International Journal of Play Therapy, 10(2), pp. 1-12
Copyright 2001, APT, Inc.
ADLERIAN
PLAY THERAPY
Terry Kottman, PhD, RPT-S, NCC, LMHC
The Encouragement Zone
Abstract: The author describes Adlerian play therapy, with an emphasis on the
basic tenets of the approach, the view of the child and his or her capacity to
change, the role of the therapist, the goals of therapy, and the unique
characteristics of the approach. Adlerian parent consultation is also described.
Because most children under the age of 10 do not have the
abstract reasoning and language skills to verbally process their thoughts,
feelings, reactions, and attitudes (Bettelheim, 1987; Piaget, 1962), many
professionals who work therapeutically with children use toys, art, and
play as a vehicle for communicating with young children. In play
therapy, the play can be a means for (a) establishing rapport with
children; (b) helping adults understand children and their interactions
and relationships; (c) helping children reveal feelings, thoughts,
reactions, and attitudes that they have not been able to verbalize; (d)
constructively acting out feelings of anxiety, tension, or hostility; (e)
teaching children social skills; (f) providing a way for children to explore
their desires and goals; (g) creating a relationship in which children can
test limits, explore their perceptions of themselves, others, and the
world; and (h) providing an atmosphere in which children can gain
insight about their own behavior and motivation, explore alternatives,
and learn about consequences (Kottman, 1995, 1999b, 2001; Landreth,
1991; Thompson & Rudolph, 2000). Play therapy allows children to
communicate through their natural ways of expressing themselves—
Terry Kottman, Ph.D., NCC, LMHC, RPT-S, is the director of The Encouragement Zone, a
training center for play therapists, school counselors, and other professionals who work
with children, adolescents, and their families. At The Encouragement Zone, she also does
personal and professional coaching and "playshops" for women who want to lead more
fun, balanced, and fulfilling lives.
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Kottman
playing, telling stories, making puppet shows, constructing creatures out
of clay, drawing pictures, painting, singing, and so forth—without
requiring that they be able to conduct adult conversations or articulate
their feelings, thoughts, and concerns using sophisticated language
skills.
In Adlerian play therapy (Kottman, 1994, 1995, 1999a, 1999b,
1999c, 2001, 2002; Kottman & Ashby, 1999; Kottman & Stiles, 1990), play
therapists use the concepts of Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology to
conceptualize children and their parents while using toys, art, and play
material to communicate with child clients. Adlerian play therapists
believe that the therapeutic powers of play will facilitate the process of
working with children by creating a bond between the therapist and the
client based on shared fun. The play will also allow play therapists to
communicate (mostly through metaphor, but sometimes through direct
verbal interaction) in a way that will facilitate the exploration of the
child's (a) beliefs about self, others, and the world; (b) methods for
attaining a sense of belonging in the family; and (c) the behaviors that
stem from the child "acting as if" his or her beliefs about
himself/herself, others, and the world are true. Play, art, and
storytelling are excellent vehicles for sharing therapists' understanding
of these factors with the child in order to help the child gain insight into
his or her thoughts, feelings, attitudes, perceptions, relationships,
behaviors, and ways of gaining significance. Adlerian play therapists
also use various playful interventions to help the child learn to makes
changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
BASIC TENETS OF ADLERIAN PLAY THERAPY
The Adlerian play therapist bases his or her work on the belief
that all people are socially embedded, goal-directed, creative beings
(Adler, 1956; Dinkmeyer, Dinkmeyer, & Sperry, 1987; Kottman, 1995,
1999b). Socially embedded means that people have a need to belong—in
their families, in their classrooms, in their neighborhoods, in other
collections of people. One of the primary functions of the therapist is to
investigate how the child fits into these relationships. The play therapist
must work to understand how the child makes connections with others,
by watching the child play out scenarios about people or animals
Adlerian Play Therapy
3
building relationships with others, by watching how the child builds
relationships in the play room, and by talking to the parents and
teachers about the ways the child interacts with others outside the play
room.
One of the basic tenets of Individual Psychology related to social
embeddedness is the concept of "social interest" (Adler, 1937,1956,1958;
Ansbacher, 1991), the sense of being connected to other people. All
human beings are born with an innate ability and desire to connect with
others, but they must learn how to make those connections in positive
rather than negative ways. In many instances, a child referred to play
therapy has a lower level of social interest as compared to that of other
children. The play therapist must assess each child's level of social
interest and try to work with the child to increase his or her social
interest by modeling the desire to connect with others and the skills
necessary to build and maintain relationships and fostering this ability
in the child. Initially this process occurs in the therapeutic relationship
in the play room. Over time, the play therapist works with the child to
broaden the sense of positive connection by teaching and encouraging
the application of social skills in other relationships—in the family and in
other settings such as school and the neighborhood. The play therapist
also uses the parent consultation sessions to teach parents how to make
positive connections with the child and how to encourage social interest
in the family.
