Ministry of Health of Ukraineї
Ukrainian Dental Medical Acadamy
Department of social science
Metod learning
Culture
By Lidiya Kustareva
Poltava 2011
1
THEMATIC PLAN OF SEMINAR
1
The culture of Paleolithic era.
2
The treepilliance culture(4-3 thousand BC)
3
The antique culture. The largest state of Greek ones on
Ukraine.
4
Ancient Slavonic culture.
5
Culture of Kiev Rus.
6
The culture of Halytsian -Volynian Principality.
7
The culture of Ukraine in XIV-XVII centuries.
8
The culture of Ukraine in XVII-XVIII centuries.
9
The culture of Ukraine in XVIII and XX centuries.
10
The culture of Ukraine in XX and at the beginning of XX
11
The culture of Ukraine in general.
12
Final Module Control.
2
The culture of Paleolithic era.
Plan:
1.Essence and structure of culture.
2.Culture of primeval society.
3.Social organization and technology
4. Culture and art
The term ―culture‖ originated from Lat. Cultura
— till, education, development. Definite clearness in
the definition of the notion ―culture‖ was done at the
World conference on cultural policy which was held
under UNESCO aegis in 1982. According to its
declaration: ―Culture is a complex of special material,
spiritual, intellectual and emotional lineaments of
society, that includes not only different arts, and mode
of life, fundamental of human being, valuables
systems, traditions and beliefs‖. Speaking about the
structure of phenomenon of culture it should be
mentioned that there are two kinds of it: material and
spiritual. But it is necessary to keep in mind, that this
is a conditional division.
Material culture is the aggregate of productive
means and material commonwealth, that are created
by human labour on each stage of the development of
the society.
The term ―non-material culture‖ is associated with the
word ―spirit‖ which means non-material beginning.
Spiritual culture includes religious, intellectual, moral,
legal, artistic, pedagogic cultures.
3
Culture is divided into world and national one.
World culture is the aggregate of world cultures, that
determines by the system of human values, which
combine and develop the best lines of national
cultures. World culture is a complex of society
spiritual development, general accomplishments of
peoples of all continents, races, nations. The definition
of the term ―national culture‖ should be started from
the definition of the notions ―nation‖, ―ethnos‖.
National culture is aggregate of ecological, political,
domestic, ritual, moral factors. According to the type
of the creator, culture can be divided into elite, folk
and mass culture.
Elite (high) culture is created by society elite.
Popular culture is created by anonymous creators, it is
named frequently as folklPublic culture is a popular
culture, which is associated with public consumption,
for satisfaction of people‘s needs. Culture civilization
is not identical to notion ―civilization‖. The character
of
civilization
is
determined
by
productive
relationships. Civilization is considered to be the stage
of social development, which comes after barbarism
and is characterized by creation of states, towns,
introduction of written language, art development.
4
The social organization of the earliest Paleolithic
(Lower Paleolithic) societies remains largely unknown
to scientists, though Lower Paleolithic hominids such
as Homo habilis and Homo erectus are likely to have
had more complex social structures than chimpanzee
societies. Late Oldowan/Early Acheulean humans
such as Homo ergaster/Homo erectus may have been
the first people to invent central campsites, or home
bases and incorporate them into their foraging and
hunting strategies like contemporary hunter-gatherers,
possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago; however,
the earliest solid evidence for the existence of home
bases/central campsites (hearths and shelters) among
humans only dates back to 500,000 years ago.
Similarly,
scientists
disagree
whether
Lower
Paleolithic humans were largely monogamous or
polygamous. In particular, the Provisional model
suggests that bipedalism arose in Pre Paleolithic
5
australopithecine societies as an adaptation to
monogamous lifestyles; however, other researchers
note that sexual dimorphism is more pronounced in
Lower Paleolithic Humans such as Homo erectus than
in Modern humans, who are less polygamous than
other primates, which suggests that Lower Paleolithic
humans had a largely polygamous lifestyle, because
species that have the most pronounced sexual
dimorphism tend more likely to be polygamous.
Human societies from the Paleolithic to the early
Neolithic farming tribes lived without states and
organized governments. For most of the Lower
Paleolithic, human societies were possibly more
hierarchical than their Middle and Upper Paleolithic
descendants, and probably were not grouped into
bands, though during the end of the Lower Paleolithic,
the latest populations of the hominid Homo erectus
may have began living in small scale (possibly
6
egalitarian) bands similar to both Middle and Upper
Paleolithic societies and modern hunter-gatherers.
Middle Paleolithic societies, unlike Lower Paleolithic
and early Neolithic ones, consisted of bands that
ranged from 20 to 30 or 25 to 100 members and were
usually nomadic. These bands were formed by several
families. Bands sometimes joined together into larger
―macrobands‖ for activities such as acquiring mates
and celebrations or where resources were abundant.
By the end of the Paleolithic era about 10,000 BP
people began to settle down into permanent locations,
and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in
many locations. Much evidence exists that humans
took part in long-distance trade between bands for rare
commodities (such as ochre, which was often used for
religious purposes such as ritual) and raw materials, as
early as 120,000 years ago in Middle Paleolithic.
Inter-band trade may have appeared during the Middle
7
Paleolithic because trade between bands would have
helped ensure their survival by allowing them to
exchange resources and commodities such as raw
materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e. famine,
drought). Like in modern hunter-gatherer societies,
individuals in Paleolithic societies may have been
subordinate to the band as a whole. Both Neanderthals
and modern humans took care of the elderly members
of their societies during the Middle and Upper
Paleolithic.
Anthropologists have typically assumed that in
Paleolithic societies, women were responsible for
gathering wild plants and firewood, and men were
responsible for hunting and scavenging dead animals.
However,
analogies
to
existent
hunter-gatherer
societies such as the Hadza people and the Australian
aborigines suggest that the sexual division of labor in
the Paleolithic was relatively flexible. Men may have
participated in gathering plants, firewood and insects,
8
and women may have procured small game animals
for consumption and assisted men in driving herds of
large game animals (such as woolly mammoths and
deer) off cliffs. Additionally, recent research by
anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from
the University of Arizona shows that this division of
labor did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic and
was invented relatively recently in human pre-history.
Sexual division of labor may have been developed to
allow humans to acquire food and other resources
more efficiently.Possibly there was approximate parity
between men and women during the Middle and
Upper Paleolithic, and that period may have been the
most
gender-equal
time
in
human
history.
Archeological evidence from art and funerary rituals
indicates that a number of individual women enjoyed
seemingly high status in their communities, and it is
likely that both sexes participated in decision making.
The earliest known Paleolithic shaman (c. 30,000 BP)
9
was female. Jared Diamond suggests that the status of
women declined with the adoption of agriculture
because women in farming societies typically have
more pregnancies and are expected to do more
demanding work than women in hunter-gatherer
societies. Like most contemporary hunter-gatherer
societies, Paleolithic and the Mesolithic groups
probably followed mostly matrilineal and ambilineal
descent patterns; patrilineal descent patterns were
probably rarer than in the following Neolithic period.
Early examples of artistic expression, such as the
Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant
bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia, may have
been produced by Acheulean tool users such as Homo
erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic
period. However, the earliest undisputed evidence of
art during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle
Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos
Cave in the form of bracelets, beads, rock art, and
10
ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual.
Undisputed evidence of art only becomes common in
the following Upper Paleolithic period.
Vincent W. Fallio interprets Lower and Middle
Paleolithic marking on rocks at sites such as
Bilzingsleben (such as zig zagging lines) as accounts
or representation of altered states of consciousness
though some other scholars interpret them as either
simple doodling or as the result of natural processes.
Upper Paleolithic humans produced works of art such
as cave paintings, Venus figurines, animal carvings
and rock paintings. Upper Paleolithic art can be
divided into two broad categories: figurative art such
as cave paintings that clearly depicts animals (or more
rarely humans); and nonfigurative, which consists of
shapes and symbols.Cave paintings have been
interpreted in a number of ways by modern
11
archeologists. The earliest explanation, by the
prehistorian Abbe Breuil, interpreted the paintings as a
form of magic designed to ensure a successful hunt.
However, this hypothesis fails to explain the existence
of animals such as saber-toothed cats and lions, which
were not hunted for food, and the existence of halfhuman, half-animal beings in cave paintings. The
anthropologist David Lewis-Williams has suggested
that Paleolithic cave paintings were indications of
shamanistic practices, because the paintings of halfhuman, half-animal paintings and the remoteness of
the caves are reminiscent of modern hunter-gatherer
shamanistic practices. Symbol-like images are more
common in Paleolithic cave paintings than are
depictions of animals or humans, and unique symbolic
patterns might have been trademarks that represent
different Upper Paleolithic ethnic groups. Venus
figurines
have
evoked
similar
controversy.
Archeologists and anthropologists have described the
12
figurines
as
representations
of
goddesses,
pornographic imagery, apotropaic amulets used for
sympathetic magic, and even as self-portraits of
women themselves.
The Venus figurines have sometimes been interpreted
as representing a mother goddess; the abundance of
such female imagery has led some to believe that
Upper Paleolithic (and later Neolithic) societies had a
female-centered religion and a female-dominated
society. For example, this was proposed by the
archeologist Marija Gimbutas and the feminist scholar
Merlin Stone who was the author of the 1978 book
When God Was a Woman Various other explanations
for the purpose of the figurines have been proposed,
such as Catherine McCoid and LeRoy McDermott‘s
hypothesis that the figurines were created as self
portraits of actual women
and R.Dale Gutrie‘s
hypothesis that the venus figurines represented a kind
of ―stone age pornography‖.
13
The origins of music during the Paleolithic are
unknown, since the earliest forms of music probably
did not use musical instruments but instead used the
human voice and or natural objects such as rocks,
which leave no trace in the archaeological record.
However, the anthropological and archeological
designation suggests that human music first arose
when language, art and other modern behaviors
developed in the Middle or the Upper Paleolithic
period. Music may have developed from rhythmic
sounds produced by daily activities such as cracking
nuts by hitting them with stones, because maintaining
a rhythm while working may have helped people to
become more efficient at daily activities. An
alternative theory originally proposed by Charles
Darwin explains that music may have begun as a
hominid mating strategy as many birds and some other
animals produce music like calls to attract mates. This
hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous
14
hypothesis, but it nonetheless provides a possible
alternative.
Upper Paleolithic (and possibly Middle Paleolithic)
humans used flute-like bone pipes as musical
instruments, Music may have played a large role in the
religious lives of Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.
Like in modern hunter-gatherer societies, music may
have been used in ritual or to help induce trances. In
particular, it appears that animal skin drums may have
been used in religious events by Upper Paleolithic
shamans, as shown by the remains of drum-like
instruments from some Upper Paleolithic graves of
shamans and the ethnographic record of contemporary
hunter-gatherer shamanic and ritual practices.
Middle Paleolithic humans‘ use of burials at sites such
as Krapina, Croatia (c. 130,000 BP) and Qafzeh, Israel
(c. 100,000 BP) have led some anthropologists and
15
archeologists, such as Philip Lieberman, to believe
that Middle Paleolithic humans may have possessed a
belief in an afterlife and a ―concern for the dead that
transcends daily life‖. Cut marks on Neanderthal
bones from various sites, such as Combe-Grenal and
Abri Moula in France, suggest that the Neanderthals
like some contemporary human cultures may have
practiced ritual defleshing for (presumably) religious
reasons. According to recent archeological findings
from H. heidelbergensis sites in Atapuerca, humans
may have begun burying their dead much earlier,
during the late Lower Paleolithic; but this theory is
widely questioned in the scientific community.
The existence of anthropomorphic images and halfhuman, half-animal images in the Upper Paleolithic
period may further indicate that Upper Paleolithic
humans were the first people to believe in a pantheon
of gods or supernatural beings, though such images
may instead indicate shamanistic practices similar to
16
those of contemporary tribal societies. The earliest
known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by
extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans
and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper
Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the
Czech Republic. However, during the early Upper
Paleolithic it was probably more common for all
members of the band to participate equally and fully in
religious ceremonies, in contrast to the religious
traditions of later periods when religious authorities
and part-time ritual specialists such as shamans,
priests and medicine men were relatively common and
integral to religious life. Additionally, it is also
possible
that
Upper
Paleolithic
religions,
like
contemporary and historical animistic and polytheistic
religions, believed in the existence of a single creator
deity in addition to other supernatural beings such as
animistic spirits.
17
Vincent W. Fallio writes that ancestor cults first
emerged in complex Upper Paleolithic societies. He
argues that the elites of these societies (like the elites
of many more contemporary complex hunter-gatherers
such as the Tlingit) may have used special rituals and
ancestor worship to solidify control over their
societies, by convincing their subjects that they
possess a link to the spirit world that also gives them
control over the earthly realm. Secret societies may
have served a similar function in these complex quasitheocratic societies, by dividing the religious practices
of these cultures into the separate spheres of Popular
Religion and Elite Religion.
Religion was possibly apotropaic; specifically, it may
have
involved
sympathetic
magic.The
Venus
figurines, which are abundant in the Upper Paleolithic
archeological record, provide an example of possible
18
Paleolithic sympathetic magic, as they may have been
used for ensuring success in hunting and to bring
about fertility of the land and women. The Upper
Paleolithic Venus figurines have sometimes been
explained as depictions of an earth goddess similar to
Gaia, or as representations of a goddess who is the
ruler or mother of the animals. James Harrod has
described them as representative of female (and male)
shamanistic spiritual transformation processes.
Questions, tasks for self-control
1. What is the culture?
2. From what regions the first people came to the
territory of Ukraine?
