic returns and
energy requirements. The last portion of
the book discusses alternatives for reducing nitrates in water, choices which
must be made relative to food production and possible pollution, and means
by which public decisions may be made
concerning environmental
issues.
Numerousreferences are given throughout the book. An appendix gives a summary of the activities of the Illinois
Pollution Control Board relative to possible regulations on the application of
plant nutrients.
Information in this book should be
madeavailable to all students of agriculture, biology, and environmental science. The book will also be extremely
useful to journalists, legislators, and lay
people who have environmental concerns.
R. V. Olson
Department of Agronomy
Kansas State University
Manhattan
Wheat Science--Today and Tomorrow
--L. T. Evans and W. J. Peacock
(eds.). Cambridge University Press,
NewYork. 1981. 290 p.
This is a compilation of a series of
comprehensive reviews representing a
broad range of topics relative to the
genetics and management of wheat for
production improvement. It begins with
the origin of wheat from historical and
evolutionary
developments and it
reviews the genetic resources of wheats
at our disposal today. Current and new
plant breeding approaches for wheat improvement are discussed. The use of
these in the improvement of wheat for
quality and rust resistance, as examples,
are then described. Physiological and
anatomical relationships
along with
aspects of plant competition relative to
wheat performance are discussed. A
broad range of wheat management
practices are also discussed.
This is an excellent reference volume
for wheat researchers and graduate students.
H. W. Ohm
Department of Agronomy
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
78
JOURNAL OF AGRONOMICEDUCATION, VOL. 11,
The Biochemistry of Silage--Peter McDonald. John Wiley & Sons, New
York. 1981. 226 p. $42.00.
Biochemical changes that take place
from harvest until feeding time, as a result of plant enzyme and microorganism
activity, are discussed in this informative, well-referenced book on the ensilage process. Although probably not
suitable as a reference for undergraduate
students, instructors would make good
use of their time searching through some
of the highly technical, yet practical,
material to enhance their own understanding of the process. The text might
be useful as a reference in a graduate
level forage physiology course.
The Introduction
(Chapter 1) discusses the history of silage development,
somebasic principles of the ensilage process and a short, illustrated section on
silo types. Chapter 2 discusses the various kinds of crops commonly ensiled
and plant differences,
such as water
soluble carbohydrate
components,
buffering capacity and protein content.
The author notes the suitability of maize
for ensiling and problems in preserving
alfalfa and other legume crops.
The dominant effect of plant respiration in removing oxygen from the compacted herbage mass is explained in
Chapter 3, followed by a discussion of
lactic acid bacteria classification,
development and fermentation activities
in Chapter 4. It was interesting to read
that although few lactic acid bacteria
exist on growing crops, natural inoculation from farm equipment during
harvest helps to build bacterial numbers
significantly.
Chapters 5 and 6 describe the activities and reasons for occurrence of
clostridia
and other microorganisms
(yeasts, fungi, molds, for example)
which may develop during the ensilage
process. Chapters 7 and 8 examine the
influence of oxygen and water on ensilage, and several practical examples,
such as rapid filling, quick sealing, and
rates of removal,help to clarify.
Chapter 9 concerns silage additives,
classifying
them into fermentation
stimulants, fermentation inhibitors,
aerobic deterioration inhibitors, and nutrients. The author’s list of 276 references for this chapter illustrates the complexity of this topic, but even with the
author’s good effort in summarizing,
complete scrutiny of this chapter will not
satisfy the reader’s curiosity concerning
many of the commercially available
additives.
Field losses during harvest, fermentation, effluent and oxidation losses are
covered in Chapter 10, followed by a
final chapter on silage nutritive value.
According to the author, no attempt to
review long-term feeding trials
or
metabolism studies
was made; the
chapter limits the information to the effect of fermentation to the resulting
components.
W. A. Anderson
Ag Production Division
University of Minnesota
Technical College
Waseca
Plant Growth Regulators. #159, Advances in Chemistry Series, American
Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.
Plant Growth Regulators is a collection of 10 chapters addressing relevant
topics written by well knownscientists
from academic or industrial agrichemical research laboratories. The papers are
grouped into two sections: Chemical Activity and Plant Responses and Economic Potential. The general theme of most
papers is concerned with the evidence
for the possibility of improving plant
yields. Certain crops, such as sugarcane
(L. G. Nickell), cotton (P. W.Morgan),
sugarbeets (E. F. Sullivan), and corn (A.