Another important tenet in Adlerian play therapy is that all
behavior has a purpose. Dreikurs and Soltz (1964) posited four basic
goals for children's misbehavior: attention, power, revenge, and proving
inadequacy. The play therapist learns to recognize the child's goal or
goals by (a) observing the child's behavior in the play room and listening
to parents and teachers describe behaviors that are upsetting to them; (b)
using questions, observation, and self-examination to explore the
emotional reactions of adults (including the therapist) when confronted
with the child's inappropriate behavior; and (c) asking questions about
and observing the child's reaction to correction or discipline. Once the
Adlerian play therapist uncovers the goal of the child's misbehavior, he
or she can use play, art, and storytelling to help the child learn to strive
for more positive, constructive goals, such as those described by Lew
and Bettner (1996, 1998)~the "Crucial Cs" of feeling connected, feeling
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Kottman
capable, believing that they count, and demonstrating courage. The
therapist can use many play strategies to help the child move toward
enhancing the Crucial Cs (Kottman, 1999c).
Another central concept in Adlerian theory is lifestyle-the
person's unique, creative approach to life and belonging (Adler, 1956,
1958; Kottman, 1995, 1999b, 2001). The child usually evolves his or her
lifestyle before the age of 8. By observing others and their reactions to
other people and to various situations in life, the child develops
conclusions about self, others, and the world. The child's behavior
organically grows from his or her perceptions and the conclusions based
on these perceptions because the child "acts as if" these perceptions and
conclusions are true and real. Some of these perceptions and the
conclusions about how life and relationships work are inevitably faulty.
While children possess keen observation skills, they lack the
sophistication and experience to be able to accurately evaluate and
interpret situations and relationships. In Adlerian play therapy, the
therapist uses play techniques to gather information about the child's
lifestyle. With perceptions and conclusions that are self-defeating
("faulty" or "mistaken"), the therapist helps the child examine the ways
in which these convictions are undermining the child's ability to
maintain attitudes and behavior that will sustain a positive self-image,
successful interaction patterns, and socially-appropriate behavior. The
play therapist tries help the child reevaluate these mistaken beliefs; draw
more constructive conclusions about self, others, and the world; and
formulate revised methods for resolving difficulties and building
relationships.
VIEW OF THE CHILD AND HIS OR HER CAPACITY TO CHANGE
Adlerian play therapists have a positive and pro-active view of
the child and his or her capacity for change (Kottman, 1995). Since
Adlerians believe that a person's lifestyle is not really formed until the
age of 8, play therapy is the perfect vehicle to bring about change and
growth. In Adlerian play therapy, the therapist works to optimize the
relationship, which can provide much positive and corrective feedback
to the child about him or herself, others, and the world. One of the
primary tools for accomplishing this task is encouragement, an Adlerian
Adlerian Play Therapy
5
technique in which the therapist acknowledges the assets and the efforts
and progress of the child, returns responsibility to the child to build his
or her sense of competence, and demonstrates the courage to be
imperfect to reinforces the child's willingness to take risks and try new
behaviors.
There are four phases in Adlerian play therapy: (a) building an
egalitarian relationship with the child, (b) exploring the child's lifestyle,
(c) helping the child gain insight into his or her lifestyle, and (d)
providing reorientation and reeducation for the child when necessary
(Kottman, 1994, 1995, 2001). Parent consultation follows the same
phases, with the emphasis on the parent and his or her lifestyle and the
interaction between the lifestyles of the parents and the child. The
specific expectations for the evolution of the child and his or her parents
will be different, depending on the phase of the play therapy/ parent
consultation process.
During the first phase, the play therapist builds an egalitarian
partnership with the child. In this phase, the child may change very
little, except in his or her willingness to make a connection to an adult.
The therapist also works to build a relationship with the child's parents,
with little expectation for them to begin change their parenting
strategies, though sometimes simply having another adult listen to them
talk about their child brings about changes in the parent/child
relationship.
In the second phase, the therapist explores the child's lifestylegathering information from the child and the parents. The therapist also
works to understand the parents' lifestyles in relationship to their
parenting practices. During this phase, the therapist has the expectation
that the child will answer questions and play out the various aspects of
his or her lifestyle and that the parents will answer questions about the
child, the parents' family-of-origin, the marital relationship, family
values, parenting methods, and so forth. There is little pressure from the
play therapist for change on the part of the child or the parents, although
sometimes they gain insight simply from the exploration process, which
may lead to change.
