Memory
Modal Model of Memory
] Three memory store that differ in function, capacity and
duration
] Control processes - control movement of information
within and between memory stores
Memory--our mental storage of information
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal
Encoding
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
1
2
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sensory Memory Store
] Capacity--large
] Duration--VERY brief
] Example: Iconic memory
] (visual information)
Sensory
Input
1. Letters are displayed
on a screen for 1/20
of a second
Sensory
Memory
Q C F T
S K G O
W R J B
3
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
4
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
2. Screen is blank
Length of time
varies up to
one second
3. Tone is sounded,
indicating row
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
5
6
1
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
4. Subject reports
letters in row
indicated by tone
S, K, G, ...
G
A
V
M
K
U
X
L
S
F
Q
J
O
N
U
A
Z
N
7
Sensory Memory Store
Sensory
Sensory
Memory
Input
8
Working Memory Store
] Sensory memory forms
automatically, without
attention or
interpretation
] Attention is needed to
transfer information to
working memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention Working or
Short-term
Memory
9
Working Memory Store
Working Memory Store
] Function - conscious processing of information
\ where information is actively worked on
] Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
] Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
10
Attention Working or
] What happens if you need to keep information
in working memory longer than 30 seconds?
] To demonstrate, memorize the following
phone number (presented one digit at a time):
857916 3
Short-term
Memory
11
12
2
Working Memory Store
] What is the number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
] Mental or verbal repetition of information
allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
857-9163
The number lasted in your working memory
longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the
number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
13
14
Maintenance Rehearsal
Working Memory Store
] What happens if you can’t use maintenance
rehearsal?
] Memory decays quickly
] To demonstrate, again memorize a phone
number (presented one digit at a time)
] What is the number?
628-5094
Without rehearsal, memory fades
\ BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by
sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
628509 4
15
16
Peterson’s STM Task
] Test of memory for
3-letter nonsense
syllables
] Participants count
backwards for a few
seconds, then recall
] Without rehearsal,
memory fades
Working Memory Store
] What happens if you need to remember more
than 7 +/- 2 items?
] To demonstrate, memorize the following 16
digit number (presented one digit at a time):
10 0
P e rc e n ta g e
w h o re c a lle d
c o n s o n a n ts
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
T im e in se co n d s b etw e en p re sen ta tio n
o f co n so n a n ts an d re ca ll req u es t
(n o re h ears al a llo w e d )
17
1492181219982001
18
3
Chunking
Long-Term Memory Store
] Grouping small bits of information into
larger units of information
] Once information passes from sensory to
working memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory
\ expands working memory load
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
19
Long-Term Memory Store
20
Types of Long-term Memory
] Function - organizes and stores information
\ more passive form of storage than working memory
] Unlimited capacity
] Duration - thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Encoding
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Priming
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
21
Explicit memory
22
Subtypes of Explicit Memory
] Memory consciously recalled or
declared
] Can use explicit memory to
directly respond to a question
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory
23
Semantic Memory
24
4
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
] Memory tied to your own personal
experiences
] Examples:
] Memory not tied to personal events
] General facts and definitions about
the world
] Examples:
\ What did you do for your last birthday?
\ Do you like to eat caramel apples?
\ How many tires on a car?
\ What is a cloud?
\ What color is a banana?
25
26
Implicit memory
Subtypes of Implicit Memory
] Influences your thoughts or
behavior, but does not enter
consciousness
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
27
Priming
28
Classical conditioning
Procedural memory
] Pavlov
Natural reflex
] Previously
neutral
stimulus now Neutral stimulus + UCS (food in mouth)
comes to elicit (ringing bell)
a response
after pairing
with an
Conditioned reflex
unconditioned
stimulus
] Memory that enable you to perform specific
learned skills or habitual responses
] Examples:
UCR
(salivation)
\ Riding a bike
\ Using the shift stick while driving
\ Tying your shoe laces
CS (ringing bell)
29
CR
(salivation)
30
5
Priming
Priming demonstration
] Unscramble the following word:
] Pass out demonstration sheets
]L T E P A
] Answer:
]P E T A L
]P L A T E
31
Priming
32
Priming sheet 1
] Why did half the class say plate
and the other half say petal?