J. Ohlrogge)are discussed.
In other chapters, the practices of applications of plant growth regulators are
reviewed either in terms of physiological
processes to be controlled (abscission-by R. H. Biggs and S. K. Murphy), or
economical potential of their application
in general (by D. T. Manning) or in
given branch of plant production (in
horticulture--by
A. W. Mitlehner, in
floriculture
and woody ornamentals-by A. E. Einert). One paper (by E.
Jaworski) briefly describes strategies in
plant growth regulation research and another (by A. C. Leopold) presents evidence for the role of inorganic solutes in
modifying the effectiveness of endogenous as well as exogenous plant growth
regulators.
Manygrowth regulators are not yet
released for agricultural use, the procedures required for releasing of plantgrowth regulators are time consuming,
and the problems to be solved are relatively unchanged. The information presented in this 1977 book remains timely.
Thus, this collection of papers will
serve to acquaint the novice with the
various plant growth regulators used in
agricultural practices, and also will be a
valuable source of reference materials
for more advanced readers.
Andrzej Chrominski
Department of Biology
MontanaState University
lozeman
1982
Quantitative Genetics in Maize Breeding--A. R. Hallauer and J. B.
Mirando.. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, Iowa. 1981. Cloth,
$33.95.
This book should be required reading
for every Ph.D. candidate in plant
breeding and on the bookshelf of all
corn breeders. The authors have included in one volume a comprehensive
discussion of quantitative genetic theory
as it applies to plant breeding and a detailed review of the extensive literature
on quantitative genetic studies in corn.
A detailed table of contents and index
enhance the value of the book as a reference. Occasional errata in the equations
detract little from the book’s overall
utility.
Following a brief overview of corn
breeding in Chapter 1, the authors introduce quantitative
genetic theory in
Chapter 2, cover covariances between
relatives in Chapter 3, and in Chapter 4
provide the most extensive coverage of
mating designs for estimation of genetic
variances available.
Chapter 5 summarizes experimental
estimates
of
genetic variances in corn, including
many previously unpublished data from
the extensive Iowa State program.
Chapter 6 details theory for predicting
gain from various selection schemes
while Chapter 7 summarizes experimental results from recurrent selection programs in corn. Chapter 8 combines
presentation of theory and results related to choice of testers. Chapter 9 discusses experimental estimates of inbreeding depression with little presentation of theory except as related to effective population size. Chapter 10 is devoted to estimates of heterosis, theories
of heterosis, and methods of predicting
hybrid, synthetic and composite performance.
After a review of the problems of corn
germplasm sources, preservation, maintenance and utilization, in Chapter 11,
the author’s
concluding
chapter
provides detailed examples of breeding
plans which combine recurrent selection
and line development procedures.
I found this book valuable as a key
reference in a graduate course in Quantitative Aspects in Plant Breeding which
requires a beginning plant breeding
course and two semesters of statistics as
prerequisites. Student reaction, even of
students who were working with species
other than corn, was very favorable.
J. W. Dudley
Agronomy Department
University of Illinois
Urbana
SELECTIONS
Handbook
of Agricultural Productivity.
Volume 1: Plant Productivity-Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr. (Ed.) CRC
Series in Nutrition and Food, Boca
Raton, Florida. 1982.468 p. $77.00.
This volumeis part of the CRCSeries
in Nutrition
and Food intended to
provide the scientist,
researcher and
practitioner the opportunity to evaluate
a problem from the broadest point of
view and analyze the data of living systems for commonality or differences.
Serious students and research scientists
should find in this volume stimulating
ideas for further exploration.
Volume I: Plant Productivity--is
a
compilation of 23 papers which considers the most important factors affecting productivity of plants and offers
data which describes plant responses to
these factors. There are five chapters:
Physical Environment, Soil Environment, Crop Physiology,
Agronomic
Practices, and Stress. Each chapter presents current ideas and quantitative data
on experimental and applied studies of a
specific area given in tabular, graphic
and short, well-edited narrative forms
including substantiative references.
The first chapter Physical Environment, comprising four papers considers
climatic variability,
temperature,
humidity, and water as these factors affect plant productivity. Except for the
paper by Hellmers and Warrington,
which deals with temperature effects and
presents a compilation of plant responses to diverse temperature regimes
that is immediately applicable by the
practitioner, the remaining papers require at least a college level comprehension of the physical and biological sciences to make use of the information
towards a solution of an agricultural
problem. In this respect, the chapter primarily addresses the research scientist.
