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Handbook of Literary Terms
For more information about a topic or to see related
entries, turn to the page(s) indicated with each entry.
On another line are cross-references to entries in this
handbook that provide closely related information. For
instance, at the end of Alliteration is a cross-reference to
Assonance.
ALLEGORY A narrative in which characters and
settings stand for abstract ideas or moral qualities.
In addition to the literal meaning of the story, an allegory contains a symbolic, or allegorical, meaning.
Characters and places in allegories often have names
that indicate the abstract ideas they stand for: Justice,
Deceit, Vanity. George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm is a
well-known modern allegory.
ALLITERATION Repetition of the same or very
similar consonant sounds, usually at the beginnings
of words that are close together in a poem. In this
example the sound “fl” is repeated in line 1, and the “s”
sound is repeated in line 2:
Open here I flung the shutter, when with many
a flirt and flutter,
In there stepped a stately Raven of the
saintly days of yore.
from “The Raven” by
Edgar Allan Poe
See also Assonance, Onomatopoeia, Rhyme.
“I think I’ll wait for the next elevator.”
Drawing by Chas. Addams. ©1988 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
claims. Subtleties, or fine distinctions in meaning, in
a text help create ambiguity. The significance of these
subtleties is open to question.
ANALOGY Comparison made between two things
to show how they are alike in some respects. During
the Revolutionary War the writer Thomas Paine drew
an analogy between a thief breaking into a house
and the king of England interfering in the affairs of
the American Colonies (The Crisis, No. 1). Similes are a
kind of analogy. However, an analogy usually clarifies
something, while a simile shows imaginatively how
two different things are alike in some unusual way.
ALLUSION Reference to a statement, a person, a
place, or an event from literature, history, religion,
mythology, politics, sports, science, or pop culture.
In calling one of his stories “The Gift of the Magi” (page
363), O. Henry uses an allusion to the wise men from
the East called the Magi, who presented the infant
Jesus with the first Christmas gifts.
ANECDOTE Very, very brief story, usually told to
make a point. Historians and other writers of nonfiction often use anecdotes to clarify their texts or to
provide human interest.
AMBIGUITY An element of uncertainty in a text, in
which something can be interpreted in a number of
different ways. Ambiguity adds a layer of complexity
to a story, for it presents us with a variety of possible
interpretations, all of which are valid. Edgar Allan Poe’s
“The Cask of Amontillado” (page 286) is ambiguous
because we don’t know if we should trust the narrator’s
ASIDE Words that are spoken by a character in a
play to the audience or to another character but that
are not supposed to be overheard by the others onstage. Stage directions usually tell when a speech is an
aside. For example, in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet
(page 807), there are two asides in the opening scene.
Sampson speaks to Gregory in an aside, and Gregory
Handbook of Literary Terms 1241
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responds to him in another aside as they pick a fight
with the servants of the house of Montague. Sampson
and Gregory hear each other’s asides, and so do we in
the audience, but Montague’s servants do not.
ASSONANCE Repetition of similar vowel sounds
that are followed by different consonant sounds,
especially in words that are close together in a poem.
The words base and fade and the words young and love
contain examples of assonance. The lines that follow
are especially musical because of assonance:
Seeing the snowman standing all alone
In dusk and cold is more than he can bear.
The small boy weeps to hear the wind prepare
A night of gnashings and enormous moan.
from “Boy at the Window”
by Richard Wilbur
See also Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Rhyme.
AUTHOR The writer of a literary work.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY An account of the writer’s own
life. An example of a book-length autobiography is
“Cub Pilot on the Mississippi” by Mark Twain (see page
447).
See also Biography.
BALLAD Song that tells a story. Folk ballads are
composed by unknown singers and are passed on for
generations before they are written down. Literary
ballads, on the other hand, are poems composed by
known individuals and are written in imitation of the
old folk ballads. “Ballad of Birmingham” by Dudley
Randall (page 714) is a modern literary ballad. Ballads
usually tell sensational stories of tragedy or adventure. They use simple language and a great deal of
repetition and usually have regular rhythm and rhyme
schemes, which make them easy to memorize.
BIOGRAPHY An account of a person’s life, written
or told by another person. A classic American biography is Carl Sandburg’s multivolume life of Abraham Lincoln. Today biographies are written about movie stars,
TV personalities, politicians, sports figures, self-made
millionaires, even underworld figures. Biographies
are among the most popular forms of contemporary
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literature. On page 298 is an excerpt from Kenneth
Silverman’s biography of Edgar Allan Poe.
See also Autobiography.
BLANK VERSE Poetry written in unrhymed iambic
pentameter. Blank means the poetry is not rhymed.
Iambic pentameter means that each line contains five
iambs, or metrical feet that consist of an unstressed
syllable followed by a stressed syllable ( ˘ ’). Blank verse
is the most important poetic form in English epic and
dramatic poetry. It is the major verse form used in
Shakespeare’s plays.
See also Iambic Pentameter, Meter.
CHARACTER Person in a story, poem, or play.
Sometimes, as in George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm,
the characters are animals. In myths the characters are
divinities or heroes who have superhuman powers,
such as Poseidon and Athena and Odysseus in the
Odyssey (page 1037). Most often a character is an
ordinary human being, like Mme. Loisel in Guy de
Maupassant’s “The Necklace” (page 349).
The process of revealing the personality of a character in a story is called characterization. A writer can
reveal a character by
1. letting us hear the character speak
2. describing how the character looks and dresses
3. letting us listen to the character’s inner thoughts
and feelings
4. revealing what other characters in the story think
or say about the character
5. showing us what the character does—how he or
she acts
6. telling us directly what the character’s personality
is like: cruel, kind, sneaky, brave, and so on
The first five ways of revealing a character are
known as indirect characterization. When a writer
uses indirect characterization, we have to use our own
judgment to decide what a character is like, based on
the evidence the writer gives us. But when a writer
uses the sixth method, known as direct characterization, we don’t have to decide for ourselves; we are told
directly what the character is like.
Characters can be classified as static or dynamic. A
static character is one who does not change much in
the course of a story. By contrast, a dynamic character
changes as a result of the story’s events.
Characters can also be classified as flat or round.
A flat character has only one or two traits, and these
can be described in a few words. Such a character has
COMEDY In general, a story that ends happily. The
hero or heroine of a comedy is usually an ordinary
character who overcomes a series of obstacles that
block what he or she wants. Many comedies have
a boy-meets-girl plot, in which young lovers must
face obstacles to their marrying. At the end of such
comedies, the lovers marry, and everyone celebrates,
as in Shakespeare’s play A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
In structure and characterization, a comedy is the opposite of a tragedy.