3. Which function does culture execute?
4. Speak about Religion in Paleolitic era.
5. Speak about art in that period.
19
The Treepilliane culture (4-3 thousand BC)
Plan:
1. Treepillian culture in general.
2. Settlements
3. Diet
4. Ritual and religion
5. Technological developments
The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, also known as
Cucuteni culture (from Romanian), Trypillian culture
(from Ukrainian) or Tripolie culture (from Russian), is
a late Neolithic archaeological culture which
flourished between ca. 5500 BC and 2750 BC, from
the Carpathian Mountains to the Dniester and Dnieper
regions in modern-day Romania, Moldova, and
Ukraine, encompassing an area of more than 35,000
km2 (13,500 square miles). At its peak the CucuteniTrypillian culture built the largest settlements in
Neolithic Europe, some of which had populations of
up to 15,000 inhabitants.
One of the most notable aspects of this culture was
that every 60 to 80 years the inhabitants of a
settlement would burn their entire village. The reason
for the burning of the settlements is a subject of debate
among scholars; many of the settlements were
reconstructed several times on top of earlier ones,
preserving the shape and the orientation of the older
buildings. One example of this, at the Poduri,
Romania site, revealed a total of thirteen habitation
20
levels that were constructed on top of each other over
a period of many years.
In terms of overall size, some of Cucuteni-Trypillian
sites, such as Talianki (with a population of 15,000
and covering an area of some 450 hectares – 1100
acres) in the province of Uman Raion, Ukraine, are as
large as (or perhaps even larger than) the more famous
city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent, and these
Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian
cities by more than half of a millennium.
Archaeologists have uncovered an astonishing wealth
of artifacts from these ancient ruins. The largest
collections of Cucuteni-Trypillian artifacts are to be
found in museums in Russia, Ukraine, and Romania,
including the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg
and the Archaeology Museum Piatra Neamţ in
Romania. However, smaller collections of artifacts are
kept in many local museums scattered throughout the
region.
These settlements underwent periodical acts of
destruction and re-creation, as they were burned and
then rebuilt every 60–80 years. Some scholars have
theorized that the inhabitants of these settlements
believed that every house symbolized an organic,
almost living, entity. Each house, including its
ceramic vases, ovens, figurines and innumerable
objects made of perishable materials, shared the same
21
circle of life, and all of the buildings in the settlement
were physically linked together as a larger symbolic
entity. As with living beings, the settlements may have
been seen as also having a life cycle of death and
rebirth.
The houses of the Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements
were constructed in several general ways:
Wattle and daub homes.
Log homes, called (Ukrainian: площадки ploščadki).
Semi-underground homes called Bordei.
Some Cucuteni-Trypillian homes were two-storeys
tall, and evidence shows that the members of this
culture sometimes decorated the outsides of their
homes with many of the same red-ochre complex
swirling designs that are to be found on their pottery.
Most houses had thatched roofs and wooden floors
covered with clay.
Cucuteni-Trypillian sites have yielded substantial
evidence to prove that the inhabitants practiced
agriculture, raised domestic livestock, and hunted wild
animals for food. Archaeological evidence also
indicates that primitive plowing was done by the
farmers of the Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements.
Cultivating the soil, tending livestock, and harvesting
the crops were probably the main occupations of most
of the members of this society. There is also evidence
that they may have raised bees. Although wine grapes
22
were cultivated by these people, there is no solid
evidence to date to prove that they actually made wine
from them. The cereal grains were ground and baked
as unleavened bread in clay ovens or on heated stones
in the hearth fireplace in the house.
The archaeological remains of animals found at
Cucuteni-Trypillian sites indicate that the inhabitants
practiced animal husbandry. The remains of dogs have
also been found. Archaeologists have uncovered both
the remains as well as artistic depictions of the horse
in Cucuteni-Trypillian sites. However, whether these
finds were of domesticated or wild horses is a matter
of some debate.
In addition to farming and raising livestock, members
of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture supplemented their
diet with hunting. They used traps to catch their prey,
as well as various weapons, including the bow-andarrow, the spear, and clubs. To help them in stalking
game, they sometimes disguised themselves with
camouflage.
Some Cucuteni-Trypillian communities have been
found that contain a special building located in the
center of the settlement, which archaeologists have
identified as sacred sanctuaries. Artifacts have been
found inside these sanctuaries, some of them having
been intentionally buried in the ground within the
structure, that are clearly of a religious nature, and
23
have provided insights into some of the beliefs, and
perhaps some of the rituals and structure, of the
members of this society. Additionally, artifacts of an
apparent religious nature have also been found within
many domestic Cucuteni-Trypillian homes.
Many of these artifacts are clay figurines or statues.
Archaeologists have identified many of these as
fetishes or totems, which are believed to be imbued
with powers that can help and protect the people who
look after them. These Cucuteni-Trypillian figurines
have become known popularly as Goddesses,
however, this term is not necessarily accurate for all
female anthropomorphic clay figurines, as the
archaeological evidence suggests that different
figurines were used for different purposes (such as for
protection), and so are not all representative of a
Goddess. There have been so many of these figurines
discovered in Cucuteni-Trypillian sites that many
museums in eastern Europe have a sizeable collection
of them, and as a result, they have come to represent
one of the more readily-identifiable visual markers of
this culture to many people.
The noted archaeologist Marija Gimbutas based at
least part of her famous Kurgan Hypothesis and Old
European culture theories on these CucuteniTrypillian clay figurines. Her conclusions, which were
always controversial, today are discredited by many
24
scholars, but still there are some scholars who support
her theories about how Neolithic societies were
At its height, the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture would
have been one of the most technologically-advanced
societies on earth, producing woven textiles,
exquisitely-fine and beautifully-decorated ceramics,
and a wide variety of tools and weapons, as well as
developing large-scale salt production, new house
construction methods, and agricultural and animal
husbandry techniques.
Salt Works
What may well be the world‘s oldest saltworks was
discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site
next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamt County,
Romania. Archaeological evidence indicates that salt
production began there as long ago as 6050 BC.,
making it perhaps the oldest known saltworks in the
world. Evidence based on discoveries in Solca,
Cacica, Lunca, Oglinzi, and Cucuieţi, indicates that
the people of the Precucuteni Culture were extracting
salt from the salt-laden spring-water through the
process of Briquetage. First, the brackish water from
the spring was boiled in large pottery vessels,
producing a dense brine. The brine was then heated in
a ceramic briquetage vessel until all moisture was
evaporated, with the remaining crystallized salt
adhering to the inside walls of the vessel. Then the
25
briquetage vessel was broken open, and the salt was
scraped from the shards.
The salt extracted from this operation may have had a
direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society‘s
population soon after its initial production began. Salt
from this operation probably played a very important
role in the Neolithic economy of the CucuteniTrypillian culture through its entire duration.
Matriarchal, non-warlike, and worshipped an ―earthy‖
Mother Goddess, but were subsequently wiped out by
invasions of patriarchal Indo-European tribes who
burst out of the Steppes of Russia and Kazakhstan
beginning around 2500 B.C., and who worshiped a
warlike Sky God. However, Gimbutas‘ theories have
been partially discredited by more recent discoveries
and analyses.Today there are many scholars who
disagree with Gimbutas, pointing to new evidence that
suggests a much more complex society during the
Neolithic era than she had been accounting for.
One of the most recognizable aspects of the CucuteniTrypillian culture is the incredible pottery that its
people produced. Borrowing from the Linear Pottery
culture, the Cucuteni-Trypillian potters made
improvements, mastering the modeling and
temperature control of the manufacturing process, and
decorating the clayware with a genuine and welldeveloped aesthetic sense of artistry.
26
There have been a seeming countless number of
ceramic artifacts discovered in various CucuteniTrypillian archaeological sites over the years, which
include pottery in many shapes and sizes, statues and
figurines of both anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
patterns, tools, implements, weights, and even
furniture. It would be impossible to imagine this
culture without its ceramic objects.
The lavishly-decorated pottery suggests that the
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture created textiles that were
exceedingly beautiful. Climate in the region is not
conducive to the preservation of the textiles, and as a
result, no examples of preserved textiles have yet to be
found. However, there are textile impressions
commonly found etched into pottery shards before
firing that clearly show that woven fabrics were
prevalent in Cucuteni-Trypillian society. Additionally,
there is evidence in the form of ceramic weights that
would have been used to weight down the warp
threads during weaving to substantiate that primitive
looms were used by this culture
Many tools, weights, and accessories have been found
at the Cucuteni-Trypillian sites. Among these artifacts
are clubs, harpoons, spear and arrow points for use in
hunting and fishing, made from an assortment of
materials, including stone, bone, antler, wood, leather,
clay, sinew, straw, and cloth. Towards the end of this
culture‘s existence, a number of copper weapons and
tools began to appear. However, there has been only a
27
very few weapons found that were designed for
defense against human enemies. The implications of
this seem to lead to the conclusion that the inhabitants
of this culture lived with very little threat from
possible enemy attack for almost 3000 years.
Questions, tasks for self-control
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss the main features of The Trypillian culture.
Speak about settlemens of trypillian people
What religion was in that period?
Speak about ceramic, diet, statues.
28
The antique culture. The largest state of Greek
ones on the territory of Ukraine.
Plan:
1. History
2. Geography
3. People and culture
4. Economy
5 . Agriculture
6 . Fishery
7. Livestock and poultry
8. Forestry
9. Banks and other financial institutions
10. Establishments
11. Mineral resources
Antique is a province of the Philippines located in the
Western Visayas region. Its capital is San Jose and is
located at the western portion of Panay Island,
bordering Aklan, Capiz, and Iloilo to the east. Antique
faces the Sulu Sea to the west.
Antique was one of the three old sakups (districts) of
Panay before the Spanish colonizers arrived in the
islands. The Antique was then known as Hantik,
which was named after the large red ants found on the
island, called hantik. (See History section below.) The
Spanish chroniclers, however, recorded it as
―Hantique‖ in the French manner. Later, the initial ―h‖
was dropped, and the name officially became
29
―Antique.‖ Unlike the English term ―antique‖, the
province is pronounced ―an-ti-kway.‖
Historians believe that the earliest people who settled
on the island of Panay were tribal Negritos or Atis.
Oral history, related as the legend of Maragtas, states
that in 1212, ten Malay datus escaped persecution
from Sri-Vishaya, a Hindu-Malay empire that existed
at that time in Borneo and Sumatra. These datus, led
by Datu Puti, sailed with their families and
communities from Borneo northward and landed on
Panay.
There they met the Negrito chieftain Marikudo and his
wife Maniwangtiwan. They bought the island from the
chieftain for a golden saduk (headpiece or helmet),
and a golden necklace, given to his wife, among other
gifts. The Negritos then retreated to the mountains,
while the Borneans settled in the lowlands. Today, the
landing is commemorated every year in Antique
during the Binirayan festival.
The island of Panay was then divided into three
sakups (districts). These are Hantik, Aklan, and IrongIrong. Aklan became the present-day Aklan and
Capiz, Irong-Irong became Iloilo, and Hantik (also
called Hamtik or Hamtic) became Antique. Hantik
was named for the large red ants found on the island
called lantik-lantik.
The sakup of Hantik was given to Datu Sumakwel,
one of the ten datus, and who, according to tradition,
was the oldest and wisest of them. The three sakups
30
were later governed as a political unit called the
Confederation of Madia-as, also under Datu
Sumakwel.
Datu Sumakwel founded the town of Malandog,
considered to be the first Malay settlement in the
country. Malandog is now a barangay in the presentday municipality of Hamtic, which was named after
the historic sakup.
In 1942, the Japanese Imperial forces landed in
Antique and occupied the province during the Second
World War. In 1945, Philippine Commonwealth
forces of the 6th Infantry Regiment of the Philippine
Constabulary under the U.S. military command (19411942, 1944-1946) together with recognized local
guerrillas defeated the Japanese troops and liberated
the province.
Antique is mostly isolated from the rest of the island
of Panay by the Cordilleras of the island. The
province‘s borders with its three neighbors lie on the
divide of this mountain range. Antique faces the
northern portions of the Sulu Sea to the west. The
Semirara Islands, located between Panay and Mindoro
are part of Antique.
The land is rugged and mostly mountainous, cut by
many short streams that come down from the eastern
mountains. There are two distinct climatic regions in
Antique. The North experiences an even distribution
of rainfall throughout the year. The south is drier as
the high mountains shield the area from the monsoons.
31
Antiqueños are very hospitable people who would go
out of their way to extend assistance to visitors and
guests. These seafaring people share many
characteristics with their Panay neighbors. However,
the steep slopes and the rugged, long mountain ranges
of Antique have isolated it from the rest of Panay.
Hence, they have developed their own distinct
language called Kinaray-a. This dialect is of
Austronesian
origins
characterized
by
the
predominancy of r‘s and schwa sounds spoken with a
lilting gentle intonation. The Catholic Church holds a
very strong influence on Antiqueños. For centuries,
the churches were the physical vanguards of the
people. Being a coastal province, and having been
vulnerable to attacks by Moro raiders, Antique was
guarded by a series of watchtowers, like the ‗Old
Watchtower‘ in Libertad and Estaca Hill in Bugasong
all of which were built under the direction of the
Spanish friars. Even today, the Catholic Church
remains influential in both the society and politics of
the province. However, in the mountains, remnants of
ancient folk beliefs persists. Babaylans or native
priestesses continue to divine the future, heal the sick
or conjure spells. This is an aspect of Antique‘s
culture that has been subsumed under the Christian
religion. The Antiqueños are noted for their industry.
They are renowned weavers through out the Visayas.
The Bugasong patadyong, a tube cotton fabric of plaid
design, is highly valued because of its fineness of
32
weaving. Piña cloth is also produced in looms
throughout the province. Wine manufactured from the
sap of the coconut is a cottage industry. The rugged
and varied land of Antique offers visitors a variety of
outdoor activities. Diving and beach enthusiasts would
have a great time discovering the unspoiled islets of
Antique. Nogas Island, Hurao-Hurao Island and
Mararison Island have long stretches of white sand
beaches and are ideal for shell-hunting. Batbatan
Island on the other hand, appeals to scuba divers
because of the well-preserved coral reefs. Mt. Madiaas, the highest peak on Panay, is a dormant volcano
with lakes and 14 waterfalls. It is said to be the
legendary home of Bulalakaw, the supreme god of the
ancients, and beckons as a challenge for hikers and
trekkers.