Kramer’s paper dealing with water and
plant productivity is excellent but would
be enhanced by including a more complete discussion of soil water tensions
and soil properties as related to plant
growth.
Chapter 2: Soil Environment (five
papers) deals with soil aeration, pH,
fertility,
nitrogen, and salinity. The
colossal volumeof information available
in the area of soil environment limited
the authors to select only the most relevant information (data) interpreted
through general relationships described
in graphic and tabular forms and narrated in succinct dialogue. For example,
Carter’s paper on salinity catalogues the
productivity responses of diverse plants
to soil salinity conditions and relates the
data to cultural practices. Thus, this
FROM THE BOOKSHELF
chapter is extremely useful not only to
the practitioner but to the research scientist and serious student in their attempts
to develop new ideas and concepts that
would advance agriculture in arid areas.
Chapter 3: Crop Physiology (seven
papers) deals with the area of biology of
yields, seed storage, plant structure,
rooting patterns, plant population,
transpiration,
and photosynthetic
efficiency as related to plant productivity. An impressive amount of data are
presented. The material covers the essential aspects of each area. Thesections
on seed storage, rooting pattern and
plant population are written with the
practitioner in mind. The remaining areas
would be more useful to the researcher.
The most stimulating chapter of this
volume is entitled Agronomic Practices
(four papers). Here the editor and
authors strive to cover the aspects of tillage, irrigation, crop rotation, and grassland management by welding the basic
knowledgeadvanced in the previous sections into cultural practices. However,
agronomic practices are so diverse because of the different and changing ecosystems that the research scientist must
use and modify the concepts presented
here in context of the scientist’s working
environment. The section on crop rotation is particularly informative to the
practitioner and scientist offering 259
references to complete the documentation. Deregibus’s paper on grassland
managementprovides excellent narrative
and tabular information but more emphasis on savanna culture would have
been welcome because of the vast geographical extent of savanna and its
import to developing nations.
The final chapter entitled Stress (three
papers) deals with environmental stress,
air pollution, and microbial disease. The
chapter has not been fully developed to
treat the subject of plant stress in a comprehensive manner one would expect in
a Handbook. The impact of insect and/
or weedinfestation as part of integrated
pest management is not considered.
Another serious omission is a discussion
of soil and water pollution and its adverse effects on the quality of food and
feed in the human and animal food
chain. The papers are excellent and
should have been placed within other
chapters to enhance the content and
coverage of the topics. Witt’s and Barfield’s paper dealing with environmental
stress and plant productivity is excellent
because the data provides a general picture of low and high temperature stress,
air pollution, evaporative demand and
includes a comprehensivereference list.
Daines’s paper covers air/gas pollutants
and has listed 102 references. The final
79
paper by S. H. Growdy deals with the
microbial diseases which can stress
plants. A discussion of virus diseases
would have enhanced this treatment of
plant stress. In this reviewer’sassessment,
the entire undertaking was too ambitious and has fallen short of its objectives
to provide a Handbook or compendium
of the state of the art pertaining to crop/
plant productivity. The deficiencies lie
not with the editor or contributing authors whosepapers are excellent, but to
the collection and collation of the awesomequantities of information available
in the area of plant productivity most of
which cannot be neatly quantified as for
example, tables of physical constants
and properties of chemical compounds,
etc. found in handbooks of chemistry
and physics. A great deal of agricultural
science deals with the relationships developed from many different environmental and biological factors welding
data from the basic sciences into useful
practices and solutions to agricultural
problems. Because of the magnitude and
complexity of these relationships such
information is not suitable for inclusion
into a handbook. However, this volume
is a brave attempt and does offer a
wealth of information to the creatiye scientist. In this respect, it is a valuable
addition to university libraries
and
shelves of the agriculturist. It is particularly valuable to college teachers of agriculture and biological science where the
relevent data and sound relationships
could enhance the interest and value of
each subject taught. This volumedid, as
stated in the Preface "offer stimulating
ideas for further explorations" and may
I add, contribute towards the solution of
pressing agricultural problems--worldwide.
Eugene Brams
Department of Soil Science
Prairie View A&M
University
(Texas A&M
University System)
Prairie View, Texas
The Fischer-Smith Controversy: Are
There Bacterial Diseases of Plants?Alfred Fischer-Erwin
F. Smith.
Translated and Prepared by C. Lee
Campbell. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 1981.65 p.