] You were primed to do so
] There were two different sheets
of unscrambled words
] Unscramble the
following word:
]
]
]
]
]
]
FINEK
OPONS
KROF
PUC
ECUSAR
LTEPA
33
Priming sheet 2
] Unscramble the
following word:
]
]
]
]
]
]
WOLFRE
PTUIL
FELA
DUB
LOBSOMS
LTEPA
] Answer:
]
]
]
]
]
]
KNIFE
SPOON
FORK
CUP
SAUCER
PLATE
34
Priming
] Answer:
]
]
]
]
]
]
FLOWER
TULIP
LEAF
BUD
BLOSSOM
PETAL
35
] Activation of one or more existing
memories by a stimulus
] Activation not a conscious
decision
] BUT, can effect subsequent
thoughts and actions
36
6
Evidence for separate
implicit/explicit systems?
Temporal lobe
] Neurophysiological evidence
] Patient H.M.
] Includes:
\ hippocampus
\ amygdala
\ Life-threatening seizures originating
in temporal lobe
\ surgically removed portions of
temporal lobe
Temporal
lobe
Hippocampus
37
Patient H.M.
38
Hippocampal damage
] surgery was effective in reducing seizures
] BUT, resulted in ANTEROgrade amnesia
] Can remember explicit memories acquired
before the surgery
\ e.g. old addresses, normal vocabulary
] Had difficulty forming NEW explicit memories
] Deficits in
forming new
explicit
memories
\ e.g. remembering the name of someone he met 30
minutes prior
\ cannot name new world leaders or performers
39
Memory
40
Long-Term Memory Store
\ Three Stages of Memory
] Encoding - process that controls movement
from working to long-term memory store
] Retrieval - process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working
memory store
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
41
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
42
7
Automatic vs. Effortful
Encoding
Automatic vs. Effortful
Encoding
] Automatic processing
\ Unconscious encoding of information
\ Examples:
[ What did you eat for breakfast today?
[ Was the last time you studied during the
day or night?
[ You know the meanings of these very
words you are reading. Are you actively
trying to process the definition of the
words?
] Effortful processing
\ Requires attention and conscious
effort
\ Examples:
[ Memorizing your notes for your upcoming
Introduction to Psychology exams
[ Repeating a phone number in your head
until you can write it down
\ Different levels of effortful processing
43
44
Levels of Processing
Experiment
Levels of Processing
Experiment
] Instructions:
\ A word will appear once a second
\ Follow the instructions on your sheet
\ Simply check yes or no in the appropriate
column
\ There will be 18 words total
Please count up the number of “yes” responses and “no”
responses
Carriage
Earlobe
Grill
Carrot
Uncle
Rabbit
Picnic
Red
Aunt
Elephant
Trout
Brain
Memory
Duck
Knee
Cabbage
Gold
Horse
45
Levels of Processing
Experiment
46
How many did you
accurately recall?
Recall as many words as possible
Horse
Cabbage
Elephant
Gold
Trout
Rabbit
Uncle
Knee
Duck
47
Memory
Brain
Picnic
Grill
Earlobe
Carriage
Carrot
Aunt
Red
48
8
Shallow processing
Deep levels of processing
] Processing only superficial
characteristics of a piece of information
] Examples:
] Elaboration: focus on meaning of
info to encode info into LTM
\ visual encoding: encoding of images
[ Does a word contain the letter “e”?
\ Maintenance rehearsal: simple repetition
\ don’t simply repeat items over and
over
\ tie item to other info in memory
49
50
Which level is more effective?
] In an experiment, college students
assigned to use elaboration received
higher grades than students not
taught elaboration
Deep
Semantic
(type of…)
Shallow - Acoustic
Type of
Processing
More evidence
for deep processing
Acoustic
(rhymes with...)