In the third phase, there is a major shift in the Adlerian play
therapist's expectations for change—both with the child and with the
parents. The play therapist will attempt to help the child gain a better
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Kottman
understanding of his or her lifestyle and make some decisions about
whether or not to begin making changes in parts of it. Simultaneously,
the play therapist works with the parents on gaining a better
understanding of their child and of their own lifestyle issues that might
be interfering with their ability to be the best parents they can be. The
Adlerian play therapist expects that the child and his or her parents will
gain insight into their own lifestyles and begin making major shifts in
their attitudes toward themselves, one another, other people, and the
world in preparation for the fourth phase, reorientation/ reeducation.
During the fourth phase, the therapist's has the highest
expectations for change. The child and his or her parents are learning
new skills and attitudes, putting these attitudes into place in their
relationships with other and their outlooks on the world, and practicing
these new skills with the play therapist so that they can use them in
interactions and experiences outside the play room. The play therapist
uses teaching techniques (such as brainstorming, modeling, sharing
metaphors, role-playing, and playing games) and encouraging skills
focused on the improvement and effort of the child and the parents.
ROLE OF THE THERAPIST
The role of the Adlerian play therapist changes depending on
the phase of counseling (Kottman, 1995, 1999b, 2001). As the play
therapist builds the relationship during the first phase of the process, the
role of the therapist is that of partner and encourager. In this phase, the
therapist is almost always relatively nondirective, making sure that the
child leads the action the majority of the time. It is important to share
power in sessions with the child so that he or she begins to trust the play
therapist, creating a sense of teamwork and cooperation in the play
room. The therapist uses tracking, restatement of content, reflection of
feelings, returning responsibility to the child, encouragement, limiting,
answering questions, asking questions, and cleaning the room together
to build a egalitarian and collaborative relationship.
Using drawing techniques, questioning strategies, investigating
goals of behavior, Crucial Cs, family constellation, and family
atmosphere, observing play patterns, and soliciting early recollections in
the second phase, the therapist is an active, directive explorer. He or
Adlerian Play Therapy
7
she must get information about the child's attitudes, perceptions,
thinking processes, feelings, and so forth. Since the intervention
strategies in the two later phases spring from the therapist's
conceptualization of the lifestyles of the child and the parents, being
actively involved in gathering the essential information is critical during
this phase.
In the third phase, the Adlerian play therapist is relatively
directive, using metacommunication, metaphors, "spitting in the soup"
(a technique in which the therapist points out situations in which the
child is acting as if self-defeating beliefs about self, others, and the world
are true), and drawing techniques to convey essential information about
lifestyles, mistaken beliefs, goals of misbehavior, Crucial Cs, assets, and
so forth to the child and to the parents. The role of the therapist during
this phase is rather dichotomous. Sometimes, the play therapist is
nondirective and empathically supportive, especially when trying to
gently move the child (or the parents) to a new understanding of
situations and relationships. Other times, the therapist will be extremely
directive and confrontive—challenging long-held self-defeating beliefs
about self, others, and the world and pointing out discrepancies between
what is said and what is done, between the verbal and nonverbal
communication, and so forth.
In the fourth phase (reorientation/reeducation), the Adlerian
play therapist is an active, occasionally intrusive teacher and encourager.
The therapist uses an assortment of teaching techniques grounded in
play to help the child adopt more positive attitudes and perceptions and
learn and practice new skills. The "curriculum" during this phase
involves the provision of training and experience in assertiveness skills,
negotiation skills, social skills, and other methods of positively
interacting with others and coping with difficult situations and
relationships. The therapist may also teach parents parenting skills
(such as setting consequences, providing encouragement, recognizing
goals of misbehavior) or work with parents on any issues that might be
getting in the way of their application of parenting skills.
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GOALS OF THERAPY
The goals of Adlerian play therapy are inseparable from the
phases of the process. The initial goal (which corresponds to the first
phase) is for the therapist to develop relationships with the child and his
or her parents (if possible) in which the two parties can share power and
work together as a team (Kottman, 1995, 1997, 1999b, 2001). Tracking
the second phase of play therapy, the second goal is for the play
therapist to acquire enough information about the child's lifestyle (and
the parents' lifestyles) to be able to formulate a comprehensive set of
hypotheses about views on self, others, and the world and the
connection between these beliefs and the child's behavior. The primary
goal in the third phase of Adlerian play therapy is for the therapist to
help the child begin to understand his or her lifestyle and mistaken
beliefs. Conjointly, the therapist works to help the parents gain a
different perspective on their child's behavior and motivations and learn
more about the possibility that their own lifestyle convictions might be
interfering in their interactions with their child. As a segue to the fourth
phase of play therapy, the therapist guides the child and/or his or her
parents to make decisions about whether to actuate emotional,
attitudinal, and behavioral changes. In the fourth phase, the goal of the
Adlerian play therapy process is teach the child skills necessary to effect
these changes outside the play room. The therapist attempts to shift the
child from destructive goals and misbehavior toward constructive goals;
enhance attainment of the Crucial Cs; increase the child's social interest;
adjust self-defeating perceptions in his or her beliefs about self, others,
and the world; reduce discouragement; and help the child to understand
and "own" his or her personal assets (Kottman, 1995, 2001). With
parents, the primary goals are to teach Adlerian parenting strategies,
using resources such as Systematic Training for Effective Parenting
(STEP) (Dinkmeyer & McKay, 1989), Raising Kids Who Can (Bettner &
Lew, 1996), A Parent's Guide for Understanding and Motivating
Children (Lew & Bettner, 1998), and Positive Discipline (Nelson, 1996),
and to help parents make enough shifts in the behavior connected to
their own issues that they can apply the parenting methods they are
learning.