For the year 1998, production of palay, the primary
crop of the province registered a total of 177,521
metric tons (mt.) or 4,438,025 cavans from 58,847
hectares with an average yield of 3.02 metric tons per
hectare. An increase of 8,280 mt. or 16.37 percent
over last years (1997) production was observed
because the area harvested has increased by 9,822
hectares or 5.86 percent. However, the average yield
per hectare decreased by 0.3 mt. per hectare or 0.09
percent.
33
As to farm type, the average yield per hectare for
irrigated lands is 3.39 mt., 2.63 mt. for rain fed farms
and 1.57 for upland areas.
As it has been for years, our province had enough
stock to feed its population. This year, we have a
surplus of 83,756 mt. or 2,093,900 cavans of palay.
Copra, the second major agricultural commodity,
registered a total production of 15,712 mt. in 1998
reflecting a decrease of 965 mt. (5.78%) as against last
years (1997) yield of 16,677 mt. The main bulk of
copra came from the municipality of Caluya where
this area accounts for 44 percent of the total copra
output of the province. The area planted with coconuts
constitutes about 34 percent of the total area of the
province. Caluya, together with Pandan, account for
more than half (53%) of the total provincial figure in
terms of area planted, number of bearing trees, nuts
production and copra yield.
For current year, data on production of other field
crops are the following: corn – 650 metric tons,
legumes (moonbeams, peanuts and other beans) –
1,689 metric tons, muscovado sugar – 2,280 metric
tons, root crops (camote, cassava, ube, etc.) – 3,434
metric tons, vegetables (leafy, fruit and root) – 870
metric tons, banana – 11,102 metric tons and mango –
1,330 metric tons.
By the end of the year, preliminary data for the Bureau
of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) reported that the total
volume of‘ fishery products reached 24,299 metric
34
tons. The aquaculture sector yields the highest
production during the inclusion of seaweed‘s in this
sector.
Forest products include bamboo, rattan, buri, bariw,
nito, log, charcoal, abaca, herbal vines and plants, wild
flowers and others. These forest resources are of
undetermined quantity, and are used as raw materials
in construction industry, furniture and handicraft.
Major products shipped out of the province are palay,
rice, copra, muscovado sugar, legumes, fruits &
vegetables, livestock, fish & fish preparations and
seaweeds. Manufacture items like native gifts, toys
and housewares found their way in major cities of the
country and abroad. Principal mined products
exported include coal, marble, silica, copper and
gemstones. Main goods entering the province are
construction materials, dry goods, groceries, canned
and bottled products, fertilizers and others. The capital
town of San Jose de Buenavista is the center of
business hub mushroom in the area. Potential growth
areas include the towns of Culasi, Pandan and
Sibalom. Investment opportunities with bright
prospects in the province are the following:
-Champorado sugar industry
-Seaweed processing
-Marble processing
-Gemstone and semi-precious stone processing
-Coco oil mill
-Livestock and poultry processing
35
-Food Processing
-Marine products processing
-Furniture, handicraft, metalcraft
-Fiber extraction/processing/weaving
-High value crop production
-Feed/Feed Milling
Livestock and poultry raising in the province is
through backyard or commercial system of
production. Data from Bureau of Agricultural
Statistics (BAS) revealed that from 1,441,660 heads of
livestock and poultry in 1997, the number rose to
1,547,944 in 1998, an additional 106,284 heads,
indicating 7.37 percent growth. The main reason
behind this growth is the increase in poultry
production of almost 7.88 percent.
Forest products include bamboo, rattan, buri, bariw,
nito, log, charcoal, abaca, herbal vines and plants, wild
flowers and others. These forest resources are of
undetermined quantity, and are used as raw materials
in construction industry, furniture and handicraft.
An establishment is an economic unit which engages
under a single ownership or control. Department of
Trade and Industry (DTI) classifies establishments as
manufacturing, trade and service. For the year 1998,
fourteen (14) manufacturing establishments were
reported. Such manufacturing establishments are
making hollowblocks, wood furnitures, steel/wood,
packed foods, metal craft, thresher, soap and sidecar.
36
Service establishments totaled to 117 and a total of
294 trade establishments.
The mineral resources, metallic and non-metallic that
abound in the province are coal, marble, copper, gold,
limestone, silica gemstone and others. An indication
of oil deposit was recently discovered at Maniguin
Island in Culasi.
Questions, tasks for self-control
1. What were the main features of Greek
colonization?
2. What were the biggest cities of Greek
colonization?
3. Discuss the Slavonic culture.
4. What nomadic tribes were on Ukrainian territory?
5. What was the influence of Greek culture on a
culture of Epiphes?
37
Ancient Slavonic culture.
Plan:
1.
2.
3.
4.
About Slavs in general.
The Ancient Russian Steppe.
The Varangians
The Kievian Rus
In the first millennium BC, Slavs played a leading role
in the development of civilization of ethno-Ukrainian
society. There were also other ethnic groups which
had considerable influence on the ethnogenesis of
Ukrainians, such as the, Scithians, Baits, Germans and
Kerlates. The territory of Slavs expanded considerably
with the coming of a new era. In written sources, they
are known as Anths and Sclavs. They shared a
common language, similar way of life, similar
customs and beliefs. However, there were different
tribes, each having its own chiefs, military and policy.
After some time, although the Anths disappeared from
the South European political map, their traditions have
not. The descendants of Anths began populating in the
vast areas. The intensive break-up of patriarchal
traditions was observed in the 7th and 8th centuries in
the development of East Slav society. Property
inequality of the community intensified and
determined the formation of the social hierarchy.
These processes were especially active in the territory
38
of the Middle Dnieper Area and adjacent lands.
Archeological sources have discovered rather quick
development of arable farming, cattle rearing,
handicrafts, and trade. Soon political and economic
centers of Slavic tribes appeared, such as Kyiv. About
14 East Slav tribe unions existed in Ukraine during the
6th - 9th centuries. This lay the political groundwork
for Rus. In the late 9th century conditions appeared for
forming early feudal states in the area of Slavonic
settlement. Modern Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereiaslav
were the centers of its territory.
The early history of Russia, like those of many
countries, is one of migrating peoples and ancient
kingdoms. In fact, early Russia was not exactly
"Russia," but a collection of cities that gradually
coalesced into an empire. I n the early part of the ninth
century, as part of the same great movement that
brough the Danes to England and the Norsemen to
Western Europe, a Scandinavian people known as the
Varangians crossed the Baltic Sea and landed in
Eastern Europe. The leader of the Varangians was the
semilegendary warrior Rurik, who led his people in
862 to the city of Novgorod on the Volkhov River.
Whether Rurik took the city by force or was invited to
rule there, he certainly invested the city. From
Novgorod, Rurik's successor Oleg extended the power
of the city southward. In 882, he gained control of
Kiev, a Slavic city that had arisen along the Dnepr
39
River around the 5th century. Oleg's attainment of rule
over Kiev marked the first establishment of a unified,
dynastic state in the region. Kiev became the center of
a trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople,
and Kievan Rus', as the empire came to be known,
flourished for the next three hundred years.
The Varangians or Varyags sometimes referred to
as Variagians, were Vikings or Norsemen, who went
eastwards and southwards through what is now
Russia, Belarus and Ukraine mainly in the 9th and
10th centuries. According to the Kievan Rus' Primary
Chronicle, compiled in about 1113, groups of
Varangians included the Swedes, the Rus, the
Normans, the Angles and the Gotlanders. However,
due largely to geographic considerations, most of the
Varangians who traveled and settled in the eastern
Baltic, Russia and lands to the south came from the
area of modern Sweden.
Engaging in trade, piracy and mercenary
activities, they roamed the river systems and portages
of Gardariki, reaching the Caspian Sea and
Constantinople. Having settled Aldeigja (Ladoga) in
the 750's, Scandinavian colonists were probably an
element in the early ethnogenesis of the Rus' people,
and likely played a role in the formation of the Rus'
Khaganate. The Varangians (Varyags, in Old East
Slavic) are first mentioned by the Primary Chronicle
40
as having exacted tribute from the Slavic and Finnic
tribes in 859. It was the time of rapid expansion of the
Vikings in Northern Europe; England began to pay
Danegeld in 859, and the Curonians of Grobin faced
an invasion by the Swedes at about the same date.
According to the Primary Chronicle, in 862, the
Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled against the Varangian
Rus, driving them overseas back to Scandinavia, but
soon started to conflict with each other. The disorder
prompted the tribes to invite back the Varangian Rus
"to come and rule them" and bring peace to the region.
Led by Rurik and his brothers Truvor and Sineus, the
invited Varangians (called Rus) settled around the
town of Holmgård (Novgorod). In the 9th century, the
Rus' operated the Volga trade route, which connected
Northern Russia (Gardariki) with the Middle East
(Serkland). As the Volga route declined by the end of
the century, the Trade route from the Varangians to
the Greeks rapidly overtook it in popularity. Apart
from Ladoga and Novgorod, Gnezdovo and Gotland
were major centers for Varangian trade.
Western historians tend to agree with the Primary
Chronicle that these Varangians organized the existing
Slavic settlements into the political entity of Kievan
Rus'in the 880s and gave their name to the land. Many
Slavic scholars are opposed to this theory of Germanic
influence on the Rus and have suggested alternative
41
scenarios for this part of Eastern European history
because the author of the Primary Chronicles, that is a
monk named Nestor, worked in the court for the
Varangians.
In contrast to the intense Scandinavian influence
in Normandy and the British Isles, Varangian culture
did not survive to a great extent in the East. Instead,
the Varangian ruling classes of the two powerful citystates of Novgorod and Kiev were thoroughly Slavic
by the end of the 10th century. Old Norse was spoken
in one district of Novgorod, however, until the
thirteenth century.
According to the earliest East Slavic record, the
Primary Chronicle, the four tribes who had been
forced to pay tribute to the Varangians — Chuds,
Slavs, Merians, and Krivichs drove the Varangians
back beyond the sea, refused to pay them further
tribute, and set out to govern themselves. But there
was no law among them, and tribe rose against tribe.
Discord thus ensued among them, and they began to
war one against the other. They said to themselves,
"Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge
us according to custom. Thus they went overseas to
the Varangians, to the Rus. These particular
Varangians were known as Rus, just as some are
called Swedes, and others Normans and Angles, and
still others Gotlanders, for they were thus named. The
42
Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Veps then said
to the Rus, "Our land is great and rich, but there is no
order in it. Come reign as princes, rule over us". Three
brothers, with their kinfolk, were selected. They
brought with them all the Rus and migrated.
Later, the Primary Chronicle tells us, they
conquered Kiev and created the state of Kievan Rus',
which, as most historians agree, was preceded by the
Rus' Khaganate. The territory they conquered was
named after them as were, eventually, the local
people. Ibn Haukal and two other early Islamic
sources such Muhammad al-Idrisi, who would follow
them later) distinguish three groups of the Rus:
Kuyavia, Slavia, and Arcania. In the mainstream
Russian-Soviet historiography (as represented by
Boris Rybakov), these were tentatively identified with
the "tribal centers" at Kiev, Novgorod and
Tmutarakan.
By 989, Oleg's great-grandson Vladimir I was
ruler of a kingdom that extended to as far south as the
Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the lower
reaches of the Volga River. Having decided to
establish a state religion, Vladimir carefully
considered a number of available faiths and decided
upon Greek Orthodoxy, thus allying himself with
Constantinople and the West. It is said that Vladimir
decided against Islam partly because of his belief that
43
his people could not live under a religion that prohibits
hard liquor. Vladimir was succeeded by Yaroslav the
Wise, whose reign marked the apogee of Kievan Rus'.
Yaroslav codified laws, made shrewd alliances with
other states, encouraged the arts, and all the other sorts
of things that wise kings do. Unfortunately, he decided
in the end to act like Lear, dividing his kingdom
among his children and bidding them to cooperate and
flourish. Of course, they did nothing of the sort.
Within a few decades of Yaroslav's death (in
1054), Kievan Rus' was rife with internecine strife and
had broken up into regional power centers. Internal
divisions were made worse by the depredations of the
invading Cumans (better known as the Kipchaks). It
was during this time (in 1147 to be exact) that Yuri
Dolgorukiy, one of the regional princes, held a feast at
his hunting lodge atop a hill overlooking the
confluence of the Moskva and Neglina Rivers. A
chronicler recorded the party, thus providing us with
the earliest mention of Moscow, the small settlement
that would soon become the pre-eminent city in
Russia.
1. Who are Varyags?
2. When Yaroslav dead?
3. Discuss the Slavonic culture.
44
Culture of Kiev Rus
Plan:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Askold
Oleg
Olga
Volodymyr Sviatoslavych
Yaroslav Mudriy
Volodymyr Monomakh
In the year 882, it was stated in old chronicles that
Oleg, the Prince of Novhorod,
having killed Prince Askold and Prince Dir, mounted
the Kyiv throne. He became the ruler of Kyiv or Old
Rus, the first state of Old Slavs, which soon turned
into one of the greatest countries of Medieval Europe
and which played an important part in political life on
the continent. It also served as a certain protective
barrier between European civilization and nomadic
East. Kyiv became the capital of the state.
The poly-ethnical Old Rus state was a monarchical
form of government. When he proclaimed Kyiv to be
the political center of Rus, Prince Oleg (as well as his
successors) were greatly concerned about the problem
of consolidation of the nearest tribal principalities
around Kyiv - the force of central state institutions
being applied it its territory. All the East-Slav tribes
and many non-Slav people were under dominion of
45
the Kyiv Prince at the end of the 10th century. Kyiv
Rus spread from the Black Sea to the White Sea, from
the Carpathians to the Volga River. The vastness of
the territory determined the availability (within limits)
of certain language and cultural peculiarities - a
potentiality of centrifugal tendencies being inevitable.