See also Comic Relief, Drama, Tragedy.
COMIC RELIEF Comic scene or event that breaks
up a serious play or narrative. Comic relief allows writers to lighten the tone of a work and show the humorous side of a dramatic theme. In Shakespeare’s tragedy
Romeo and Juliet (page 807), the nurse and Mercutio
provide comic relief.
CONFLICT Struggle or clash between opposing
characters or opposing forces. In an external conflict,
a character struggles against an outside force. This
outside force might be another character, or society
as a whole, or something in nature. “The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell (page 19) is about the
external conflict between the evil General Zaroff and
the hunter Rainsford. By contrast, an internal conflict
takes place entirely within a character’s own mind.
An internal conflict is a struggle between opposing
needs or desires or emotions within a single person. In
James Hurst’s “The Scarlet Ibis” (page 333), the young
narrator struggles with an internal conflict—between
CONNOTATION All the meanings, associations,
or emotions that have come to be attached to some
words, in addition to their literal dictionary definitions, or denotations. For example, skinny and slender
have the same literal definition, or denotation—“thin.”
But their connotations are completely different. If you
call someone skinny, you are saying something unflattering. If you call someone slender, you are paying him
or her a compliment. The British philosopher Bertrand
Russell once gave a classic example of the different
connotations of words: “I am firm. You are obstinate. He
is a pigheaded fool.” Connotations, or the suggestive
power of certain words, play an important role in creating mood or tone.
See also Diction, Mood, Tone.
COUPLET Two consecutive lines of poetry that
rhyme. Alexander Pope wrote this sarcastic couplet for
a dog’s collar (Kew is a place in England):
I am his Highness’ dog at Kew;
Pray tell me, Sir, whose dog are you?
by Alexander Pope
Couplets work nicely for humor and satire because
the punch line comes so quickly. However, they are
most often used to express a completed thought. In
Shakespeare’s plays an important speech or scene
often ends with a couplet.
DESCRIPTION Type of writing intended to create
a mood or emotion or to re-create a person, a place,
a thing, an event, or an experience. Description is
one of the four major techniques used in writing. (The
others are narration, exposition, and persuasion.)
Description works by creating images that appeal to
the senses of sight, smell, taste, hearing, or touch. Writers use description in all forms of fiction, nonfiction,
and poetry.
See also Imagery.
DIALECT Way of speaking that is characteristic of
a particular region or a particular group of people.
Dialects may have a distinct vocabulary, pronunciation
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CLIMAX Moment of great emotional intensity or
suspense in a plot. The major climax in a story or play
usually marks the moment when the conflict is decided
one way or another.
love for his brother and hatred of his brother’s disabilities. Many works, especially longer ones, contain both
internal and external conflicts, and an external conflict
often leads to internal problems.
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no depth, like a piece of cardboard. A round character,
like a real person, has many different character traits,
which sometimes contradict one another.
Static and flat characters often function as subordinate characters in a story. This means that they may
play important roles in a story, but they are not the
main actors in the plot.
The fears or conflicts or needs that drive a character are called motivation. A character can be motivated by many factors, such as vengeance, fear, greed,
love, even boredom.
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Handbook of Literary Terms
system, and grammar. In a sense, we all speak dialects;
but one dialect usually becomes dominant in a country
or culture and becomes accepted as the standard way
of speaking. In the United States, for example, the
formal language is known as standard English. (This is
what you usually hear spoken by TV newscasters on
the national channels.)
DIALOGUE The conversation between characters
in a story or play. Dialogue is an important factor in
characterization and in moving the plot forward. Dialogue forms the structure of most plays. The following
dialogue is taken from Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Cask of
Amontillado” (page 286):
“You do not comprehend?” he said.
“Not I,” I replied.
“Then you are not of the brotherhood.”
“How?”
“You are not of the Masons.”
“Yes, yes,” I said, “yes, yes.”
“You? Impossible! A Mason?”
“A Mason,” I replied.
“A sign,” he said.
“It is this,” I answered, producing a trowel from
beneath the folds of my roquelaure.
“You jest,” he exclaimed, recoiling a few paces.
“But let us proceed to the amontillado.”
DICTION A writer’s or speaker’s choice of words.
Diction is an essential element of a writer’s style. Some
writers use simple, down-to-earth, or even slang words
(house, home, digs); others use ornate, officialsounding, or even flowery language (domicile,
residence, abode). The connotations of words are
an important aspect of diction.
See also Connotation, Tone.
DRAMA Story that is written to be acted for an
audience. The action of a drama is usually driven by
a character who wants something and takes steps to
get it. The elements of a dramatic plot are exposition,
complications, climax, and resolution. The term
drama is also used to describe a serious play that is
neither a comedy nor a tragedy.
See also Comedy, Tragedy.
DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE A poem in which a
speaker addresses one or more silent listeners, often
reflecting on a specific problem or situation. Though
the person addressed in a dramatic monologue does
not speak, we often can discover something about the
listener or listeners—as well as the speaker—by paying
close attention to the speaker’s words. The speaker
in Edgar Lee Masters’s dramatic monologue “Lucinda
Matlock” is an outspoken old woman who addresses
the younger generation from the graveyard in Spoon
River:
What is this I hear of sorrow and weariness,
Anger, discontent, and drooping hopes?
Degenerate sons and daughters,
Life is too strong for you—
It takes life to love Life.
EPIC Long story told in elevated language (usually
poetry), which relates the great deeds of a largerthan-life hero who embodies the values of a particular society. Most epics include elements of myth,
legend, folk tale, and history. Their tone is serious and
their language is grand. Most epic heroes undertake
quests to achieve something of tremendous value to
themselves or their people. Often parts of the hero’s
quest are set in both heaven and hell. Homer’s Iliad and
Odyssey (page 1037) are the best-known epics in Western civilization. The great epic of ancient Rome is Virgil’s
Aeneid, which, like the Iliad and Odyssey, is based on
events that happened during and immediately after
the Trojan War. The great epic of India is the Mahabharata. The great epic of Mali in Africa is Sundiata.
Spain’s epic is El Cid.
EPITHET Adjective or descriptive phrase that is regularly used to characterize a person, place, or thing.
We speak of “Honest Abe,” for example, and “America
the Beautiful.” Homer created so many epithets in his
Iliad and Odyssey that his name is permanently associated with a type of epithet. The Homeric epithet
in most English translations consists of a compound
adjective that is regularly used to modify a particular
noun. Three famous examples from the Odyssey are
“wine-dark sea,”“rosy-fingered dawn,” and “the gray-eyed
goddess Athena.”