This publication is one of 13 "Phytopathological Classics" (collectively referred to as the "Classics Series") published by the American Phytopathological Society. They represent significant
breakthroughs in the development of
Plant Pathology as an art and science.
80
JOURNAL OF AGRONOMICEDUCATION, VOL. 11,
This classic is a collection of controversial papers and invective, bitter letters
written between 1897 and 1901 by the
internationally
known Germanbotanist
Alfred Fischer and the American plant
pathologist Erwin F. Smith on the subject of whether bacteria cause diseases of
plants. After brief biographical sketches
of Fischer and Smith, the author introduces the reader to the state of the art
and science of plant pathology as it existed in Europe and the United States in
the late 1800’s. He points out that the
science was well established in Germany
and was in its infancy in the United
States, that almost all plant diseases
recognized during this period were
caused by fungi, that Fischer had stated
that bacteria do not cause plant diseases,
and that Smith was convinced that they
did.
What follows are reprints of five
publications (two by Fischer and three
by Smith) defending, justifying,
and
documenting their respective conclusions and, in manyinstances, openly attacking each other. This publication
provides information and insight into research in general and plant pathological
research in particular that cannot be obtained from conventional textbooks. It
could be used as a valuable publication
in senior or graduate level agronomy
courses where some of the desired goals
are a deeper appreciation of the developmental aspects of the science of plant
pathology, a study of plant related research concepts, and intellectual stimulation.
Vernon D. Ammon
Department of Plant Pathology
and WeedScience
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State
Principles and Proceduresof Statistics,
2nd Edition. R. G. D. Steel and J. tt.
Torrie.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
1980. 633 p.
Principles and Proceduresof Statistics
has been used by agricultural scientists
as a text and reference for statistical
methods for nearly 20 years. The second
edition of this bookhas been revised, expanded, and updated. The format is the
same as the earlier edition in that the
authors describe statistical methods and
illustrate their use with examplesand exercises at the end of each section. Several
new exercises have been added with data
sets from biological as well as sociological sciences.
Subject
matter
topics
and
organization are similar to the first edition. The first five chapters concentrate
on basic statistical
principles.
The
book’s main emphasis is on analysis of
variance, regression, and related experimental design topics (Chapters
through 19). Uses of Chi-square,
enumeration data methods, and discrete
distributions are covered in Chapter 20
through 23. Chapter 24 is devoted to
nonparametric methods and Chapter 25
considers sampling methodology.
The authors present experimental design principles (Chapter 6) before analysis of variance topics. This is presented
so that experimental design principles
can be discussed along with statistical
methods in later chapters. One of the
real strengths of this book is that the
authors have successfully integrated experimental design considerations with
methods and data analysis.
The second edition includes an expanded discussion
of comparisons
among treatment means (Chapter 8).
The authors have used the same data example to illustrate several different mean
separation procedures. The most appropriate mean separation procedure has
been a source of confusion among researchers. The authors present computation methods but do not stress advantages and disadvantages
of each
method. The concept of orthogonal
comparisons is also introduced in this
chapter. More emphasis should have
been given to planned comparisons
rather than meanseparation tests.
The authors have improved and updated their treatment of regression
topics in that regression computations
are presented in the context of general
linear models using matrix notation.
This is an important addition in an era
when most regression and analysis of
variance
problems are done using
general purpose linear models computer
programs. Some knowledge of matrix
terminology and operations is required
to ade~luately understand program description and printouts. Computerprintouts have beep included with the exmore valuable reference when using current computing methods.
The chapter on nonparametric methods (Chapter 24) has been expanded and
updated. The discussion and examples
are well done. But these important
methods might be more visible if they
were included with related parametric
methods and discussed as alternatives to
be used when certain assumptions are
not met.
This second edition should see wide
use as a text for graduate courses in
statistical methodsand as a reference for
1982
practicing researcb*.rs.
Methods have
been presented in nonmathematical
terms, yet written explanations of procedures afford the reader some apprciation for how and why equations are
applicable.
In summary, the second edition has
maintained the qualities that have made
the first edition so popular for 20 years.
The revisions and additions should make
the second edition an even better text
and reference for statistical methods in
the computer age.
Dr. John M. Martin
Department of Plant and Soil Science
MontanaState University
Bozeman
Principles and Practices of Rice Production--Surajit
K. De Datta. WileyInterscience, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
NewYork. 1981. 618 p.