The Prince's armed forces played the role of the state
elite in Kyiv Rus until the early 11th century. Elder
men at arms served as the Prince's advisers in the most
important state affairs and occupied all administrative
and court posts. Under the reign of Yaroslav Mudriy
(or Yaroslav the Wise) (1019-1054), they performed
only military functions, while administrative and
legislative staffs were subject to boyars (old tribal
aristocrats by birth). Kyiv princes of the 9-10th
centuries cared mainly about strengthening the
economic and political power of the state. They
fortified cities, put in order legal proceedings and a
fiscal system, and regulated the obligations of the
dependent population. During Princess Olga's reign
(approximately 946), the first attempt was made to
expel paganism and replace it with Christianity. But
Christianity wasn't officially introduced as a state
religion in Rus until 988 by Prince Volodymyr
Sviatoslavych. Diplomatic relations of the Old Rus
State with the neighboring countries, in particular,
Byzanthia and the German Empire, intensified during
the mid-lOth century after the fall of Khozar's state.
46
The military marches of Kyiv Princes played an
important part in the expansion of the territory of Kyiv
Rus and assertions of its power in the eyes of
surrounding people. The "Povist mynylykh lit"
mentions the victorious raid of Prince Oleg of
Tsarhorod in 907, owing to having made peace with
the Byzantine Emperor. Some years later, the Russians
made several raids on the lands of the Arabian
caliphate. In the 940s, Prince Ihor (Oleg's successor),
made several military raids to the Crimean East and
Taman, to Byzanthia and to the Caspian Seaside.
Military activity of the Old Rus State was also
observed in the 960s and early 970s during the reign
of Prince Sviatoslav (964-972). The creation of the
Old Rus nation state took place during the reign of
Prince Sviatoslav's son, Prince Volodymyr (9781015). The economical and political strength of the
state, the authority of the Prince's rule, and the
organization of law considerably increased during his
reign. The successful military raids of the Prince
expanded the limits of the Rus territory.
The process of forming the Old Rus State finished in
the beginning of the 11th century under Yaroslav
Mudriy. That was the time of the greatest rise of Kyiv
Rus. The international authority of the country
increased, due to the dynastic relations and diplomacy
of the Prince. Yaroslav put forth much effort to
subdue
47
civil war (which occurred after the death of
Volodymyr) and to ' protect the state territory from
nomad raids. Under Yaroslav the importance of cities
in economic and cultural life of the state increased,
and relations between the different regions became
revived, which helped to increase the trade, agriculture
and handicraft industries. The first code of the Old
Rus state was created - a collection of laws, "Ruska
pravda". Unfortunately, the Prince's successors were
involved in many feuds that inevitably resulted in
breaking the unity of the Rus state. It wasn't until the
early 12th century that Volodymyr Monomakh (11131125) managed to stop these feuds for a while. It was
under his reign that Kyiv's authority as the
capital was once again increased, and the authority of
the Kyiv Prince expanded to the major principalities,
and other princes. It was by his initiative that the
convention of princes was called to decide important
affairs and disputable issues. The internal and external
position of the state was stabilized. This was the stage
when all the characteristics of the medieval sociopolitical system with great feudal property, certain
ideological religious and political directions had been
established in Kyiv Rus. From the 1130s the
disintegration process of the Old Rus State attained an
irreversible character. For several years, the territory
of this newly powerful state was separated into several
independent principalities whose owners did not stop
military conflicts until the mid-13th century. The
48
authority of the Kyiv Prince as the state head became
quite formal but did not lead to the complete
disintegration of the Old Rus state. Kyiv still remained
its capital. The personal power of the Kyiv Prince was
replaced by the government of "collective suzerainty"
of the most influential and powerful Princes. A single
centralized monarchy was changed into a federal
monarchy, which no longer had the might nor size of
its predecessor. The period of feudal disintegration on
the Old Rus lands not only set a mark on their
political, socio-economic and cultural development,
but also introduced certain innovations to
geographical definitions of the state. In particular, the
Kyiv Chronicle of 1187 had first coined the term
"Ukraine" to define the southern area of Rus lands
(Kyiv, Pereiaslav and Chernihiv provinces). After
some time, this name was also applied to Halychyna,
Volyn, and Podillia. Despite several attempts to unite
principalities separated by boundaries, which took
place during the 12th and 13th centuries, Kyiv Rus of
1237 weakened economically and politically and
suffered the forays of Mongol-Tatar Hordes of Batyi.
The Horde reign in the lands of Ukraine continued for
more than two centuries.
Questions, tasks for self-control
49
1.What can you say about the culture of Kiev Rus? What
are
the
main
features
of
it?
(architecture,
economic,lifestyle)?
2. Why, when and how the Christianity on Russ was
adopted?
The culture of Halytsian -Volynian Principality
Plan:
1. Politic
2. Social life
3. Material culture
After the disintegration of the Old Rus state in the
12th century into separate regional formations, the
Halytsian-Volynian principality had undertaken the
state-creating traditions of Rus. In spite of devastating
wars which had not passed through the principality,
there was still a certain stabilization of economic and
political development that was observed in this area in
the 12th century. The increase in population,
economic potential, as well as the regulation of
economic relations was visible in the Halytsian
Subcarpathia and Volyn territories. In 1199,
principalities with common economic, cultural
conditions, political and economic relations united to
form the Halytsian-Volynian state under the reign of
Halytsian Prince Roman, and he was a descendant of
50
Volodymyr Monomakh. Prince Roman was the first in
the history of the Old Rus state to be referred to as
"Grand Duke" or the "Autocrat of the whole Rus".
The reinforcement of the Prince's power in the
Halytsian-Volynian state took place under constant
hostility on the part of the powerful boyar opposition
supported by the foreign protectors which were the
Hungarians and Poles. After the death of Roman
Mstyslavych,
the
boyars
succeeded
in
excommunicating his sons: Danylo and Vasylko. In
1214, Kalman who was a young Hungarian prince
married a Polish Princess and was proclaimed King of
the Halytsian-Volynian principality. From that time on
a long war was started by Danylo Halytskyi and his
brother Vasylko to have their father's throne returned
to them. This war became known as the liberating war
for restoring state independence and territorial unity of
the
Halytsian-Volynian
principality.
Danylo
Romanovych's main task was to reinforce the state
institutions of the principality and social support,
which the boyars should have returned to him. Under
these conditions, he allowed the state-creating
experience of Byzanthia and a number of other West
European countries.
By the end of the 1230s, Danylo Halytskyi managed
to secure the neighborly relations by marrying his son
to the daughter of Bela IX and he was the the
Hungarian King. The Prince had rendered great
services to his country in protecting boundaries of the
51
Halytsian-Volynian principality during the MongolTatar invasion to Rus. The fortification line he had
constructed immediately before the invasion allowed
decreasing the number of plundering raids as
compared to other principalities. From 1254-1255, he
succeeded in gaining a number of victories over the
Horde armies and in driving them away outside the
boundaries of Ukraine.
The internal and foreign policy of Danylo Halytskyi
favored the increase of his popularity in the eyes of
the world community. Courtiers of European countries
considered it an honor to be associated with the
Halytsian-Volynian Prince. In 1253, he was crowned
by Pope Innokentyi IX in the town of Dorohychyn.
This act confirmed the recognition of the HalytsianVolynian principality as a subject of international law.
Territorial possessions of the principality considerably
increased in the 13th century under the descendant of
Danylo Romanovych. In particular, the lands of
Liublin and a part of Transcarpathia were added to the
principality. The Halytsian-Volynian Prince also
possessed the lands of Lithuania for a certain time.
Eventhough there was a partial economic and political
dependence on the Golden Horde, the Principality
leaders managed to keep to their own foreign policy.
There were constant exhausting struggles with foreign
and home enemies gradually weakening the HalytsianVolynian principality, and its enemies took advantage
without delay. At the end of the 14th century the lands
52
were divided between Poland, Lithuania, Hungary and
Moldova.
Development of writing culture, architecture and
figurative art are of special interest. There are no
ancient monuments of Kyiv architecture, because
there wooden buildings prevailed. Some stone
buildings: Sofia‘s cathedral, Golden gates in KyKyiv,
some temples in Chernihiv, Halych, Holm are
preserved.
When a grandeur and glory of Kyiv decayed, Halych
and Volyn became mainstay of Ukrainians and
cultural development of Ukrainian lands continued on
their territory. Political and economic life,
interrelation with Western Europe, many new towns,
fortresses, cult buildings were developed on this
territory. All these aspects contributed to further
development of material and spiritual culture of
Ukrainians.
Questions, tasks for self-control
1. What are the main features of the culture of
Halytsian -Volynian Principality?
2. Name the architecture memorials of Duke
period you know.
3. Speak about writing culture and figurative art.
53
The culture of Ukraine in XIV-XVII centuries.
Plan:
1. Subjugating of the Galicia-Volhynia
2. Zaporozhian Host
3. Russo-Polish War
In the mid-14th century, Galicia-Volhynia was
subjugated by Casimir III of Poland, while the
heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the
Gediminas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the
Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union
of Krevo, a dynastic union between Poland and
Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine
was controlled by the increasingly Slavicised local
Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania.
By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of
Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to
the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the
Polish Crown. Under the cultural and political
pressure of Polonisation much upper class of Polish
Ruthenia (another term for the land of Rus) converted
to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the
Polish nobility. Thus, the commoners, deprived of
their native protectors among Rus nobility, turned for
protection to the Cossacks, who remained fiercely
Orthodox at all times and tended to turn to violence
54
against those they perceived as enemies, particularly
the Polish state and its representatives.
In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasistate, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the
Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing
Polish serfdom. Poland had little real control of this
land, yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful
fighting force against the Turks and Tatars, and at
times the two allied in military campaigns. However,
the continued enserfment of peasantry by the Polish
nobility emphasized by the Commonwealth's fierce
exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly,
the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the
allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.
Their aspiration was to have representation in Polish
Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the
gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These
were all vehemently denied by the Polish nobility. The
Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox
Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the
downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state, and the
preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the
Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the
Polish king John II Casimir. Left-bank Ukraine was
eventually integrated into Muscovite Russia as the
Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of
Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After
the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century
55
by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western
Ukrainian Galicia was taken over by Austria, while
the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated
into the Russian Empire.
From the beginning of the 16th century until the end
of 17th century the Crimean Tatar raider bands made
almost annual forays into agricultural Slavic lands
searching for captives to sell as slaves. For example,
from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were
recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy.
Questions, tasks for self-control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Who are Cossacks ?
Who is Casimir III?
Who is Bohdan Khmelnytsky?
Analyse the development of culture in XIVXVIII centuries.
56
The culture of Ukraine in XVII-XVIII centuries.
Plan:
1. The "Eternal Peace" between Russia and Poland
2. Abolishment of Zaporizhska Sich
3. The times of Ivan Mazepa
In 1657-1686 came "The Ruin," a devastating 30-year
war between Russia, Poland, Turks and Cossacks for
control of Ukraine. For three years Khmelnytsky's
armies controlled present-day western and central
Ukraine, but deserted by his Tatar allies, he suffered a
crushing defeat at Berestechko, and turned to the
Russian Czar for help.
n 1654, Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Pereiaslav,
forming a military and political alliance with Russia
that acknowledged loyalty to the Czar. The wars
escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of
deaths. Defeat came in 1686 as the "Eternal Peace"
between Russia and Poland gave Kiev and the
Cossack lands east of the Dnieper over to Russian rule
and the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper to Poland.
In 1709 Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1687–1709)
sided with Sweden against Russia in the Great
Northern War (1700–1721). Mazepa, a member of the
Cossack nobility, received an excellent education
abroad and proved to be a brilliant political and
57
military leader enjoying good relations with the
Romanov dynasty. After Peter the Great became czar,
Mazepa as hetman gave him more than twenty years
of loyal military and diplomatic service and was well
rewarded.
Eventually Peter recognized that in order to
consolidate and modernize Russia's political and
economic power it was necessary to do away with the
hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to
autonomy. Mazepa accepted Polish invitations to join
the Poles and Swedes against Russia. The move was
disastrous for the hetmanate, Ukrainian autonomy, and
Mazepa. He died in exile after fleeing from the Battle
of Poltava (1709), where the Swedes and their
Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat at the
hands of Peter's Russian forces
The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the
Zaporizhska Sich abolished in 1775, as centralized
Russian control became the norm. With the
partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, the
Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided
between Russia and Austria. From 1737 to 1834
expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the
eastern Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian
foreign policy.
58
Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in
Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial
rulings from Cracow were routinely flouted. Heavily
taxed peasants were practically tied to the land as
serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other
using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles and
Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with
some success to convert the Orthodox lesser nobility.
In 1596 they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate
Church, under the authority of the Pope but using
Eastern rituals; it dominates western Ukraine to this
day. Tensions between the Uniates and the Orthodox
were never resolved, and the religious differentiation
left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as
they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.
The Cossack-led uprising called Koliivshchyna that
erupted in the Ukrainian borderlands of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth in 1768 involved ethnicity
as one root cause of Ukrainian violence that killed tens
of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare
also broke out between Ukrainian groups. Increasing
conflict between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along
the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the
Dnepr River in the time of Catherine II set the stage
for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had
become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region
drew even closer into dependence on the Russian
59
Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected
opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.
After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783,
the region was settled by migrants from other parts of
Ukraine. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy
given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite
and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the
autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia.
However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the
highest offices of Russian state, and the Russian
Orthodox Church. At a later period, the tsarist regime
carried the policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands,
suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print,
and in public.
The activity of brotherhoods and schools, renewal of
the orthodox hierarchy, which
were ruined by the Poles, gave an ideological
background for the armed revolt of Ukrainians for
their own state.