ESSAY Short piece of nonfiction that examines a
single subject from a limited point of view. Most es-
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information, defines, or clarifies an idea. Exposition is
one of the four major techniques used in writing. (The
others are narration, description, and persuasion.)
We find exposition in news articles, in histories, in biographies (and even in cookbook recipes). In fact, each
entry in this Handbook of Literary Terms is an example
of exposition.
Exposition is also the term for that beginning part
of a plot that gives information about the characters
and their problems or conflicts.
See also Plot.
FABLE Very brief story in prose or verse that teaches a moral, or a practical lesson about how to get
along in life. The characters in most fables are animals
that behave and speak like human beings. Some of the
most popular fables are those attributed to Aesop, who
scholars believe was a slave in ancient Greece.
See also Folk Tale, Tall Tale.
FIGURE OF SPEECH Word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of another and is not
meant to be understood on a literal level. Most figures of speech, or figurative language, involve some
sort of imaginative comparison between seemingly
unlike things.
Some 250 different types of figures of speech have
been identified. The most common are the simile
(“I wandered lonely as a cloud”), the metaphor (“Fame
is a bee”), and personification (“The wind stood up
and gave a shout”).
See also Metaphor, Personification, Simile.
FLASHBACK Scene in a movie, play, short story,
novel, or narrative poem that interrupts the present action of the plot to flash backward and tell
what happened at an earlier time. That is, a flashback
FLASHFORWARD A scene in a movie, play, short
story, novel, or narrative poem that interrupts the
present action of the plot to shift into the future.
Writers may use a flash-forward to create dramatic
irony. By means of the flash-forward, we know the
future, but the story characters do not.
FOIL Character who is used as a contrast to another
character. A writer uses a foil to accentuate and clarify
the distinct qualities of two characters. The word foil is
also used for a thin sheet of shiny metal that is placed
beneath a gem to intensify its brilliance. A character
who is a foil, like the metal behind the gem, sets off
or intensifies the qualities of another character. In
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (page 807), the cynical,
sophisticated Mercutio is a foil to the romantic, naive
Romeo.
FOLK TALE Story that has no known author and
was originally passed on from one generation to
another by word of mouth. Unlike myths, which are
about gods and heroes, folk tales are usually about ordinary people. Folk tales tend to travel, and you’ll often
find the same motifs—elements such as characters,
images, and story lines—in the tales of different cultures. For example, there are said to be nine hundred
versions of the folk tale about Cinderella.
See also Fable, Tall Tale.
FORESHADOWING The use of clues to hint at
events that will occur later in a plot. Foreshadowing is
used to build suspense and, sometimes, anxiety in the
reader or viewer. In a drama the gun found in a bureau
drawer in Act I is likely to foreshadow violence later
in the play. In “The Cask of Amontillado” (page 286),
Poe uses foreshadowing skillfully. For example, when
Montresor produces a trowel from beneath his cloak,
Poe is foreshadowing the means Montresor will use to
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EXPOSITION Type of writing that explains, gives
breaks the normal time sequence of events in a narrative, usually to give the readers or viewers some background information that helps them make sense of a
story. Much of the Odyssey (page 1037) is told in the
form of a flashback, as Odysseus describes his previous
adventures to the Phaeacian court of King Alcinous.
Flashbacks are extremely common storytelling devices
in movies. In fact, the word flashback comes from film
criticism, and it has spread to the rest of literature.
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says can be categorized as either personal or formal.
A personal essay (sometimes called an informal
essay) generally reveals a great deal about the writer’s
personality and tastes. Its tone is often conversational,
sometimes even humorous.
A formal essay is usually serious, objective, and
impersonal in tone. Its purpose is to inform its readers
about some topic of interest or to persuade them to
accept the writer’s views. The statements in a formal
essay are supported by facts and logic.
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Handbook of Literary Terms
murder his enemy. When later he begins to build a wall
around Fortunato, we remember that trowel.
FREE VERSE Poetry that does not have a regular
meter or rhyme scheme. Poets writing in free verse try
to capture the natural rhythms of ordinary speech. To
create its music, free verse may use internal rhyme,
alliteration, onomatopoeia, refrain, and parallel
structure. For an example of a poem written in free
verse, read “Daily” (page 650).
See also Meter, Rhythm.
GENRE (ZHAHN ruh) The category that a work of
literature is classified under. Five major genres in
literature are nonfiction, fiction, poetry, drama, and
myth. Collections 7, 8, and 9 of this book are organized
by genre: by poetry, by drama, and by epic and myth.
HAIKU Japanese verse form consisting of three
lines and, usually, seventeen syllables (five in the first
line, seven in the second, and five in the third). The
writer of a haiku uses association and suggestion to
describe a particular moment of discovery or enlightenment. A haiku often presents an image of daily life
that relates to a particular season.
HYPERBOLE (hy PUR buh lee) Figure of speech that
uses exaggeration to express strong emotion or to
create a comic effect. Writers often use hyperbole, also
called overstatement, to intensify a description or to
emphasize the essential nature of something. If you
say that a limousine is as long as an ocean liner, you are
using hyperbole.
IAMBIC PENTAMETER Line of poetry that contains five iambs. An iamb is a metrical foot, or unit of
measure, consisting of an unstressed syllable followed
by a stressed syllable ( ˘ ’). Pentameter comes from the
Greek penta (five) and meter (measure). Here is one
˘ ´ Here is a line measuring five iambs:
iamb: arise.
´ through
´ ˘
˘ soft
´ ! What
˘ light
˘ yonder
´ ˘ window
But
´
breaks?
from Romeo and Juliet
by William Shakespeare
Iambic pentameter is by far the most common verse
line in English poetry.
See also Blank Verse, Meter.
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IDIOM Expression peculiar to a particular language
that means something different from the literal
meaning of each word. “It’s raining cats and dogs”
and “We heard it through the grapevine” are idioms of
American English. One of the difficulties of translating
a work from another language is translating the idioms.
IMAGERY Language that appeals to the senses.
Most images are visual—that is, they create pictures
in the reader’s mind by appealing to the sense of
sight. Images can also appeal to the senses of hearing, touch, taste, or smell or even to several senses at
once. Imagery is an element in all types of writing, but
it is especially important in poetry. The following lines
contain images that make us see, hear, and even smell
what the speaker experiences as he travels to meet
someone he loves.
Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach;
Three fields to cross till a farm appears;
A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch
And blue spurt of a lighted match . . .
from “Meeting at Night”
by Robert Browning
See also Description.
INVERSION Reversal of the normal word order
of a sentence. The elements of a standard English
sentence are subject, verb, and complement, and in
most sentences that is the order in which they appear.