Adlerian Play Therapy
9
UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ADLERIAN APPROACH
Adlerians do several things that are different from other approaches
to play therapy, including (a) the phases of the play therapy process, (b) limitsetting, (c) picking up toys and other play materials, (d) the focus on
encouragement, (e) the type of information gathered, (f) the technique
"spitting in the soup," (f) the use of metacommunication as an interpretation
tool, and (g) the emphasis on collaboration with the parents.
The four phases of therapy are unique: Although other approaches to
play therapy may have steps in the process, the phases of Adlerian play
therapy range from being highly directive to being nondirective at times. The
sequence of the phases incorporates the deliberate emphasis on three
elements of the therapeutic process: (a) the relationship between the client and
the therapist; (b) insight into intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics and
the working of the family system; and (c) cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
change. The emphasis on all three of these elements is a distinctive feature of
Adlerian play therapy. In most approaches to play therapy, the primary focus
is on one or two of these elements, but not on all three.
Adlerian play therapists set limits in a unique manner. Limit-setting
is a four-step process in which, rather than redirecting the child's misbehavior,
the therapist sets the limit, makes a guess about the child's feeling and/or the
purpose of the misbehavior, engages the child in redirecting his or her own
behavior, and negotiates logical consequences for continued violation of the
limit (Kottman, 1995, 2001). The hypotheses about the goals of behavior, the
emphasis on self-redirection, and the collaborative negotiation of logical
consequences are peculiar to Adlerian play therapy.
The Adlerian process of forming a team with the child to pick up
materials in the play room seems to be unique in the play therapy literature.
Although other play therapists ask children to pick up toys and materials, the
Adlerian approach is very structured and specific, with the child in charge of
who picks up what and how the picking-up time proceeds. This method of
clean-up was designed to promote cooperation and an egalitarian relationship
by engaging the child in a cooperative partnership with the therapist
(Kottman, 1995,2001).
The focus on techniques designed to encourage the child and her or
her parents also seems to be a distinctive feature of Adlerian play therapy
(Kottman, 1995, 2001). The Adlerian play therapist emphasizes the assets,
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Kottman
efforts, and improvements of the child and the parents to enhance their sense
of self-efficacy and reduce any discouragement they might be feeling.
The type of information gathered during the second phase is unique
to Adlerian play therapy (Kottman, 2001). The therapist wants information
about family constellation (birth order), family atmosphere, goals of
misbehavior, assets, Crucial Cs, early memories, and personality priorities
(Kottman, 1999c, 2001; Kottman & Ashby, 1999). The Adlerian play therapist
uses this special combination of data to devise a comprehensive
conceptualization of the child's lifestyle, and in many cases, the parents'
lifestyles as well.
Spitting in the soup and metacommunication are both uniquely
Adlerian techniques. Spitting in the soup is a strategy in which the therapist
points out situations in which the child (or parent) is interfering with his or
her own functioning-usually because of mistaken beliefs or striving toward
goals of misbehavior. In Adlerian play therapy, the therapist uses
metacommunication to make guesses about elements of the child's lifestyle
based on his or her observation of the child's nonverbal reactions, responses
to therapist comments, patterns and themes across sessions, and patterns and
themes related to the child's lifestyle. In parent consultation, the therapist
makes guesses about patterns in relationships, behaviors, feelings, and
thought processes. The purpose of this technique is to help the child and the
parents gain awareness and understanding of their motivations, goals, and
beliefs.
The strong interconnectedness of the play therapy process and the
parent consultation and the structure of the consultation with parents is also a
distinctively Adlerian phenomenon. Although there are other play therapy
approaches that work with parents, the emphasis in those relationships is
usually solely on the child and his or her behavior. In Adlerian parent
consultation, the therapist combines consultation with teaching and
counseling techniques so that parents are able to better understand their own
roles in the maintenance of the child's self-defeating behaviors and attitudes.
As part of this process, parents also develop the knowledge and skills to make
concrete changes in parenting strategies and any other aspects of the
relationships within the family in order to support positive shifts in the child.
Adlerian Play Therapy
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