Hetman's Ukraine in times of Ivan Mazepa (16871708), Ivan Skoropadskiy (1708-1722), Kiril
Rozumovskiy (1750-1764) had the same standard of
life as the most educated countries in the Europe, and
the Ukrainian National revolution of 1648-1656 led to
formation of Ukrainian State, favoured the
development of folk-lore, history science (chronicle),
fiction in Ukraine. The political events at that time
60
developed in such a way, that the importance of
Cossacks was growing, and that growth played the
great role in the formation of Ukrainian culture and its
traditions. Cossacks were the defenders of Ukrainian
faith. In Ukrainian culture the Cossacks factor was so
determinative that the architectural style was named as
"Cossacks baroque".
The cultural center of Ukraine of the mentioned period
was Kiev-Mogilyanska Academy. In this period Ivan
Mazepa, as the hetman, more than usual, showed
sponsorship and cultural activity, especially since
1687 till 1709. The Kiev-Mogilyanska Academy
numbered eight classes, teaching was in Latin, and the
standard of knowledge in the academy was at the same
level as in European universities of that time. The
Kiev-Mogilyanska Academy was available for all
strata of Ukrainian society. Famous scientists, writers,
politicians,
philosophers
(L.Baranovich,
F.Prokopovich, A.Vedel, I.Gizel, O.Bezborodko,
I.Grigorovich-Barskiy) studied in the KievMogilyanska Academy, also the best scientific and
pedagogical forces of that time (Inokentiy Gizel,
Lazar Baranovich, Ioanikiy Galyatovskiy, Stefan
Yavorskiy, Feofan Prokopovich, Yoasaf Krokovskiy)
worked and studied 25 thousands of Ukrainians in the
academy.
You need to pay attention to how many efforts of
fraternal schools were put into development of culture.
Thus, in 1615 Kiev fraternal school was founded and
61
its rectors were Iov Boretskiy (from 1615 till 1618),
Meletiy Smotritskiy (before 1620), Kasiyan Sakovich
(from 1620 till 1624). Rhetoric, grammar, philosophy,
the Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Polish, Ukrainian
languages were taught in fraternal schools, the
education was in religious style. Besides, boards
played the great role in development of education
inUkraine; they were Chernigivskiy (1700),
Kharkivskiy (1721), Pereyaslavskiy (1738). They
trained ministers of religion, office employees, and
teachers of elementary schools.You can't leave behind
your attention the educational activity of publishing
houses.
In this period such new publishing houses as
Dermanska, Rahmanivska m Volyn' (1619, 1638),
Stryatynska near Lvov (1604), Kryloska near Galych
(1606), Lutska (1628), Krem'yanetska appeared. The
most important publishing house was Kiev-Pecherskiy
(1616), which had published near 80 books up to
middle XVII century, 12 of them were published in
Polish and Latin, the rest - in native language. Most of
the books contained from 500 up to 1000 pages. The
first book, published in Kiev-Pecherskiy publishing
house, was "Breviary" (1616) with the foreword of
Zahariy Kopystenskiy. This book was written for
students of a fraternal school. "Psalter" was published
in 1624, "Pecherskaiy pateryk"- inl635, "Teraturqia"
of Kalnofiyskogo, devoted to the Kiev-Pecherskiy
convent -in 1638.In the history of publishing the most
62
significant event was putting "civil typing" into
practice, that facilitated the growing number of
publishing of formal documents and temporal
editions. The first publishing house in Ukraine with
this kind of typing was founded in Elisavetgrad in
1764.In XVII century chronicles advanced and the
most notable monuments were Gustynskiy,
Mezhygirskiy,
Lizogubivskiy,
Lvovskiy
and
Ostrozskiy chronicles. At the beginning of XVIII
century appeared three Cossacks' chronicles of
Samovidets, Gregory Grab'yanka and Samiylo
Velichko, which were written due to their own
observations, memory and documents.
You should pay attention to the works of philosopher
Gregory Savich Skovoroda (1722-1794), who was the
initiator of new Ukrainian language and literature of
Ivan
Petrovich
Kotlyarevskiy
(1769-1838);
enlightener Vasil Vasilovich Kapmst (1758-1823);
composers M.S. Berezovskiy (1745-1777), D.S.
Bortnyanskiy (1751-1825), A.L. Vedel (1767-1808);
architects Y.G. Shedel (1680-1752), I. GregorovichBarskiy (1713-1785), painters D.G. Levitskiy (17351825), V.Y. Borovikovskiy (1757- 1825); writerspolemist Inokentiy Gizel (1600-1683), Lazar
Baranovich (16204697), Ioanikiy Galyatovskiy (71688).
Questions, tasks for self-control:
63
1. What are the main features in culture (XIVXVIII centuries)?
2. Who is Ivan Mazepa?
3. When Zaporizhska Sich was created?
64
The culture of Ukraine in XVIII and XX centuries
Plan:
1. 19th century.
2. World War I and revolution
3. Inter-war Polish Ukraine
In the 19th century Ukraine was a rural area largely
ignored by Russia and Austria. With growing
urbanization and modernization, and a cultural trend
toward nationalism inspired by romanticism, a
Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth
and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-nationalpoet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and the political
theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the
growing nationalist movement.
It is important to note though that after Ukraine and
Crimea became aligned with the Russian Empire
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), significant German
immigration German Russian Colonies occurred after
it was encouraged by Catherine the Great and
immediate successors. Immigration was encouraged
into Ukraine and especially the Crimea by Catherine II
Catherine II of Russia in her proclamation of open
migration to the Russian Empire. Immigration was
encouraged for Germans and other Europeans to thin
65
the previously dominant Turk population
encourage more complete use of farmland.
and
Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late
19th century. Austrian Galicia, which enjoyed
substantial political freedom under the relatively
lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the center of the
nationalist movement. The Russian government
responded to nationalism by placing severe
restrictions on the Ukrainian language
Ukraine entered World War I on the side of both the
Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente,
under Russia. 3.5 million Ukrainians fought with the
Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the
Austro-Hungarian Army. During the war, AustroHungarian authorities established the Ukrainian
Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This
legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician
Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in
the post World War I period (1919–23). Those
suspected of the Russophile sentiments in Austria
were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the
Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and
placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof,
Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech
Republic).
66
With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires
following World War I and the Russian Revolution of
1917, a Ukrainian national movement for selfdetermination reemerged. During 1917–20, several
separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the
Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the
Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet
Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively
established territories in the former Russian Empire;
while the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the
Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the former AustroHungarian territory. In the midst of Civil War, an
anarchist movement called the Black Army led by
Nestor Makhno also developed in Southern Ukraine.
However, with Western Ukraine's defeat in the PolishUkrainian War followed by the failure of the further
Polish offensive that was repelled by the Bolsheviks.
According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the
Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially
incorporated into Poland who in turn recognised the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919,
that later became a founding member of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in
December 1922.
The war in Ukraine continued for another two years;
by 1921, however, most of Ukraine had been taken
67
over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia and Volhynia
were incorporated into independent Poland.
A powerful underground Ukrainian nationalist
movement rose in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s, led
by the Ukrainian Military Organization and the
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The
movement attracted a militant following among
students and harassed the Polish authorities. Legal
Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic Church, an
active press, and a business sector also flourished in
Poland. Economic conditions improved in the 1920s,
but the region suffered from the Great Depression in
the 1930s
It is necessary to point out the role of Russia Imperia
in the formation of the Ukrainian culture in XIX - at
the beginning of XX century. Ukrainians of Russia
Imperia were usually named small Russians and
underwent oppression, w7hich discarded all rights for
development of national culture. In this crucial
situation in Ukraine the only one force was left, which
was saving Ukrainian people from denationalization.
This force was national consciousness.
Thus, it is worth distinguishing activity of the
Kharkivskiy (1805) and Kievskiy (1834) Universities;
the reform of the educational system (1803-1804);
68
opening of Rishelevskogo Lyceum (in Odessa in
1817), Lyceum of duke Bezborodko (in Nizhyn in
1832): the activity of
Kirilo-Mephdiivskiy
brotherhood (1846-1847); movement of "hlopomaniv"
(60s'of XIX century).
The formation of new Ukrainian literature is
associated with the works of I.P. Kotlyarevskiy (17691838), T.G. Shevchenko (1814-1861), I.Y.Franko,
P.P. Gulak -Artemovskiy (1790-1865), IF. KvitkaOsnov'yanenko (1779-1843), E.P. Gre-binka (18121848),
M.P.
Starytskiy
(1840-1904),
O.U.
Kobylyanska (1863-1942), M.O. Vilinska(Marko
Vovhcock) (1834-1907), I.S. Nechui-Levitskiy (18381918), L.P. Kosach (Lesya Ukrainka) (18174913), IK.
Tobilevich (I.Karpenko-Kariy) (18454907), M.M.
Kotsubinskiy (1864-1913), founders of Ukrainian
literature in the lands of the western Ukraine Markiyan Shashkevich (18114843), Ivan Vasilevich
(18114866), Yakov Golovatskiy (1814-1888) - the
"Russian trio".
For the purpose of ascertaining of the formation and
development of education and science, it is important
to pay attention to the development of 'Ukrainian
historiography -the works of T.G. Shevchenko
("Gaidamaki", "Both dead and alive...", "Cold
ravine"), M. Grushevskiy ("History of Ukraine Russia" in 10 volumes and 13 books), V. Antonovich,
M. Dragomanov, D Yavornitskiy, O. Efimenko, M.
69
Vasilenko, D.D. Bantish-Karamenskiy ("The history
of Small Russia"), M.A, Markevich ("The history of
Small Russia" in 5 volumes) should be taken as
examples; also pay attention to the development of
language science the works of O.O. Potebnya, M.O.
Maksimovich, P.G. Zhitetskiy, K.P. Mihalchuk, B.
Grebinko (" Ukrainian dictionary" containing 68
thousands words published in 4 volumes) served as
the best examples.
Considering the development of publishing, it is
necessary to point out that at the end of 30s' of XIX
century in Ukraine provincial publishing houses were
opened, where "Provincial gazettes" were published.
The first monthly magazines in Ukrainian were public,
political and fiction magazine "The base" (1861-1862,
Saint-Petersburg), Ukrainian political magazine
"Gromada" (1878-1882, Geneva), historicallyethnographical and fiction monthly magazine
"Antiquity of Kiev" (1882-1907, Kiev), "Literary
scientific bulletin" (1893-1907, Lvov), the first
Ukrainian daily paper "Public thought" (1905, Kiev),
The development of Ukrainian theatre took
place. The professional theatres founded in Ukrainein Kiev (1805), in Poltava (1810), m Kharkiv (1812)
had the great influence on the development of
Ukrainian dramatic art. The first Ukrainian troupes
appeared. They were founded by I. Kotlyarevskiy and
G. Kvitka-Osnov'yanenko.
70
You especially need to concentrate on
examination of Ukrainian architecture of XIX century
and the beginning of XX century, on its conversion
into different architectural styles: classical, the
Renaissance, Gothic, romanticism. The main
architectural styles became one named as "electism"
(its representatives were famous Ukrainian architects F.V. Gonsiorovskiy, A.N, Bernardassy, N.K.
Golvinskiy, P. Vlodek, B.G. Mihailovskiy, V.V.
Velichko, N. Beketov), and the buildings constructed
in the style were - the Levadian palace in the Crimea
(architect M. Kra-snov, 1910-1911), the architectural
ensemble of the round square in Poltava (architect
A.D. Zaharov, 18054811).
To mark out the development of the fine art, we need
to examine the works of such painters as M.O.
Yaroshenko ("Student", "Girl-student", "Stoker"),
K.O. Trutovskiy ("The dance in Small Russia"), T.G.
Shevchenko ("Self-portrait", "Katherme", "Merry"),
L.M. Zhemchuzhnikov ("Picturesque Ukraine"), S.I.
Vasilkovskiy ("Tchoomak Romodaman Way",
"Cossacks in the steppe").
Questions, tasks for self-control:
1.Describe the main features of this period
71
2. Describe the World War I and revolution
3. Speak about Inter-war Polish Ukraine
The culture of Ukraine in XX and at the beginning
of XXI century.
Plan:
1. Inter-war Soviet Ukraine
2. Famine
3. Attack on intellectuals and artists
4. World War II
5. Post-World War II
6. Independence
Moscow encouraged a national renaissance in
literature and the arts, under the aegis of the
Ukrainization policy pursued by the national
Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk (1872–
1933). Seeing the exhausted society, the Soviet
government remained very flexible during the 1920s.
Thus, the Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a
revival, as Ukrainisation became a local
implementation of the Soviet-wide policy of
Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy. The
Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing
universal health care, education and social-security
benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.
Women's rights were greatly increased through new
laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.
72
Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the
early 1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated
power to become the de facto communist party leader.
The communists gave a privileged position to manual
labor, the largest class in the cities, where Russians
dominated. The typical worker was more attached to
class identity than to ethnicity. Although there were
incidents of ethnic friction among workers (in addition
to Ukrainians and Russians there were significant
numbers of Poles, Germans, Jews, and others in the
Ukrainian workforce), industrial laborers had already
adopted Russian culture and language to a significant
extent. Workers whose ethnicity was Ukrainian were
not attracted to campaigns of Ukrainianization or deRussification in meaningful numbers, but remained
loyal members of the Soviet working class. There was
no significant antagonism between workers
identifying themselves as Ukrainian or Russian.
Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in
the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's
industrial output quadrupled in the 1930s.
The industrialisation had a heavy cost for the
peasantry, demographically a backbone of the
Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for
increased
food
supplies
and
to
finance
industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of
collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined
the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms
and enforced the policies by the regular troops and
73
secret police. Those who resisted were arrested and
deported and the increased production quotas were
placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a
devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the
members of the collective farms were not allowed to
receive any grain until sometimes unrealistic quotas
were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became more
common. In 1932–33, millions starved to death in a
famine known as Holodomor or "Great Famine".
Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the
definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament
and other countries recognise it as such.