(Ray rowed the boat.) Writers use inversion for emphasis
and variety. They may also use it for more technical
reasons—to create end rhymes or to accommodate a
given meter. In a statement about Ulysses S. Grant and
Robert E. Lee, the historian Bruce Catton wrote, “Daring
and resourcefulness they had too. . . .” Catton inverts
the order of the parts of the sentence so that the important words (daring and resourcefulness) come first.
IRONY Contrast between expectation and reality—between what is said and what is really meant,
between what is expected to happen and what really
does happen, or between what appears to be true
and what is really true.
In verbal irony, a writer or speaker says one thing
but really means something completely different. If
you call a clumsy basketball player the new Michael
Jordan, you are using verbal irony. The murderer in
Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Cask of Amontillado” (page 286)
METAPHOR Figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things, in which one
thing becomes another thing without the use of the
word like, as, than, or resembles. The poet Robert
Burns’s famous comparison “O my love is like a red, red
rose” is a simile. If he had written, “O my love is a red,
red rose” or “O my love bursts into bloom,” he would
have been using a metaphor.
Notice that the comparison in the second
metaphor above is implied, or suggested, rather than
directly stated, as it is in the first metaphor. An implied
metaphor does not tell us directly that one thing is
something else. Instead, it uses words that suggest
the nature of the comparison. The phrase “bursts into
bloom” implies that the feeling of love is like a budding
flower.
An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is
extended, or developed, over several lines of writing or
even throughout an entire poem.
A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has been
used so often that we no longer realize it is a figure of
speech—we simply skip over the metaphorical con-
METER Generally regular pattern of stressed and
unstressed syllables in poetry. When we want to
indicate the metrical pattern of a poem, we mark the
stressed syllables with the symbol (’) and the unstressed syllables with the symbol (˘). Indicating the
metrical pattern of a poem in this way is called scanning the poem, or scansion (SKAN shuhn). Notice the
pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in the first
four lines of this poem:
´ ˘ ˘ now
Slowly,
´ ˘ silently,
´ the˘ moon
´
´ ˘in her
´ ˘ shoon;
Walks
´ the˘ night
˘ silver
´
Th´is way,
˘ ˘and that,
´ she´ peers,
´ and
˘ sees
´
´ ˘ fruit
´ ˘ trees.
Silver
´ upon
˘ ˘ silver
´ ...
“Silver” by Walter de la Mare
See also Blank Verse, Iambic Pentameter, Rhythm.
MOOD A story’s atmosphere or the feeling it
evokes. Mood is often created by a story’s setting. A
story set in a wild forest at night, with wolves howling
in the distance, will probably convey a mood of terror,
tension, or uneasiness. A story set in a cozy cottage or
garden full of sunlight and the chirps of birds will probably create a mood of peace.
See also Setting.
MYTH Traditional story that is rooted in a particular
culture, is basically religious, and usually serves to
explain a belief, a ritual, or a mysterious natural phenomenon. Most myths grew out of religious rituals,
and almost all of them involve the influence of gods on
human affairs. Every culture has its own mythology. For
many centuries the myths of ancient Greece and Rome
were very influential in the Western world.
“The Fenris Wolf” (page 1109) is a story from Norse
mythology, the system of myths developed thousands
of years ago by the people of Scandinavia. The myths
were part of an oral tradition; the oldest surviving writHandbook of Literary Terms 1247
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LYRIC POETRY Poetry that does not tell a story but
is aimed only at expressing a speaker’s emotions or
thoughts. Most lyrics are short, and they usually imply,
rather than directly state, a single strong emotion. The
term lyric comes from the Greek. In ancient Greece,
lyric poems were recited to the accompaniment of a
stringed instrument called a lyre. Today poets still try
to make their lyrics “sing,” but they rely only on the
musical effects they create with words (such as rhyme,
rhythm, and onomatopoeia).
See also Sonnet.
nection it makes. Examples of dead metaphors are the
roof of the mouth, the eye of the storm, the heart of the
matter, and the arm of the chair.
A mixed metaphor is the inconsistent mixture
of two or more metaphors. Mixed metaphors are a
common problem in bad writing, and they are often
unintentionally funny. You are using a mixed metaphor
if you say, “Put it on the back burner and let it germinate” or “Let’s set sail and get this show on the road.”
See also Figure of Speech, Personification, Simile.
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is using verbal irony when he says to his unsuspecting
victim, “Your health is precious.”
Situational irony occurs when there is a contrast
between what would seem appropriate and what really happens or when there is a contradiction between
what we expect to happen and what really does take
place.
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or the
reader knows something important that a character in
a play or story does not know. In Shakespeare’s Romeo
and Juliet (page 807), we know, but Romeo does not,
that when he finds Juliet in the tomb, she is drugged,
not dead. Thus we feel a terrible sense of dramatic
irony as we watch Romeo kill himself upon discovering
her body.
See also Satire, Tone.
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ten versions of these ancient tales came from Iceland in
the thirteenth century. There are variations in the Norse
myths, as there are in the myths of most cultures.
NARRATION Type of writing or speaking that tells
about a series of related events. Narration is one of
the four major techniques used in writing. (The others
are description, exposition, and persuasion.) Narration can be any length, from a brief paragraph to
an entire book. It is most often found in short stories,
novels, epics, and ballads. But narration is also used in
any piece of nonfiction that relates a series of events
that tell what happened—such as a biography, an essay, or a news story—and even in a scientific analysis or
a report of a business meeting.
See also Point of View.
NARRATOR The voice telling a story. The choice
of a narrator is very important in storytelling. For
example, Edgar Allan Poe chose the murderer himself
to tell the story “The Cask of Amontillado” (page 286).
This choice of a narrator not only increases our sense of
horror but also raises many questions, which make us
uneasy. For one thing we wonder whether this narrator
is telling the truth. We also wonder whom the narrator
is talking to as he relates the details of his crime.
See also Point of View.
NONFICTION Prose writing that deals with real
people, things, events, and places. The most popular
forms of nonfiction are biography and autobiography. Other examples include essays, newspaper
stories, magazine articles, historical writing, scientific
reports, and even personal diaries and letters.
NOVEL Fictional prose narrative usually consisting of more than fifty thousand words. In general,
the novel uses the same basic literary elements as the
short story (plot, character, setting, theme, and point
of view) but develops them more fully. Many novels
have several subplots, for instance. Modern writers often do away with one or more of the novel’s traditional
elements. Some novels today are basically character
studies, with only the barest, stripped-down story lines.
ONOMATOPOEIA (ahn uh maht uh PEE uh) Use of
a word whose sound imitates or suggests its meaning. Onomatopoeia is so natural to us that we begin
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using it instinctively as children. Crackle, pop, fizz, click,
and zoom are examples of onomatopoeia. Onomatopoeia is an important element in the music of poetry.