Rice is a major food for about 40070 of
the world’s population. In area planted
(about 140 million ha), it is second
wheat. Grown in 111 countries (second
to maize), rice is of greatest importance
in Asia, especially South and East Asia,
where 90°70 of the total rice area is
planted. In the United States rice must
be ranked as a minor cereal with substantial
production
in only five
states--Arkansas,
California,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. Yet,
the United States, which produces less
than 2°70 of the world’s rice, is a major
factor in the rice export market.
Principles and Practices of Rice Production is a modemtext on an important,
unique crop. Surajit K. De Datta, the
author, is Head, Department of Agronomy, the International Rice Research Institute (Los Banos, Philippines), which
has been at the center of the great
changes that have taken place in rice
production and technology during the
last 20 years. Dr. De Datta has drawn on
his 18 years of rice research at IRRI,
IRRI’s vast informational resources,
and professional working relationships
with other leading rice scientists to
produce a comprehensive, up-to-date
text on rice production and technology.
The first 13 chapters of the book describe and document the importance of
rice in world agriculture, the environments in which rice grows with special
emphasis on the types of "landscape"
and soil, the chemistry of submerged
rice soils, growth and developmental
stages of the plant, varietal development, systems of rice culture, management of land, water and soil fertility,
major pests and control measures, harvesting and post-harvest technology. In
SELECTIONS
the 14th and final chapter, the author
deals--somewhat
unevenly--with
"modern rice technology in relation to
the world’s food supply...biological
and socioeconomic barriers
to high
yields...(and)
a number of problems
that remain unresolved."
The book is intended for a worldwide
usage. United States rice production
technology is properly accorded attention proportional to its importance in
the world, ca. 2%. Nevertheless, the
book will be invaluable as a reference in
courses on crop production,
cereal
crops, world crops, and rice production.
And, it should be on every agronomist’s
bookshelf.
Mention was made above of the
uniqueness of rice. One aspect of its
uniqueness is evident in De Datta’s
classification
of the systems of rice
culture: upland or dryland, rainfed lowland, irrigated lowland, deep water, and
floating.
James C. Delouche
Agronomy Department
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State
Introduction to the History of Plant
Pathology--G. C. Ainsworth. Cambridge University Press, NewYork.
1981. 315 p. $59.50.
This work is more than just a history
of the developmentof the plant pathology discipline; it provides perspective on
the modern discipline that is so often
lacking in the sometimes dry, factual
treatment of textbooks on introductory
plant pathology. Manypractices and the
principles underlying them are better
understood when viewed, as this book
permits, in light of their historical development.
Dr. Ainsworth has produced the
most complete treatment of the history
of plant pathology ever assembled.
Chapters cover historical
problems,
early thinking on etiology of plant disease, separate treatments of fungi, bacteria, viruses and (briefly) nonparasitic
agents, chemical control, physical control, control through quarantine, an excellent presentation on the history of
modern epidemiology, organizations for
plant pathology, and recent trends and
future prospects. The book is truly international in scope, although the author
draws somewhat heavily
from the
United Kingdomin illustrating
by examples. Interpretation
of events is
generally objective and noncritical.
Structured presentation of history is
the primary objective of this work, but I
was constantly impressed by the amount
FROM THE BOOKSHELF
of useful current information that it
contains on the discipline
of plant
pathology. No specialized background is
required on the part of the reader, although a background in plant pathology
will allow portions of the book to be
understood with greater appreciation.
As a scholarly workof the highest order,
the book compiles information and,
more importantly, summarizes the information and derives newinsights from
it.
Partly because the book is expensive,
it is probablynot suitable as a text in any
but the more specialized or advanced
plant pathology courses. As an exceptionally useful reference, however,it will
find a place in all general courses in
plant pathology, plant protection, integrated pest management,and the like. It
is also a reference that all professional
plant pathologists (and manyother scientists)
will want to have in their
libraries.
By its very nature, plant pathology
has not developedas a unified field. This
book reflects this fact, and yet shows
that there is an underlying unity and a
fascinating
history in which plant
pathologists can take pride.
James V. Groth
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Minnesota
St. Paul
Crop Prodution: Principles and Practices-Fourth edition. Darrel S. Metcalfe and Donald M. Elkins. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., NewYork.
1980. 774 p.