The famine claimed up to 10 million of Ukrainian
lives as peasants' food stocks were forcibly removed
by the Soviet government by the NKVD secret police.
Some explanations for the causes for the excess deaths
in rural areas of Ukraine and Kazakhstan during
1931–34 has been given by dividing the causes into
three groups: objective non-policy-related factors, like
the drought of 1931 and poor weather in 1932;
inadvertent result of policies with other objectives,
like rapid industrialization, socialization of livestock,
and neglected crop rotation patterns; and deaths
caused intentionally by a starvation policy. The
Communist leadership perceived famine not as a
humanitarian catastrophe but as a means of class
struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to
force peasants into collective farms. It was largely the
same groups of individuals who were responsible for
74
the mass killing operations during the civil war,
collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups
were associated with Efim Georgievich Evdokimov
(1891–1939) and operated in Ukraine during the civil
war, in the North Caucasus in the 1920s, and in the
Secret Operational Division within General State
Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31.
Evdokimov transferred into Communist Party
administration in 1934, when he became Party
secretary for North Caucasus Krai. But he appears to
have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai
Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on
Evdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass
killing operations that are known as the Great Terror
in 1937–38.
With Stalin's change of course in the late 1920s,
however, Moscow's toleration of Ukrainian national
identity came to an end. Systematic state terror of the
1930s destroyed Ukraine's writers, artists, and
intellectuals; the Communist Party of Ukraine was
purged of its "nationalist deviationists". Two waves of
Stalinist political repression and persecution in the
Soviet Union (1929–34 and 1936–38) resulted in the
killing of some 681,692 people; this included fourfifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three quarters
of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939,
German and Soviet troops divided the territory of
Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their
75
Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of
Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the
first time in its history was a decisive event in the
history of the nation.
After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded
Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands.
The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and
southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern
Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region. But
it ceded the western part of the Moldavian
Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly
created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these
territorial gains were internationally recognised by the
Paris peace treaties of 1947.
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22,
1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant
total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against
desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In
the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed
as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance by the Red
Army and by the local population. More than 600,000
Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front)
were killed or taken captive there.
Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought
alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance, some
elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground
created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia,
the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942) that at times
engaged the Nazi forces and continued to fight the
76
USSR in the years after the war. Using guerilla war
tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and
terror those who they perceived as representing, or
cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.
At the same time another nationalist movement fought
alongside the Nazis. In total, the number of ethnic
Ukrainians that fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army
is estimated from 4.5 million to 7 million. The proSoviet partisan guerilla resistance in Ukraine is
estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of
occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about
50 percent of them being ethnic Ukrainians.
Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are
very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to
as much as 100,000 fighters.
Initially, the Germans were even received as liberators
by some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the
Soviet Union in 1939. However, brutal German rule in
the occupied territories eventually turned its
supporters against the occupation. Nazi administrators
of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to
exploit the population of Ukrainian territories'
dissatisfaction with Stalinist political and economic
policies. Instead, the Nazis preserved the collectivefarm system, systematically carried out genocidal
policies against Jews, deported others to work in
Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of
Ukraine to prepare it for German colonisation, which
included a food blockade on Kiev.
77
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took
place on the Eastern Front, and Nazi Germany
suffered 93 percent of all casualties there. The total
losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during
the war are estimated between five and eight million,
including over half a million Jews killed by the
Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local
collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet
troops who fell in battle against the Nazis, 1.4 million
were ethnic Ukrainians. So to this day, Victory Day is
celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it
required significant efforts to recover. More than 700
cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.
The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47
caused by the drought and the infrastructure
breakdown that took away tens of thousands of lives.
In 1945 Ukraine was one of the founding members of
the United Nations organization. First Soviet
computer MESM was built in Kiev Institute of
Electrotechnology and became operational in 1950.
According to statistics, as of 1 January 1953,
Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult
"special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.
Apart from Ukrainians, over 450,000 ethnic Germans
from Ukraine and more than 200,000 Crimean Tatars
were victims of forced deportations.
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Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita
Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR.
Being the First Secretary of the Communist Party of
Ukrainian SSR in 1938-49, Khrushchev was
intimately familiar with the republic and after taking
power union-wide, he began to emphasize the
friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations.
In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of
Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular,
Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the
Ukrainian SSR.
Already by 1950, the republic fully surpassed pre-war
levels of industry and production. During the 19461950 five year plan nearly 20 percent of the Soviet
budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a five percent
increase from prewar plans. As a result the Ukrainian
workforce rose 33.2 percent from 1940 to 1955 while
industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period.
Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in
industrial production. It also became an important
center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech
research. Such an important role resulted in a major
influence of the local elite.
Many members of the Soviet leadership came from
Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev, who would
later oust Khrushchev and become the Soviet leader
from 1964 to 1982, as well as many prominent Soviet
sportspeople, scientists and artists. On April 26, 1986,
a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
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exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the
worst nuclear reactor accident in history. At the time
of the accident seven million people lived in the
contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in
Ukraine. After the accident, a new city, Slavutych,
was built outside the exclusion zone to house and
support the employees of the plant which was
decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the
International Atomic Energy Agency and World
Health Organization attributed 56 direct deaths to the
accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000
extra cancer deaths.
On July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the
Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine. The
declaration established the principles of the selfdetermination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy,
political and economic independence, and the priority
of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over
Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was
adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This
started a period of confrontation between the central
Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August
1991, a conservative faction among the Communist
leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to
remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the
Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on
August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the
Act of Independence in which the parliament declared
Ukraine as an independent democratic state.
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A referendum and the first presidential elections took
place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90
percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their
support for the Act of Independence, and they elected
the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to
serve as the first President of the country. At the
meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by
Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of
Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the
Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS).
Although the idea of an independent Ukrainian nation
had previously not existed in the 20th century in the
minds of international policy makers, Ukraine was
initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic
conditions in comparison to the other regions of the
Soviet Union. However, the country experienced
deeper economic slowdown than some of the other
former Soviet Republics. During the recession,
Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,
and suffered five-digit inflation rates. Dissatisfied with
the economic conditions, as well as the amounts of
crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and
organised strikes.
The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the
1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in
1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady real
economic growth averaging about seven percent
annually. A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted
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under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996,
which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic
and established a stable political system. Kuchma was,
however, criticized by opponents for corruption,
electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and
concentrating too much of power in his office. He also
repeatedly transferred public property into the hands
of loyal oligarchs.
In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister,
was declared the winner of the presidential elections,
which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court
of Ukraine later ruled. The results caused a public
outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor
Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome of the
elections. This resulted in the peaceful Orange
Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia
Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor
Yanukovych in opposition. Yanukovych returned to a
position of power in 2006, when he became Prime
Minister in the Alliance of National Unity, until snap
elections in September 2007 made Tymoshenko Prime
Minister again. Yanukovych was elected President in
2010.
Conflicts with Russia over the price of natural gas
briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and
again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in several other
European countries.
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Questions, tasks for self-control
1. Describe the main features of this period
2. Speak about the World War II
3. Speak about Ukrainisation
4. What was in Post-World War II?
5. How Ukraine become to Independence?
The culture of Ukraine in general
Plan:
1. Regionalism
2. Government and politics
3. Military
4. Religion
5. Economy
6. Tourism
7. Energy
8. Education
9. Culture
10. Language
11. Literature
12. Music and Dance
13. Weaving
14. Sport
15. Cuisine
There are not only clear regional differences on
questions of identity but historical cleavages remain
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evident at the level of individual social identification.
Attitudes toward the most important political issue,
relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv,
identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk,
predominantly Russian orientated and favorable to the
Soviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as
well as Kiev, such divisions were less important and
there was less antipathy toward people from other
regions (a poll by the Research & Branding Group
held March 2010 showed that the attitude of the
citizens of Donetsk to the citizens of Lviv was 79%
positive and that the attitude of the citizens of Lviv to
the citizens of Donetsk was 88% positive). However,
all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity
based on shared economic difficulties, showing that
other attitudes are determined more by culture and
politics than by demographic differences.
Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semiparliamentary semi-presidential system with separate
legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The
President is elected by popular vote for a five-year
term and is the formal head of state.
Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat
unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada. The
parliament is primarily responsible for the formation
of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers,
which is headed by the Prime Minister.
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Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet,
presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean
parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional
Court, should they be found to violate the Constitution
of Ukraine. Other normative acts are subject to
judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body
in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local
self-government is officially guaranteed. Local
councils and city mayors are popularly elected and
exercise control over local budgets. The heads of
regional and district administrations are appointed by
the president.
Ukraine has a large number of political parties,
many of which have tiny memberships and are
unknown to the general public. Small parties often
join in multi-party coalitions (electoral blocs) for the
purpose of participating in parliamentary elections.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine
inherited a 780,000 man military force on its territory,
equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons
arsenal in the world. In May 1992, Ukraine signed the
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) in which
the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to
Russia for "disposal" and to join the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state.
Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the
country became free of nuclear weapons. Currently
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Ukraine's military is the second largest in Europe,
after that of United Kingdom.
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of
conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called
for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles
(army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country
plans to convert the current conscript-based military
into a professional volunteer military not later than in
2011.
Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger
role in peacekeeping operations. Ukrainian troops are
deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish
Battalion. A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon,
as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated
ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance
and training battalion deployed in Sierra Leone. In
2003–05, a Ukrainian unit was deployed in Iraq, as
part of the Multinational force in Iraq under Polish
command. The total Ukrainian military deployment
around the world is 562 servicemen.
Military units of other states participate in
multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces
in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself
a neutral state. The country has had a limited military
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partnership with Russia, other CIS countries and a
partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the
government was leaning towards the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization, and a deeper cooperation with
the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action
Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the
question of joining NATO should be answered by a
national referendum at some point in the future.
Current President Viktor Yanukovych considers the
current level of co-operation between Ukraine and
NATO sufficient. Yanukovich is against Ukraine
joining NATO. During the 2008 Bucharest summit
NATO declared that Ukraine will become a member
of NATO, whenever it wants and when it would
correspond to the criteria for the accession.
The dominant religion in Ukraine is Eastern
Orthodox Christianity, which is currently split
between three Church bodies:the Ukrainian Orthodox
Church - Kiev Patriarchate, the Ukrainian Orthodox
Church autonomous church body under the Patriarch
of Moscow, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous
Orthodox Church.
A distant second by the number of the followers
is the Eastern Rite Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church,
which practices a similar liturgical and spiritual
tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy, but is in communion
with the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church and
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recognises the primacy of the Pope as head of the
Church.
Additionally, there are 863 Roman Catholic
communities, and 474 clergy members serving some
one million Roman Catholics in Ukraine. The group
forms some 2.19 percent of the population and
consists mainly of ethnic Poles and Hungarians, who
live predominantly in the western regions of the
country.
Protestant Christians also form around 2.19
percent of the population. Protestant numbers have
grown greatly since Ukrainian independence. The
Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine is the largest
group, with more than 150,000 members and about
3000 clergy. The second largest Protestant church is
the Ukrainian Church of Evangelical faith
(Pentecostals) with 110000 members and over 1500
local churches and over 2000 clergy, but there also
exist other Pentecostal groups and unions and together
all Pentecostals are over 300,000, with over 3000 local
churches. Also there are many Pentecostal high
education schools such as the Lviv Theological
Seminary and the Kiev Bible Institute. Other groups
include Calvinists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutherans,
Methodists and Seventh-day Adventists. The Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon Church)
is also present.
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There are an estimated 500,000 Muslims in
Ukraine, and about 250,000 of them are Crimean
Tatars. There are 487 registered Muslim communities,
368 of them on the Crimean peninsula. In addition,
some 50,000 Muslims live in Kiev; mostly foreignborn.
The Jewish community is a tiny fraction of what
it was before World War II. The cities with the largest
populations of Jews in 1926 were Odessa, 154,000 or
36.5% of the total population; and Kiev, 140,500 or
27.3%. The 2001 census indicated that there are
103,600 Jews in Ukraine, although community leaders
claimed that the population could be as large as
300,000. There are no statistics on what share of the
Ukrainian Jews are observant, but Orthodox Judaism
has the strongest presence in Ukraine. Smaller Reform
and Conservative Jewish (Masorti) communities exist
as well.
In Soviet times, the economy of Ukraine was the
second largest in the Soviet Union, being an important
industrial and agricultural component of the country's
planned economy. With the collapse of the Soviet
system, the country moved from a planned economy
to a market economy. The transition process was
difficult for the majority of the population which
plunged into poverty. Ukraine's economy contracted
severely following the years after the Soviet collapse.
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Day to day life for the average person living in
Ukraine was a struggle. A significant number of
citizens in rural Ukraine survived by growing their
own food, often working two or more jobs and buying
the basic necessities through the barter economy.
In 1991, the government liberalized most prices
to combat widespread product shortages, and was
successful in overcoming the problem. At the same
time, the government continued to subsidize state-run
industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary
emission. The loose monetary policies of the early
1990s pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels. For
the year 1993, Ukraine holds the world record for
inflation in one calendar year. Those living on fixed
incomes suffered the most.
Prices stabilized only after the introduction of
new currency, the hryvnia, in 1996. The country was
also slow in implementing structural reforms.
Following independence, the government formed a
legal framework for privatization. However,
widespread resistance to reforms within the
government and from a significant part of the
population soon stalled the reform efforts. A large
number of state-owned enterprises were exempt from
the privatization process.
In the meantime, by 1999, the GDP had fallen to
less than 40 percent of the 1991 level, but recovered to
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slightly above the 100 percent mark by the end of
2006. In the early 2000s, the economy showed strong
export-based growth of 5 to 10 percent, with industrial
production growing more than 10 percent per year.
Ukraine was hit by the economic crisis of 2008 and in
November 2008, the IMF approved a stand-by loan of
$16.5 billion for the country.