And in the hush of waters was the sound
Of pebbles, rolling round;
Forever rolling, with a hollow sound:
And bubbling seaweeds, as the waters go,
Swish to and fro
Their long cold tentacles of slimy gray. . . .
from “The Shell”
by James Stephens
See also Alliteration, Assonance, Rhyme.
PARADOX Statement or situation that seems to
be a contradiction but reveals a truth. Paradoxes in
literature are designed to make readers stop and think.
They often express aspects of life that are mysterious,
surprising, or difficult to describe. When O. Henry, in
“The Gift of the Magi” (page 363), refers to the impoverished Della and Jim as “one of the richest couples on
earth,” he is stating a paradox.
PARALLELISM Repetition of words, phrases, or
sentences that have the same grammatical structure
or that state a similar idea. Parallelism, or parallel
structure, helps make lines rhythmic and memorable
and heightens their emotional effect.
It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age
of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was
the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of
Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the
spring of hope, it was the winter of despair,
we had everything before us, we had nothing
before us, we were all going direct to Heaven,
we were all going direct the other way. . . .
from A Tale of Two Cities
by Charles Dickens
PERSONA Mask or voice assumed by a writer.
Authors often take on other identities in their works. In
a short story a writer may assume a persona by using a
first-person narrator. When a poet is not the speaker of
a poem, the poet is creating a persona.
See also Point of View, Speaker.
See also Figure of Speech, Metaphor.
PLOT Series of related events that make up a story
or drama. Plot is what happens in a story, novel, or
play. An outline showing the “bare bones” of a plot
would include the story’s basic situation, or exposition; the conflict, or problem; the main events (including complications); the final climax, or moment
of great emotional intensity or suspense, when we
learn what the outcome of the conflict is going to be;
and the resolution, or denouement.
POETRY Type of rhythmic, compressed language
that uses figures of speech and imagery to appeal
to the reader’s emotions and imagination. The major
forms of poetry are the lyric poem and the narrative
poem. Two types of narrative poetry are the epic and
the ballad. One popular type of lyric poetry is the sonnet. Beyond this, poetry is difficult to define, though
many readers feel it is easy to recognize. The poet Wallace Stevens, for example, once described poetry as “a
search for the inexplicable.”
See also Ballad, Epic, Lyric Poetry, Sonnet.
POINT OF VIEW Vantage point from which a
writer tells a story. In broad terms there are three
possible points of view: omniscient, first person, and
third-person limited.
In the omniscient (or “all-knowing”) point of
view, the person telling the story knows everything
there is to know about the characters and their problems. This all-knowing narrator can tell us about the
past, the present, and the future of all the characters.
He or she can even tell us what the characters are
thinking. The narrator can also tell us what is happening in other places. In the omniscient point of view, the
narrator is not in the story at all. In fact, the omniscient
narrator is like a god telling the story.
PROTAGONIST Main character in fiction or drama.
The protagonist is the character we focus our attention on, the person who sets the plot in motion. The
character or force that blocks the protagonist is the
antagonist. Most protagonists are rounded, dynamic
characters who change in some important way by the
end of the story, novel, or play. The antagonist is often
but not always the villain in the story. Similarly, the
protagonist is often but not always the hero.
PUN Play on the multiple meanings of a word or
on two words that sound alike but have different
meanings. Most often puns are used for their humorous effects; they are used in jokes all the time. (“What
has four wheels and flies?” Answer: “A garbage truck.”)
Shakespeare was one of the great punsters of all time.
The servants in Romeo and Juliet (page 807) make
“Does the doctor make mouse calls?”
Drawing by Bernard Schoenbaum, ©1991 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.
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Handbook of Literary Terms
This poetry gets bored of being alone,
it wants to go outdoors to chew on the winds,
to fill its commas with the keels of rowboats. . . .
from “Living Poetry”
by Hugo Margenat
In the first-person point of view, one of the
characters is telling the story, using the pronoun I. We
get to know this narrator very well, but we can know
only what this character knows, and we can observe
only what this character observes. All of our information about the events in the story must come from this
one character. When a story is told from the first-person point of view, readers often must ask if the narrator
is unreliable. An unreliable narrator does not always
know what is happening in the story, or he or she
might be lying or telling us only part of the story.
In the third-person-limited point of view, the
narrator, who plays no part in the story, zooms in on
the thoughts and feelings of just one character. With
this point of view, we observe the action through the
eyes and with the feelings of this one character.
See also Narrator, Persona.
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PERSONIFICATION Kind of metaphor in which
a nonhuman thing or quality is talked about as if it
were human. Here are a few lines in which poetry itself
is personified—that is, it is described as behaving and
feeling the way people do:
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Handbook of Literary Terms
crude puns as they clown around at the start of the
play. Later, Romeo and his friend Mercutio trade wits in
a series of more sophisticated puns. Since word meanings change so quickly, some of Shakespeare’s puns
are barely understandable to us today, just as puns
popular today may be puzzling to people a hundred
years from now.
REFRAIN Repeated word, phrase, line, or group of
lines. Though refrains are usually associated with songs
and poems, they are also used in speeches and other
forms of literature. Refrains are most often used to
build rhythm, but they may also provide commentary
or build suspense.
RHYME Repetition of accented vowel sounds, and
all sounds following them, in words that are close
together in a poem. Choice and voice are rhymes, as
are tingle and jingle.
End rhymes occur at the ends of lines. In this
poem the words defense/tense, know/go, and Spain/
Maine are end rhymes:
Old Mary
My last defense
Is the present tense.
It little hurts me now to know
I shall not go
Cathedral-hunting in Spain
Nor cherrying in Michigan or Maine.
by Gwendolyn Brooks
Internal rhymes occur in the middle of a line. This
line has an internal rhyme (dreary rhymes with weary):
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary
from “The Raven”
by Edgar Allan Poe
When two words have some sound in common
but do not rhyme exactly, they are called approximate rhymes (or half rhymes, off rhymes, or slant
rhymes). In Brooks’s poem on this page, the words now
and know are approximate rhymes.
The pattern of end rhymes in a poem is called a
rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme of a stanza or a
poem is indicated by the use of a different letter of the
alphabet for each new rhyme. For example, the rhyme
scheme of Brooks’s poem is aabbcc.