Shallow - Visual
0
Visual
(written in capitals?)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent of words recalled
Deep processing leads to better recall than shallow
processing
51
Ways to use deep processing
]
]
]
]
]
Actively question new info
Think about its implications
Relate info to things you already know
Generate own examples of concepts
Don’t highlight passage as you read
52
Enhancing encoding
] Mnemonics--a system for
aiding memory
\ method of loci
\ peg word method
\ focus on the ideas in the text
53
54
9
Method of Loci
Enhancing encoding
] Imagine moving
through a familiar
series of locations
Peg Word
\ the campus, your
house, etc.
] Associate each
place/room with a
visual representation
of the objects to be
remembered
55
Memory
56
Memory
\ Imagery and Encoding
\ Practicing Retrieval
A Mnemonic
System: Method
of Loci
57
Improving Recall by Practice 58
How are memories
organized?
Are memories organized?
] Demonstration:
] Recite the days of the week
] Recite the days of the week in
alphabetical order
] Demonstrates that long-term memory
is organized
\ not just a random jumble of information
59
60
10
Hierarchical organization
Hierarchical organization
] Related items clustered together to form
categories
] Related categories clustered to form higherorder categories
Mammals
Dogs
German
Shepherds
Cats
Scottish
Terriers
Siamese
Calico
61
62
Take home message
Retrieving Memory
We can improve memory by organizing the information
to be learned
] Retrieval transfers info from LTM to STM
] Forgetting - inability to retrieve previously
available information
] Why do people forget?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
63
Forgetting theories
64
Forgetting as encoding failure
] Info never encoded into LTM
] Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
Short-term
memory
X
Encoding
Long-term
memory
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting
65
66
11
Encoding failures
Other encoding failure demos
] Even though you’ve seen
thousands of pennies, you’ve
probably never looked at one
closely to encode specific
features
] What letters accompany the
number 5 on your telephone?
] Where is the number 0 on your
calculator?
67
68
Forgetting as retrieval failure
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
] Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures
] Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we
can’t retrieve it
] Can’t retrieve info that you absolutely
know is stored in your LTM
Encoding
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
X
] Why can’t we retrieve info?
Retrieval
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
69
Decay theories
] Memories fade
away or decay
gradually if
unused
] Time plays
critical role
] Ability to retrieve
info declines with
time after
original encoding
70
Interference theories
1 00
100%
Average
percentage
of
information
retained
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 1 8 24 2 6 31
mins hr hrs hrs daysdaysdays
] “Memories interfering with
memories”
] Forgetting NOT caused by mere
passage of time
] Caused by one memory competing
with or replacing another memory
Interval between original learning
of nonsense syllables and
memory test
71
72
12
Two types of interference
Retroactive interference
] When a NEW memory interferes
with remembering OLD information
Types of interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Interference
73
74
Retroactive interference
Proactive interference
] Example: Learning a new language
interferes with ability to remember old
language
] Opposite of retroactive
interference
] When an OLD memory
interferes with
remembering NEW
information
] Example: Memories of
where you parked your
car on campus the past
week interferes with
ability find car today
Study French
Study Spanish
papier
livre
papel
plume
école
libro
pluma
escuela
F-
retroactive interference
French 101
M id-term
exam
75
76
Retrieval failure theories
Retrieval cue theories
] Decay theories
] Interference theories
] Retrieval cue theories
] Retrieval cue - a clue, prompt
or hint that can help memory
retrieval
] Forgetting the result of using
improper retrieval cues
77
78
13
Context Dependant
Learning
Recall vs. Recognition tests
] Importance of retrieval cues evident in
recall vs. recognition tests
] Recall tests - must retrieve info learned
earlier
Recall of information is improved if you are in
the same context as where you encoded it.
\ Examples: Fill-in-the-blank test; essay exams
] Recognition tests - only need to identify
the correct answer
\ Example: Multiple choice tests
79
80
Context-dependent effects
] Words heard
underwater are
best recalled
underwater
] Words heard on
land are best
recalled on
land
Percentage 50
of words
recalled
40
30
20
10
0
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts
for hearing
and recall
Water/
water
Land/
land
Same contexts
for hearing
81 recall
and
14