Ukraine's 2007 GDP (PPP), as calculated by the
CIA, is ranked 29th in the world and estimated at
$359.9 billion. Its GDP per capita in 2008 according
to the CIA was $7,800 (in PPP terms), ranked 83rd in
the world. Nominal GDP (in U.S. dollars, calculated at
market exchange rate) was $198 billion, ranked 41st in
the world. By July 2008 the average nominal salary in
Ukraine reached 1,930 hryvnias per month. Despite
remaining lower than in neighboring central European
countries, the salary income growth in 2008 stood at
36.8 percent According to the UNDP in 2003 4.9
percent of the Ukrainian population lived under 2 US
dollar a day and 19.5 percent of the population lived
below the national poverty line that same year.
Ukraine produces nearly all types of
transportation vehicles and spacecraft. Antonov
airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many
countries. The majority of Ukrainian exports are
marketed to the European Union and CIS. Since
independence, Ukraine has maintained its own space
agency, the National Space Agency of Ukraine
(NSAU). Ukraine became an active participant in
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scientific space exploration and remote sensing
missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has
launched six self made satellites and 101 launch
vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.
The country imports most energy supplies,
especially oil and natural gas, and to a large extent
depends on Russia as its energy supplier. While 25
percent of the natural gas in Ukraine comes from
internal sources, about 35 percent comes from Russia
and the remaining 40 percent from Central Asia
through transit routes that Russia controls. At the
same time, 85 percent of the Russian gas is delivered
to Western Europe through Ukraine.
The World Bank classifies Ukraine as a middleincome
state.
Significant
issues
include
underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation,
corruption and bureaucracy. In 2007 the Ukrainian
stock market recorded the second highest growth in
the world of 130 percent. According to the CIA, in
2006 the market capitalization of the Ukrainian stock
market was $111.8 billion. Growing sectors of the
Ukrainian economy include the information
technology (IT) market, which topped all other
Central and Eastern European countries in 2007,
growing some 40 percent.
Ukraine occupies 8th place in the world by the
number of tourists visiting, according to the World
Tourism Organisation rankings.
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Ukraine is a destination on the crossroads
between central and eastern Europe, between north
and south. It borders Russia and is not far from
Turkey. It has mountain ranges - the Carpathian
Mountains suitable for skiing, hiking, fishing and
hunting. The coastline on the Black Sea is a popular
summer destination for vacationers. Ukraine has
vineyards where they produce native wines, ruins of
ancient castles, historical parks, Orthodox and
Catholic churches as well as a few mosques and
synagogues. Kiev, the country's capital city has many
unique structures such as Saint Sophia Cathedral and
broad boulevards. There are other cities well-known to
tourists such as the harbour town Odessa and the old
city of Lviv in the west. The Crimea, a little
"continent" of its own, is a popular vacation
destination for tourists for swimming or suntaning on
the Black Sea with its warm climate, rugged
mountains, plateaus and ancient ruins. Cities there
include: Sevastopol and Yalta - location of the peace
conference at the end of World War II. Visitors can
also take cruise tours by ship on Dnieper River from
Kiev to the Black Sea coastline. Ukrainian cuisine has
a long history and offers a wide variety of original
dishes.
The Seven Wonders of Ukraine are the seven
historical and cultural monuments of Ukraine; the sites
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were chosen by the general public through an internetbased vote.
Ukraine is one of Europe‘s largest energy
consumers; it consumes almost double the energy of
Germany, per unit of GDP. A great share of energy
supply in Ukraine comes from nuclear power, with the
country receiving most of its nuclear fuel from Russia.
The remaining oil and gas, is also imported from the
former Soviet Union. Ukraine is heavily dependent on
its nuclear energy. The largest nuclear power plant in
Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is
located in Ukraine.
In 2006, the government planned to build 11 new
reactors by the year 2030, in effect, almost doubling
the current amount of nuclear power capacity.
Ukraine's power sector is the twelfth-largest in the
world in terms of installed capacity, with 54 gigawatts
(GW). Renewable energy still plays a very modest
role in electrical output. In 2007 47.4% of power came
from coal and gas (approx 20% gas), 47.5% from
nuclear (92.5 TWh) and 5% from hydro.
Currently the country has four active nuclear
power stations, located in Kuznetsovsk, Zaporizhia,
Yuzhnoukrainsk and Netishyn. In addition to these
active plants, a fifth reactor complex had been planned
for the Crimea, but construction was suspended
indefinitely in the wake of the Chernobyl disaster, a
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major nuclear incident which took place at the
Chernobyl Atomic Energy Station, 110 km north of
Kiev
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to
free education is granted to all citizens. Complete
general secondary education is compulsory in the state
schools which constitute the overwhelming majority.
Free higher education in state and communal
educational establishments is provided on a
competitive basis. There is also a small number of
accredited private secondary and higher education
institutions.
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total
access of education for all citizens, which continues
today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%. Since
2005, an eleven-year school program has been
replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education
takes four years to complete (starting at age six),
middle education (secondary) takes five years to
complete; upper secondary then takes three years. In
the 12th grade, students take Government Tests, which
are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These
tests are later used for university admissions.
The Ukrainian higher education system
comprises
higher
educational
establishments,
scientific and methodological facilities under federal,
municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of
95
education. The organisation of higher education in
Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of
education of the world's higher developed countries,
as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by
Christianity, which is the dominant religion in the
country. Gender roles also tend to be more traditional,
and grandparents play a greater role in raising children
than in the West. The culture of Ukraine has been also
influenced by its eastern and western neighbours,
which is reflected in its architecture, music and art.
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on
the art and writing of Ukraine. In 1932, Stalin made
socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when
he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of
Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled
creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was
introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became
free to express themselves as they wanted.
The tradition of the Easter egg, known as
pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were
drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye
was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the
dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of
the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was
removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This
tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the
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arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of
Kolomya near the foothills of the Carpathian
mountains in 2000 was built the museum of Pysanka
which won a nomination as the monument of modern
Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of
Ukraine action.
According to the Constitution, the state language
of Ukraine is Ukrainian. Russian, which was the de
facto official language of the Soviet Union, is widely
spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.
According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent of the
population declared Ukrainian as their native language
and 29.6 percent declared Russian. Most native
Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second
language.
These details result in a significant difference
across different survey results, as even a small
restating of a question switches responses of a
significant group of people. Ukrainian is mainly
spoken in western and central Ukraine. In western
Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in
cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian
and Russian are both equally used in cities, with
Russian being more common in Kiev, while Ukrainian
is the dominant language in rural communities. In
eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily
used in cities, and Ukrainian is used in rural areas.
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For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of
Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to
generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the
Ukrainian language in public life had decreased
significantly.
Following
independence,
the
government of Ukraine began restoring the image and
usage of Ukrainian language through a policy of
Ukrainisation. Today, all foreign films and TV
programs, including Russian ones, are subbed or
dubbed in Ukrainian.
According to the Constitution of the Autonomous
Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state
language of the republic. However, the republic's
constitution specifically recognises Russian as the
language of the majority of its population and
guarantees its usage 'in all spheres of public life'.
Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language
of 12 percent of population of Crimea) is guaranteed a
special state protection as well as the 'languages of
other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an
overwhelming majority of the Crimean population (77
percent), with Ukrainian speakers comprising just 10.1
percent, and Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4 percent. But
in everyday life the majority of Crimean Tatars and
Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.
The history of Ukrainian literature dates back to
the 11th century, following the Christianisation of the
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Kievan Rus‘. The writings of the time were mainly
liturgical and were written in Old Church Slavonic.
Historical accounts of the time were referred to as
chronicles, the most significant of which was the
Primary Chronicle. Literary activity faced a sudden
decline during the Mongol invasion of Rus'
Ukrainian literature again began to develop in the
14th century, and was advanced significantly in the
16th century with the introduction of print and with
the beginning of the Cossack era, under both Russian
and Polish dominance. The Cossacks established an
independent society and popularized a new kind of
epic poems, which marked a high point of Ukrainian
oral literature. These advances were then set back in
the 17th and early 18th centuries, when publishing in
the Ukrainian language was outlawed and prohibited.
Nonetheless, by the late 18th century modern literary
Ukrainian finally emerged.
The 19th century initiated a vernacular period in
Ukraine, lead by Ivan Kotliarevsky‘s work Eneyida,
the first publication written in modern Ukrainian. By
the 1830s, Ukrainian romanticism began to develop,
and the nation‘s most renowned cultural figure,
romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged.
Where Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father
of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko
is the father of a national revival.
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Then, in 1863, use of the Ukrainian language in
print was effectively prohibited by the Russian
Empire. This severely curtained literary activity in the
area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either
publish their works in Russian or release them in
Austrian controlled Galicia. The ban was never
officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the
revolution and the Bolsheviks‘ coming to power.
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the
early Soviet years, when nearly all literary trends were
approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the
1930s, when Stalin implemented his policy of socialist
realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the
Ukrainian language, but it required writers to follow a
certain style in their works. Literary activities
continued to be somewhat limited under the
communist party, and it was not until Ukraine gained
its independence in 1991 when writers were free the
express themselves as they wished.
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a
long history and many influences. From traditional
folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has
produced a long list of internationally recognized
musical talent including Tchaikovsky and Okean Elzy.
Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made
their way into Western music and even into modern
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Jazz. In the world of dance, Ukrainian influence is
evident from Polka to The Nutcracker.
Artisanal textile making is an important element
of Ukrainian culture. National dress is traditionally
woven or embroidered and adorned with black, red or
blue motifs. Weaving with the help of handmade
looms is today still practised in the village of
Krupove, situated in Rivne Oblast. The village is
furthermore the birth place of two famous
personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication.
Nina Myhailivna and Uliana Petrivna have won
several awards, and national as well as international
recognition for their crafts. In order to preserve this
traditional knowledge the village is now planning to
open a local weaving centre which will include a
museum and weaving school.
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet
emphasis on physical education. Such policies left
Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools,
gymnasia, and many other athletic facilities. The most
popular sport is football. The top professional league
is the Vyscha Liha, also known as the Ukrainian
Premier League. The two most successful teams in the
Vyscha Liha are rivals FC Dynamo Kyiv and FC
Shakhtar Donetsk. Although Shakhtar is the reigning
champion of the Vyscha Liha, Dynamo Kyiv has been
much more successful historically, winning two
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UEFA Cup Winners' Cups, one UEFA Super Cup, a
record 13 USSR Championships and a record 12
Ukrainian Championships; while Shakhtar only won
four Ukrainian championships and one and last UEFA
Cup.
Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet
national football team, most notably Igor Belanov and
Oleg Blokhin, winners of the prestigious Golden Ball
Award for the best football player of the year. This
award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the
collapse of the Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko, the
current captain of the Ukrainian national football
team. The national team made its debut in the 2006
FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before
losing to eventual champions, Italy. Ukrainians also
fared well in boxing, where the brothers Vitaliy
Klychko and Volodymyr Klychko have held world
heavyweight championships.
Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994
Winter Olympics. So far, Ukraine has been much
more successful in Summer Olympics (96 medals in
four appearances) than in the Winter Olympics (five
medals in four appearances). Ukraine is currently
ranked 35th by number of gold medals won in the Alltime Olympic Games medal count, with every country
above it, except for Russia, having more appearances.
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The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken,
pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend
to eat a lot of potatoes, grains, fresh and pickled
vegetables. Popular traditional dishes include
varenyky (boiled dumplings with mushrooms,
potatoes, sauerkraut, cottage cheese or cherries),
borscht (soup made of beets, cabbage and mushrooms
or meat) and holubtsy (stuffed cabbage rolls filled
with rice, carrots and meat). Ukrainian specialties also
include Chicken Kiev and Kiev Cake. Ukrainians
drink stewed fruit, juices, milk, buttermilk (they make
cottage cheese from this), mineral water, tea and
coffee, beer, wine and horilka.
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Test control from history of the Ukrainian
culture
1. The Books in Kyiv Rus were written on:
a) paper;
b) parchment;
c) birch bark.
2. Who was the author of "Novel of former years»:
a) Metropolitan Illarion;
b) Monk Nestor;
c) Duke Vladimir Velyky.
3. As a chronicle testifies, the first library in Russ was
founded in:
a) Sophia cathedral in Kyiv;
b) Sophia cathedral in Novgorod;
c) Uspensky cathedral in Halych.
4. All Ukrainian territory was populated by people in
the period of:
a) middle Paleolith;
b) Mesolithic;
c) Neolith.
5. In Neolith epoch in Ukraine some phenomena took
place, which clear up changes in life of people:
a) transformation of hunting and fishery into basic
occupation of
people;
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b)
creation of new, considerably elaborate tools of
people trade (stone
axe, bows, sickles);
c) inventing of complicated treatment technologies to
stone and to
metal.
6. Time of existence on the territory of Ukraine
Trypillya archaeological culture:
a) IV mill. B.C.;
b) IV-III mill. B.C.;
c) II-I mill. B.C.
7. The settlements of Trypillya archaeological culture
were studied for the first time by:
a) S. Bibkov;
b) V Hvoyka;
c) Ya. Pasternak.
8. The most ancient people on the territory of Ukraine
were:
a) Cimmerians;
b) Scythians;
c) Greeks.
9. In Kyiv Russ children were taught only:
a) to read and to write, to compose the poems and
speeches, to understand language of spheres, and
God's postulates and moral bases;
b) to read, to write, to count, God's postulates, moral
bases and church singing;
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c) to read, to write, to count, to compose poems and
speech, to sing in church choir, God's postulates and
moral bases.
10. In architecture of Kyiv Russ the most
popular was:
a) Romanesque;
b) Byzantine style;
c) Gothic style.
11. Fresco is:
a) drawing, done on damp plaster;
b) work of art, dome from pieces of colored glass;
c) Portraiture.