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RHYTHM Musical quality in language produced
by repetition. Rhythm occurs naturally in all forms of
spoken and written language. The most obvious kind
of rhythm is produced by meter, the regular repetition
of stressed and unstressed syllables found in some
poetry. But writers can also create rhythm by using
rhymes, by repeating words and phrases, and even
by repeating whole lines or sentences. This stanza by
Walt Whitman is written in free verse and so does not
follow a metrical pattern. Yet the lines are rhythmical
because of Whitman’s repeated use of certain sentence
structures, words, and sounds.
Give me the splendid silent sun with all his
beams full-dazzling,
Give me juicy autumnal fruit ripe and red
from the orchard,
Give me a field where the unmowed grass
grows,
Give me an arbor, give me the trellised grape,
Give me fresh corn and wheat, give me
serene-moving animals teaching content,
Give me nights perfectly quiet as on high
plateaus west of the Mississippi, and I
looking up at the stars. . . .
from “Give Me the Splendid
Silent Sun”
by Walt Whitman
See also Free Verse, Meter.
SATIRE Type of writing that ridicules something—a
person, a group of people, humanity at large, an attitude or failing, a social institution—in order to reveal
a weakness. Most satires are an attempt to convince us
of a point of view or to persuade us to follow a course
of action. They do this by pointing out how the
opposite point of view or action is ridiculous or laughable. Satire often involves exaggeration—the act of
overstating something to make it look worse than it is.
See also Irony, Tone.
SCENE DESIGN Sets, lights, costumes, and props,
which bring a play to life onstage. Sets are the furnishings and scenery that suggest the time and place
of the action. Props (short for properties) are all the
objects that the actors use onstage, such as books,
telephones, and suitcases.
SIMILE Figure of speech that makes a comparison
between two unlike things, using a word such as
like, as, resembles, or than. Shakespeare, in one of
his famous sonnets, uses a simile with an ironic twist,
comparing two things that are not alike:
My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun
We would expect a love poem to compare the light in a
lover’s eyes to the bright sun. But instead, Shakespeare
puts a twist into a common comparison—in order to
make a point about the extravagant similes found in
most love poems of his day.
See also Figure of Speech, Metaphor.
SOLILOQUY Long speech in which a character
who is onstage alone expresses his or her thoughts
aloud. The soliloquy is a very old dramatic convention, in which the audience is supposedly overhearing
the private thoughts of a character. Perhaps the most
SONNET Fourteen-line lyric poem that is usually
written in iambic pentameter and that has one of
several rhyme schemes. The oldest kind of sonnet is
called the Italian sonnet, or Petrarchan sonnet, after
the fourteenth-century Italian poet Petrarch. The first
eight lines, or octet or octave, of the Italian sonnet
pose a question or problem about love or some other
subject. The concluding six lines, or the sestet, are a
response to the octet. The octet has the rhyme scheme
abba abba; the sestet has the rhyme scheme cde cde.
Another important sonnet form, widely used by
Shakespeare, is called the Shakespearean sonnet. It
has three four-line units, or quatrains, followed by a
concluding two-line unit, or couplet. The most common rhyme scheme for the Shakespearean sonnet is
abab cdcd efef gg.
See also Lyric Poetry.
SPEAKER Voice that is talking to us in a poem.
Sometimes the speaker is identical with the poet, but
often the speaker and the poet are not the same. The
poet may be speaking as a child, a woman, a man, a
whole people, an animal, or even an object. For example, the speaker of Maya Angelou’s poem “Woman
Work” (page 498) is a hard-working woman with
several children, who cuts cane and cotton and lives in
a hut—not Maya Angelou at all.
See also Persona.
STANZA Group of consecutive lines in a poem that
form a single unit. A stanza in a poem is something
like a paragraph in prose: It often expresses a unit of
thought. A stanza may consist of any number of lines.
The word stanza is Italian for “stopping place” or “place
to rest.” Emily Dickinson’s poem “‘Hope’ is the thing with
feathers” (page 666) consists of three four-line stanzas,
or quatrains, each one expressing a unit of thought.
STYLE The particular way in which a writer uses
language. Style is created mainly through diction
(word choice), use of figurative language, and sentence patterns. Style can be described as plain, ornate,
formal, ironic, conversational, and so on.
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SHORT STORY Short, concentrated, fictional prose
narrative. Some say Edgar Allan Poe was the first shortstory writer. He was also one of the first to attempt to
define the short story. He said “unity of effect” is crucial,
meaning that a short story ought to concentrate on a
single purpose. Short stories are usually built on a plot
that consists of these “bare bones”: the basic situation,
or exposition; complications; climax; and resolution. Years ago, most short stories were notable for
their strong plots. Today’s short-story writers tend to be
more interested in character.
famous soliloquy is the “To be or not to be” speech in
Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. There are also several soliloquies in Romeo and Juliet, including Friar Laurence’s
soliloquy at the opening of Act II, Scene 3; Juliet’s at the
end of Act IV, Scene 3; and Romeo’s in Act V, Scene 3.
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SETTING The time and place of a story or play.
Most often the setting of a narrative is established early
in the story. For example, in the fourth paragraph of
“The Cask of Amontillado” (page 286), Edgar Allan Poe
tells his readers, “It was about dusk, one evening during the supreme madness of the carnival season. . . .”
Setting often contributes to a story’s emotional effect.
In “The Cask of Amontillado” the descriptions of the
gloomy Montresor palace, with its damp catacombs
full of bones, help create the story’s mood of horror.
Setting can also contribute to the conflict in a story,
as the harsh environment does in Eugenia W. Collier’s
“Marigolds” (page 257). Setting can also be used to
reveal character, as it does in Truman Capote’s “A Christmas Memory” (page 177).
See also Mood.
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Handbook of Literary Terms
SUSPENSE Uncertainty or anxiety the reader feels
about what is going to happen next in a story. In
“The Most Dangerous Game” (page 19), our curiosity is
aroused at once when we hear about Ship-Trap Island
and sailors’ fear of it. When Rainsford lands on that very
island and is hunted by the sinister General Zaroff, suspense keeps us on the edge of our seats. We wonder:
Will Rainsford be another victim who is hunted down
and killed by the evil and weird Zaroff?
See also Foreshadowing, Plot.
SYMBOL Person, place, thing, or event that stands
for itself and for something beyond itself as well. For
example, a scale has a real existence as an instrument
for measuring weights, but it also is used as a public
symbol of justice. Other familiar public symbols are the
cross that symbolizes Christianity, the six-pointed star
that symbolizes Judaism, the star and crescent that
symbolizes Islam, and the bald eagle that symbolizes
the United States. These are public symbols that most
people know, but in literature, writers sometimes create new, private symbols that can be understood only
from their context. One of the great symbols in literature is Herman Melville’s great white whale, used as a
symbol of the mystery of evil in the novel Moby-Dick.