Crop Production:
Principles
and
Practices is an agricultural text coveringa
broad array of agronomic topics: botany
of plants, environmental growth factors,
and production practices, with an in
depth look at both the commonfield
crops and forage crops. In addition the
authors have included chapters on production history for both the U.S. and
the world, giving a student a good
understanding of how government programs and certain environmental factors
have affected our food supply in the
past. Not quitting there the text ends
with two chapters on the future of agriculture research and the unending need
for crop improvement. The authors
summarize the latest in crop production
research, where we are at, where we are
going and where some of our shortcomings have been. A student can
become familiar with Soil Science,
Agronomy, Botany,
Entomology,
Genetics, Chemistry, and Bacteriology
and how they interact in the research
81
process. The later is a definite plus for
this text and an area not commonly
covered by other similar texts.
Most of the chapters from the third
edition have been retained, but materials
have been reorganized and updated.
Production practices are explained well
for each of the cereals, several oil and
fiber crops, sugar crops, and a variety of
drug and miscellaneous crops. Equal
coverage is given to manyindividual forage crops, both grass and legume, warm
or cool season, perennial and annual, introduced and native.
The crops and chapters are organized
as to agronomic classification which is
consistant with the way most production
courses are taught. The text would serve
well for teaching an undergraduate level,
broad multidisciplinary
approach to
agronomy or lends itself to individual
chapter selection where a course emphasizes either field crops or forage
crops, per se, or an introductory course
to crop science.
Modern equipment and production
techniques are illustrated by numerous
pictures and line charts. An extensive
glossary of crop terms is included in the
back.
The book has minor editorial errors
but the technical information is not affected. Student study or review questions have not been included with each
chapter.
The book is a well-written updating,
and undoubtedly
accomplishes
the
author’s objectives of compiling current
information,
data, and recommendations on producing agricultural crops.
Lee Hart
Plant and Soil Science Department
Montana State University
Bozeman
Agricultural Plants--R. H. M. Langer
and G. D. Hill, Cambridge University Press, NewYork. 1982.
This book has been written to serve as
an introduction to agricultural plants,
their structure, botanical characteristics,
their place in agriculture, cultivation and
uses. The authors begin by reviewing the
need for crop production in the face of
an evergrowing human population, and
then give a brief introduction to plant
anatomy and morphology. The next 13
chapters are devoted to a description of
those plant families which contain major
crops of importance throughout the
world, with the exception of tree crops.
Major emphasis is placed on the grass
and legume families. The last chapter
concludes with a discussion of the physiological principles
underlying crop
yields.
82
JOURNALOF AGRONOMIC
EDUCATION,VOL. 11, 1982
It is written as an undergraduate
text,
suitable for the teachingof agricultural
botany,and is intendedto bridge the gap
between botany and agronomy.Readers
mayvalue it as a referencerather than a
text, unless they are enrolledin a course
specifically designed to describe plant
families. It wouldbe appropriate as a
reference for beginning courses in
botany and agronomy.
Illustrations are extensive and effectively used throughout the book.
Drawingsand charts are presented in a
manner similar to many laboratory
manuals. The layout and style of each
chapter providesrelatively easy reading.
Each of the chapters presenting a
specific plant familystarts with a basic
introductionand listing of each family.
The subfamilies are presented with the
origin, early history, physiology
of yield,
breedingand uses,
The authors have designed each
chapterbasically in an outlinestyle, thus
providing for ease in understanding
content. Eachchapter endswith a list of
further reading.
The final chapter covers various
determinates
of yield. It is extremelywell
illustrated and presents positive scientific approaches
to plant yields.
This bookwill be valuable to the student desiring to gain insight to specific
agricultural plant families. It provides
the reader an opportunity to gain information whichcan contribute to increased food production for a world in
needof additional foodsupplies.
ByronE. Harrison
University of Minnesota
TechnicalCollege
Waseca
FarmInvestmentandFinancial Analysis
--John B. Penson, Jr., Danny A.
Klinefelter, andDavidLins. PrenticeHall, Inc., EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.
i082. Cloth,$24.95f.
This book is for farmers, ranchers,
lenders, and agribusiness firms whoare
considering investment and financing
decisions,accordingto the authors. It is
also an excellent book for Vo-Agand
Technical 2-Year Agricultural College
students seriously considering agriculture as their vocationalchoice.
The authors assumethe readers havea
limited knowledgeof howto develop
and analyze financial statements and
limited experiencein investmentanalysis. Theyavoid complexformulas using
unique worksheets to incorporate the
steps necessaryto reach a conclusion.