12. At the end of the XVI — the first half of the XVII
c. in Ukraine existed:
a) only schools attached to churches and cloisters,
which gave elementary education (taught to read, to
write, to count, to sing) and formed religious
thinking;
b) schools attached to churches and monasteries, which
gave not only elementary education, and knowledge
on grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, philosophies and
God's postulates;
c) schools attached to churches and monasteries, which
gave elementary education and public and private
schools, where taught "Seven free arts", philosophy,
God's postulates.
13. In the XVI — the first half of XVII c. "Seven free
arts" and philosophy taught in:
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a) Jesuitic colleges, church and monasteries orthodox
schools, Ostrog and Mogyla colleges;
b) Jesuitic colleges, some schools of orthodox
brotherhoods, Ostrog and Mogyla colleges;
c) schools of orthodox brotherhoods, orthodox church
and monasteries schools, Mogyla college.
14. The founder of Kyiv college — one of the high school
at the end of the XVI - the first half of the XVII c.
was:
a) Borytsky;
b) P. Mohyla;
c) K. Ostrozky.
15. Necessary education for political and public activity till
the triens of the XVI c. Ukrainians could to receive
only in:
a) Ostrog academy and Lvov brotherhoods school;
b) European universities: Krakow, Paris, Bologna,
Sorbonne;
c) Kyiv-Mogyla academy.
16. The first books were printed in Cyrillic in:
a) the second half of the XV c;
b) the first half of the XVI c;
c) the second half of the XVI c
17. Among known historic persons of the XVI — the first
half of the XVII c. fix on name of Ukrainian poet:
a) K. Ostrozky;
b) P. Rusyn;
c) D. Nalyvayko.
18. From the first half of the XVII c. in Ukraine were
popular plays, which illustrated the biblical stories,
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lives of saints or contained the talk of moral character
between allegoric characters (between Truth and Lie,
Life and Death). Such plays were called:
a) verteps;
b) school dramas;
c) interacts.
19. The Language of official documents of Lithuanian
state in the XIV-XV c. was:
a) Lithuanian;
b) Latin;
c) Russian language.
20. Since the XVII c. in Ukraine Ukrainian puppet-show
were popular, authors and actors of which were pupils
of fraternity schools and colleges. Name of such theatre
is:
a) vertep;
b) miracle;
c) interact.
21. The author of series of drawings "Picturesque
Ukraine" was:
a) T. Shevchenko;
b) I. Soshenko;
c) A. Tropinin.
22.
The first rector of Kyiv University was:
a) A. Kulish;
b) M. Maksymovych;
c) T. Hulak-Artemovsky.
23. T. Shevchenko scientific society was created in:
a) Kyiv;
b) Odessa;
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c) Lvov.
24. Wide cultural-educational activity among Ukrainian
population was developed by famous catholic church
activist:
a) I. Mohylnytsky;
b) Ya. Holovatsky;
c) A. Vahyyanyn.
25. The first Bible translation in modern Ukrainian
literary language was done by:
a) T. Shevchenko and M. Kostomarov;
b) P. Kulish and I Pulyuy;
V. Antonovych and M. Starytsky.
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UKRAINIAN NATIONAL CUSTOMS,
TRADITIONS AND HOLIDAYS
Ukraine is a wonderful country with rich culture
and extremely interesting traditions. Ukrainians
pay great attention to observing holidays. They try
to keep all traditions and customs of their ancestry.
As for the elements of Ukrainian character, first of
them is kindness. There is hospitality, and
friendliness. There is respect for elders, for the
deceased; love for children, love of nature and
animals. Ukrainians have a knack for humor; they
are musical, artistic and wonderful craftsmen
famous for their mastery in weaving, wood carving
and ceramics. But skills and diligence in working
the land is perhaps the greatest talent the
Ukrainians
possess.
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The country's customs and oral folk literature
reflect Old Ukrainian pre-Christian, and Christian
cultures. The rituals derive from the folk calendar,
religious celebrations like Christmas, Easter and
Whitsuntide, Ivana Kupala (St.John's Eve), New
Year, and the autumn folk festivals dedicated to the
end of the agricultural work.
Ukrainians have typical wedding customs, family
traditions connected with crafts and jobs (the first
day of sowing, beginning of the harvest), along
with traditional symbols (straw didukh, decorated
pysanka Easter eggs, holy water, and traditional
dishes like kutia (boiled wheat with honey and
poppy seed), paskha Easter bread, varenyky
(something like ravioli), and pancakes. The rituals
include folk dances, carols, and fortune telling, and
blessing with water.
Christmas in Ukraine
For the Ukrainian people Christmas is the most
important family holiday of the whole year. It is
celebrated solemnly, as well as merrily, according
to ancient customs that have come down through
the ages and are still observed today. Ukrainian
Christmas customs are based not only on Christian
traditions, but to a great degree on those of the preChristian, pagan culture and religion. The
Ukrainian society was basically agrarian at that
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time and had developed an appropriate pagan
culture, elements of which have survived to this
day.
Ukrainia
n Christmas festivities begin on Christmas Eve
([G]Dec.24; [J]Jan.6.) and end on the Feast of the
Epiphany. The Christmas Eve Supper or Sviata
Vecheria (Holy Supper) brings the family together
to partake in special foods and begin the holiday
with many customs and traditions, which reach
back to antiquity. The rituals of the Christmas Eve
are dedicated to God, to the welfare of the family,
and to the remembrance of the ancestors.
With the appearance of the first star which is
believed to be the Star of Bethlehem, the family
gathers to begin supper. The table is covered with
two tablecloths, one for the ancestors of the family,
the second for the living members. In pagan times
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ancestors were considered to be benevolent spirits,
who, when properly respected, brought good
fortune to the living family members. Under the
table, as well as under the tablecloths some hay is
spread to remember that Christ was born in a
manger. The table always has one extra placesetting for the deceased family members, whose
souls, according to belief, come on Christmas Eve
and partake of the food.
Ukrainian Cuisine
Ukrainian cuisine is closely linked to the customs,
culture and way of life of the Ukrainian people. It
is famous for its diversity and quality of flavor.
The most popular Ukrainian meal is "borshch."
This thick, hearty and delicious soup is prepared
with a variety of ingredients including meat,
mushrooms, beans, and even prunes. Mushroom
soups, bean and pea soups, soups with dumplings
and thick millet chowders are also popular.
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Holubtsi are Ukrainian cabbage rolls. The filling is
mainly rice with a small amount of hamburger
(unlike other East European cabbage rolls which
are mainly hamburger with a small amount of rice).
Cabbage leaves are steamed to make them soft and
then the filling is added. The holubtsi are placed in
a large pot, covered with tomato soup (or sauce)
and baked. The word "holub" in Ukrainian means
"dove," and holubtsi are in the shape of a dove.
Of course, every region of Ukraine has its own
recipes and traditions.
Regional styles of dance
Ukrainian folk dance was fundamentally altered
when it began to be performed onstage, as it was
transformed into a new art form: Ukrainian folkstage dance. Once dance masters such as
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Verkhovynets and Avramenko began gathering a
repertoire of dances and touring Ukrainian lands
with their troupes, teaching workshops in the
villages as they went, the inherent regional
variations which stemmed from the improvisational
nature of pre-modern Ukrainian folk dances began
to slowly fade. The types of dances one would see
in one part of the country began to be performed in
other parts of the country, and "Ukrainian dances"
became a more homogeneous group.
Ukraine has many ethnocultural regions, many
with their own music, dialect, form of dress, and
dance steps. The scholarship of Verkhovynets and
Avramenko, however, was mostly limited to the
villages of central Ukraine. Gradually, others
began filling in the gaps of this research, by
researching the dance forms of the various ethnic
groups of western Ukraine, publishing this
scholarship, and founding regional dance
ensembles. Most of this research, however,
occurred after Verkhovynets' and Avramenko had
already toured Ukraine, which limited the available
sources of "traditional dance" knowledge to
isolated villages or the immigrant communities
who left their native territories before
Verkhovynets and Avramenko began touring.
Because of the spread and influence of
Verkhovynets and Avramenko's early work, most
of the dances representing these ethnocultural
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regions, as performed by modern-day Ukrainian
folk-stage dance ensembles, still incorporate the
basic steps of bihunets and tynok, although new
variations between "regional" styles of dance have
developed as a result of more and more advanced
instruction
and
choreographies
becoming
prevalent. Story (character) dances, such as
pantomimed fables, and staged ritual dances are
not necessarily linked to particular regions.
The stage costumes adopted by modern-day
Ukrainian dance ensembles are based on traditional
dress, but represent an idealized image of village
life, with dancers identically dressed in vibrant
colors untarnished by time or nature. While the
dance-steps, costumes, and music differ from
dance to dance, it is important to realize that many
of these variations are modern-day choreographic
constructs, with changes having been made to
advance the art more than to preserve cultural
traditions.
The "regional dances" of Ukrainian dance include:
Stylized "Kozak" Dances
Ukrainian girls in traditional etno wear, Hutsuls
tradition.
Central Ukrainian or Kozak Dances,
representing the culture and traditions of the
Ukrainian Kozaks (Kozaky), Poltava and other
central Ukrainian lands surrounding the river
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Dnipro (Dnieper); these are the dances most
commonly associated with Ukrainian dance. The
culture of central and eastern Ukraine developed
under many foreign influences, due to both trade
and foreign invasion. The greatest indigenous
cultural influence was the semi-military society of
the Kozaks, whose love of social dances spawned
the Hopak, the Kozachok , the Povzunets, the
Chumaky , and many others. The men's costumes
for these dances are styled after Kozak dress, with
boots, a comfortable shirt, a sash (poyas) tied
around the waist, and loose, billowy riding trousers
(sharovary);
common
accessories
include
overcoats, hats, and swords. The women's
costumes have subtler variations, since the
woman's blouse generally displays more
embroidery than the men's shirt, the skirt (plakhta)
is woven with various geometric and color
patterns, and they wear a headpiece of flowers and
ribbons (vinok). All of these pieces can vary from
village to village, or even based on a family
tradition, although most professional ensembles
dress their performers with identical costumes, for
aesthetic reasons. The style of these dances is
acrobatic and physically demanding for the men,
who are often showcased individually; women
have traditionally played secondary roles,
displaying grace and beauty while often dancing in
technically demanding unison.
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Stylized "Kozak" Dance
Hutsul Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Hutsulshchyna. While Vasyl
Avramenko's Hutsul dances are notoriously
inaccurate depictions of the dances of the Hutsuls,
the highlanders who inhabit the Carpathian
Mountains, the demand for additional research to
fill in the gaps of Verkhovynets initial work
eventually brought about a revived interest in
Hutsul customs and traditions, and soon Hutsul and
Carpathian dance ensembles had developed the
second most-recognizable style of Ukrainian
dance. The well known dances of the region of
Pokuttia is the Kolomyika which is named after the
biggest city of the region, Kolomea; the Hutsulka.
The mountainous Hutsul region of Ukraine,
Hutsulshchyna, is adjacent to the Romanian
regions of Bukovina and Maramureş, and the
regions are ethno-culturally linked. In depicting
Hutsuls dances, dancers traditionally wear leather
moccasins known as postoly, and decorated vests
known as keptari. Men's pants are not as loose as
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the kozak dress, and women wear a skirt composed
of front and back panels, tied at the waist. Hutsul
costumes traditionally incorporate orange, brown,
green, and yellow embroidery. Hutsul dances are
well-known for being lively and energetic,
characterized by quick stamping and intricate
footwork,
combined
with
swift
vertical
movements. A well-known Hutsul dance is the
arkan ('lasso', cf. Romanian arcan), in which men
dance around a fire.
Ukrainian girls in traditional etno wear, Hutsuls
tradition.
Transcarpathian Dances, representing the culture
and traditions of Ukrainian Zakarpattia. Dances
from this region are known for their large sweeping
movements and colourful costumes, with the
general movement being "bouncy". A signature
dance from this region is bereznianka.
Bukovynian Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Bukovyna, a transitional highland
between Ukraine and Romania, historically ruled
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by the Romanian Principality of Moldavia, as well
as the Habsburg Empire and the Tatars. Ukrainian
dances depicting Bukovynian music and dance is
peppered with dichotomies and contrapuntal
themes, perhaps reflecting the political histories of
the region. In these dances, both men and women
perform a variety of foot-stamps. Usually, the girls'
headpieces are very distinctive, consisting of tall
wheat stalks, ostrich feathers, or other unique
protuberances. The embroidery on the blouses and
shirts is typically stitched with darker and heavier
threads, and women's skirts are sometimes open at
the front, revealing an embroidered slip.
Volyn' Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Volyn'. This region is located in northwestern Ukraine. The representative costumes
worn by Ukrainian dancers are bright and vibrant,
while the dance steps are characterized by
energetic jumping, high legs, and lively arms. The
dances representing this region have been
influenced by the traditional dances of Poland, due
to Volyn's geographical proximity with Poland,
and Poland's extended rule over the area.
Polissian Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Polissia. The steps of Polissian dance
as depicted by Ukrainian dancers are
characteristically very bouncy and with emphasis
on high knee movement. The costumes often
incorporate white, red, and beige as the main
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colors, and girls often wear aprons. A popular
Polissian dance is called mazurochky.
Lemko Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Lemkivshchyna. The ethnographic
region of the Lemkos lays mainly in Poland, with a
small part falling within current Ukrainian borders.
Relatively isolated from ethnic Ukrainians, the
Lemko people have a unique lifestyle and
ethnography, like that of the Hutsuls, which
Ukrainian dance choreographers enjoy depicting.
The dance costumes typically depict the men and
women with short vests, with the style of dance
being light-hearted as well as lively.
Podillian Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Podillia.
Boiko Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Boikivshchyna.
Gypsy Dances, representing the culture and
traditions of Ukrainian Tsyhany: The Roma people
have lived in Ukraine for centuries. Those
inhabiting the Carpathian Mountains have even
developed their own dialect of the Rom language,
as well as customs and traditional dances limited to
their own villages. Many Ukrainian folk-stage
dance ensembles have incorporated stylized
Tsyhans'ky ("Gypsy") dances into their repertoire.
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