TALL TALE Exaggerated, far-fetched story that is
obviously untrue but is told as though it should be
believed. Most tall tales are humorous. Tall tales are
especially popular in the United States. As tall tales are
passed on, they often get taller and taller—more and
more exaggerated. The tales told about Paul Bunyan,
the superheroic logger of the Northern forests, are tall
tales.
See also Fable, Folk Tale.
THEME Central idea of a work of literature. A theme
is not the same as a subject. The subject of a work can
usually be expressed in a word or two: love, childhood,
death. The theme is the idea the writer wishes to reveal
about that subject. The theme is something that can be
expressed in at least one complete sentence. For example, one theme of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (page
807) might be stated in this way: “Love is more powerful than hatred.” Theme is not usually stated directly in
a work of literature. Most often, the reader has to think
about all the elements of the work and use them to
make an inference, or educated guess, about what its
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theme is. Some themes are so commonly found in the
literature of all cultures and all ages that they are called
universal themes. Here are some universal themes
found in stories throughout the ages and expressed in
the Odyssey (page 1037): “Heroes must undergo trials
and endure losses before they can claim their rightful
kingdom.”“Arrogance and pride can bring destruction.”
“Love will endure and triumph over evil.”
TONE Attitude a writer takes toward a subject, a
character, or the audience. Tone is conveyed through
the writer’s choice of words and details. For example,
Gary Soto’s “The Grandfather” (page 469) is affectionate
and nostalgic in tone.
See also Connotation, Diction, Irony, Satire.
TRAGEDY Play that depicts serious and important
events in which the main character comes to an unhappy end. In a tragedy the main character is usually
dignified and courageous. His or her downfall may be
caused by a character flaw, or it may result from forces
beyond human control. The tragic hero usually wins
some self-knowledge and wisdom, even though he or
she suffers defeat, perhaps even death.
See also Comedy, Drama.
VOICE The writer’s or speaker’s distinctive use of
language in a text. Voice is created by a writer’s tone
and choice of words. Some writers have such a distinctive voice that you can identify their works on the
basis of voice alone. The detached, objective tone and
simple language in “Old Man at the Bridge” (page 130),
for example, make it instantly recognizable as one of
Ernest Hemingway’s short stories.
Handbook of Reading and
Informational Terms
For more information about a topic, turn to the page(s)
indicated with most entries. The words in boldface are
other key terms, with definitions provided in context.
On another line there are cross-references to entries in
this handbook that provide closely related information.
For instance, Logic contains a cross-reference to Logical
Order.
ARGUMENT A series of statements in a text
designed to convince us of something. What the
writer or speaker wants to prove is called the claim (or
the opinion). An argument might appeal to both our
reason and our emotions. An argument in a scientific
or historical journal, for instance, would probably present only logical appeals, which include sound reasons
and factual evidence. An argument in a political text
would probably also include emotional appeals,
which are directed more to our “hearts” than to our
minds. Some arguments use loaded words (words
loaded with emotional connotations) and anecdotes
(brief, personal stories) that also appeal to our feelings. It is important to be able to recognize emotional
appeals used in arguments—and to be aware of how
they can trick an audience.
Arguments can be found in editorials, magazine
articles, political speeches, professional journals, and
primary source material.
CAUSE AND EFFECT A text structure that shows
how or why one thing leads to another. The cause is
the reason that an action takes place. The effect is the
result or consequence of the cause. A cause can have
more than one effect, and an effect may have several
causes. Writers may explain causes only or effects only.
A text may be organized in a cause-effect chain.
One cause leads to an effect, which causes another
effect, and so on. Notice the cause-effect chain in the
following paragraph from “An Arctic Floe of Climate
Questions”:
But some alarm bells did ring, because there is
growing concern that we humans are fouling
things up through our burning of gas, oil, and
coal, which releases so-called greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide into the air. These gases,
which trap heat, may be causing the world’s
temperature to steadily creep higher and
higher. And an absence of ice at the North Pole
seemed like one more ominous sign of impending trouble.
Effect:
Alarm bells rang.
Cause:
Concern was growing about the burning of gas,
oil, and coal.
Effect:
They release heat-trapping gases.
Cause/Effect:
World’s temperatures climb higher.
Effect:
Ice absent at the North Pole.
Writers use the cause-effect pattern in both narrative
and informational texts. In most short stories, events in
the plot are connected in a cause-effect chain. Some
words and phrases that signal the cause-effect pattern
are because, depended on, inspired, produced, resulting
in, led to, and outcome. Never assume, either in your
reading or in real life, that one event causes another
just because that event happened before the other.
See also Text Structures.
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER The arrangement of
details in time order, that is, in the order in which
they occurred. Chronological order is used in a nar-
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rative, which describes a series of events, and in texts
that explain the steps in a process.
See also Text Structures.
CLAIM The idea or opinion that a writer tries to
prove or defend in an argument. The claim is stated
as a generalization, a broad statement or conclusion that covers many situations (or follows from the
evidence). The following statements are examples of
claims stated as generalizations:
Edgar Allan Poe died as a result of rabies poisoning. (“Poe’s Death is Rewritten as Case of
Rabies, Not Telltale Alcohol,” page 302)
War and and its consequences continue
because humans have an ingrained mistrust
and fear of one another. (“The Arms Race”
from Einstein on Peace, page 403)
The author of the argument then supports the claim
with either logical appeals (reasons backed by factual
evidence), emotional appeals, or both.
See also Argument, Generalization.
COHERENT Logically integrated, consistent, and
understandable. A text is coherent (koh HIHR uhnt)
when its ideas are arranged in an order that makes
sense to the reader. To aid in coherence, writers help
readers follow a text by using transitions, words and
phrases that show how ideas are connected.
Common Transitional Words and Phrases
Comparing Ideas
also, and, too,
moreover, similarly,
another
Contrasting Ideas
although, still, yet, but,
on the other hand,
instead
Showing Effect
for, since, as a result,
therefore, so that,
because
Showing Importance
first, last, to begin with,
mainly, more important
Showing Location
above, across, over, there,
inside, behind, next to,
through, near
Showing Time
before, at last, now,
when, eventually,
at once, finally
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COMPARISON/CONTRAST A method of organizing information by showing similarities and
differences among various groups of details.
See also Text Structures.
CONSUMER DOCUMENTS Informative texts,
such as a warranties, contracts, instruction manuals. Here are some points to keep in mind when you
read consumer documents:
1. Try to read the consumer document before you
buy the product. Then, you can ask the clerk to
explain anything you don’t understand.
2. Read all of the pages in whatever language comes
most easily to you. (Many documents are printed
in two or three languages.) You will often find
important information where you least expect it,
such as at the end of the document.