Part I focuses on the preparation and
use of the traditional balancesheet, income statement and cash flow statement. It is exceptional. However,since
practical use is the purpose of the
authors, the traditional cash flow sheet
is weak. A uniqueformat of a projected
cash flow sheet and actual cash flow
leading into a projected and actual balance sheet similar to the CashFlowProjection--Cash Flow Statement--Net
Worth Statement concept of Lawrence
M. Christenson
and Richard O.
Hawkinswouldbe a practical departure
from this. It wouldimprovethe use of
the book as a financial planning and
decision makingdevice for production
agriculturists.
Part II focuses on the evaluation of
the current investmentopportunities and
risk strategies whichcould reduce the
exposureto risk. Thefocus is on the decision to expandthe size of an existing
enterprise, add a new enterprise or
replaceyourassets.
Through practical
up-to-date
worksheets the authors have madethis
the best part of the book by applying
financial analysis and risk strategy to
agricultural production. There are six
chapters dealing with analysis information, reducing risk, enterprise mix,
replacing assets and ranking investments. Each chapter has a "Quick and
Dirty Approach," the "More Precise
Approach," and a "Summary,"
Sinceeachenterprise individuallycontributes to the total financial picture,
practical managerswouldappreciate a
worksheet developed for determining
the relative profitability of each enterprise. The Profit to Sales (Expenses)
conceptused by industry is the best way
to comparethe profitability of different
enterprises. This is a practical departure
fromthe traditional.
Part Ill focuses on financing newinvestments. There are three chapters:
"Where to Obtain Farm Loans?",
"Borrowing to Finance Farm Investments", and ’"Is Lease Financing in
Your Future?" The coverage of each
subject is up-to-dateandtimely.
AppendixA and B are Present Value
tables up to 60 years and 25%interest.
AppendixC contains blank copies of the
tables used throughout the book. The
Glossary is reasonably complete, but
could contain the more commonlyused
synonymsfor each term. A two page index is reasonablycomplete.
Maria McKinnonand Janet Schmid
have given FarmInvestment and Financial Analysis an excellent first impression with their comfortable, practical
and appealing design. This is a book
managers should consider for their
library and 2-year educatorsas a text in
financial management.
BoydFuller
University of Minnesota
TechnicalCollege
Waseca
Introductionto IntegratedPest Management--M.L. Flint and R. van den
Bosch. Plenum Press, NewYork.
1981.2/~0
p. Illus.
Introduction to Integrated Pest Managementincludes 10 chapters covering
the development of 1PM,ecosystems,
the pest concept,the history of pest control, the cost of pest control (economic,
social, and environmental),
IPM
philosophy, practical procedures of
IPM,case histories, the IPMspecialist,
and the future of IPM.
In the Preface, M, L. Flint states,
"This book was developed to fill the
need for a textbookthat presents a comprehensivereviewof the basic principles
and methods of IPM..." The key word
here is "comprehensive", and, unfortunately, the text isn’t. Theauthors
concentrate too muchon the control of
insects and mites; and, for the most
part, ignore weeds, diseases, and nematodes. For example, in Chapter 8, Case
Histories in Integrated Pest Management, z19 pests are mentioned,of which
44 are insects or mites. Also in the
Preface, Flint states, "This book has
beenwritten by twoentomologistsand it
maybe critized for its entomologicalemphasis whilecarrying a general title implying all classes of pests." She is as
precise in that statementas she is in the
rest of the text.
This book can also be critized for
overemphasizingCalifornia agriculture
and for underemphasizingcrop rotation
as a pest managementtool. For example, it essentially ignores the
corn/soybeanrotation, whichis probably the most important rotation in the
United States in terms of acreage and
economicimpact.
De.spite these criticisms, the text
promisesto be an effective teachingtool
for the followingreasons:
I. It is well organized and easy to
read.
2. It makesliberal use of excellent
diagramsand flow charts.
3. It emphasizesecological concepts
and the rationale behind IPM.
4. The principles and methods of
IPMare well outlined.
Chapter 7, Practical Procedures: IPM
Monitoring, Decision Making, and the
Tools and Techniquesof the Integrated
Pest Manager,is especially informative
with clear explanationsof samplingtechniquesand control options.
All things considered,this text would
be appropriate for an undergraduate
courseif the instructorrealized its biases
andlimitations.
BruceL. Vasilas
Department of Agronomy
Universityof Illinois
Urbana