3. Read the fine print. Fine, here, means “tiny and
barely readable.” Some fine-print statements in
documents are required by law. They are designed
to protect you, the consumer, so the company
may not be interested in emphasizing these
points.
4. Don’t expect the document to be interesting or
easy to read. If you don’t understand a statement
and you can’t ask someone at the store that sold
you the product, call or write to the company that
made it. You should complain to the company if
you find its consumer document confusing.
5. Before you sign anything, read everything on the
page, and be sure you understand what you’re
agreeing to. Ask to take the document home, and
have your parent or guardian read it. If you are not
of legal age, an adult may be responsible for whatever you’ve signed. Make a copy of any document
that you’ve signed—and keep the copy in a place
where you can find it.
CONTEXT CLUES The words and sentences surrounding a word. Context clues can sometimes help
you guess at the meaning of an unfamiliar word. You
will find examples that follow of three types of context
clues. In the examples, the unfamiliar word appears in
boldface. The context clue is underlined.
Definition Look for words that define the unfamiliar
word, often by giving a synonym or a definition for it.
Example Look for examples that reveal the meaning
of the unfamiliar word.
Contrast Find words that contrast the unfamiliar word
with a word or phrase you already know.
M. Loisel was distracted, but Mathilde was
fully involved in the party.
CREDIBILITY The believability of a writer’s
argument. To evaluate credibility, you first need to
determine the author’s claim, or opinion. Then you
need to look at the reasons (statements that explain
why the author holds the opinion) and the evidence
(information that supports each reason). To be credible,
evidence must be relevant, that is, directly related to
the argument; comprehensive, that is, sufficient to be
convincing; and accurate, that is, from a source that
can be trusted as factually correct or otherwise reliable.
The writer’s intent should also be considered. If you’re
reading an opinion essay, for instance, be sure to note
any credentials or background information about the
writer. Does the writer work for an institution that
represents a particular point of view? Has the writer
published a book on the same topic? Do emotional
appeals and fallacious reasoning reveal a bias even
though the writer pretends to be fair to both sides of
the argument?
Notice the tone of the text. An argument that is
based on logical appeals will usually have a serious,
sincere tone. An angry or self-righteous tone might
make you question the credibility of the argument.
See also Argument.
A dictionary is available as a book, a CD-ROM, or part of
a word-processing program or Web site.
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Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
She wanted tapestries on her walls, like those
beautiful embroidered hangings that decorated
her friend’s home.
DICTIONARY You use a dictionary to find the precise meaning and usage of words. The elements of a
typical entry are explained below.
1. Entry word. The entry word shows how the word
is spelled and divided into syllables. It may also
show capitalization and other spellings.
2. Pronunciation. Phonetic symbols (such as the
schwa, ә ) and diacritical marks (such as the dieresis, ä) show how to pronounce the entry word. A
key to these symbols and marks usually appears at
the bottom of every other page of a dictionary.
3. Part-of-speech label. This label tells how the
entry word is used. When a word can be used
as more than one part of speech, definitions are
grouped by part of speech. The sample entry
shows three definitions of indulge as a transitive
verb (vt.) and one as an intransitive verb (vi.).
4. Other forms. Sometimes the spellings of plural
forms of nouns, principal parts of verbs, and comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and
adverbs are shown.
5. Word origin. A word’s origin, or etymology (eht
uh MAHL uh jee), shows where the word comes
from. Indulge comes from the Latin indulgere,
which probably comes from the prefix in–, meaning “not,” added to the Greek dolichos, “long,” and
the Gothic tulgus, “firm.”
6. Examples. Phrases or sentences show how the
entry word is used.
7. Definitions. If a word has more than one meaning, the meanings are numbered or lettered.
8. Special-usage labels. These labels identify special
meanings or special uses of the word. Here,
Archaic indicates an outdated meaning.
9. Related word forms. Other forms of the entry
word are listed. Usually these are created by the
addition of suffixes.
10. Synonyms and antonyms. Synonyms (words
similar in meaning) and antonyms (words opposite in meaning) may appear at the end of the
entry.
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Mathilde brought no dowry to her marriage—
no property or money to give her marriage a
good start.
1
2
3
4
5
}
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to support your opinion, but all you’re doing is
restating your opinion in different words.
Sample Dictionary Entry
in·dulge (in dulj´) vt. -dulged´, -dulg´ing [vt. indulgere, to
be kind to, yield to < in- + base prob. akin to Gr dolichos, long &
Goth tulgus, firm] 1 to yield to or satisfy (a desire); give oneself
6
up to [to indulge a craving for sweets] 2 to gratify the wishes of;
7
be very lenient with; humor 3 [Archaic] to grant as a kindness,
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
favor, or privilege —vi. to give way to one’s own desires; indulge
8
9
oneself (in something) —in·dulg´|er n.
SYN.—indulge implies a yielding to the wishes or desires of oneself or another, as because of a weak will or an amiable nature;
All students in the ninth grade need to get a
laptop computer because it’s essential for every
ninth-grader to have one.
2. Name calling uses labels to attack a person who
holds an opposing view instead of giving reasons
or evidence to attack the opposing view itself. This
fallacy includes criticizing the person’s character,
situation, or background.
humor suggests compliance with the mood or whim of another
[they humored the dying man]; pamper implies overindulgence
or excessive gratification; spoil emphasizes the harm done to the
10
Why should I listen to someone who doesn’t
even know who won the World Series?
personality or character by overindulgence or excessive attention
[grandparents often spoil children]; baby suggests the sort of
pampering and devoted care lavished on infants and connotes a
potential loss of self-reliance [because he was sickly, his mother
continued to baby him] —ANT. discipline, restrain
©1999 Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition.
See also Text Structures.
EVIDENCE Specific information or proof that
backs up the reasons in an argument. Factual
evidence includes statements that can be proved by
direct observation or by checking reliable reference
sources. Statistics (facts in the form of numbers) and
expert testimony, statements from people who are
recognized as experts or authorities on an issue, may
all be considered factual evidence.
In fields where discoveries are constantly being
made, such as in astronomy and genetics, facts need to
be checked in a recently published source. Remember
that a Web site on the Internet may be current, but it
may not be reliable. Anybody can post a statement on
the Internet. If you suspect that a statement presented
as a fact is not true, try to find the same fact in another
source.
FALLACIOUS REASONING Faulty reasoning,
or mistakes in logical thinking. (The word fallacious comes from a Latin word meaning “deceptive” or
“tricky.” The word false comes from the same root word,
as does the word fallacy.) Fallacious reasoning leads to
false or incorrect conclusions. Here are some types of
fallacious reasoning:
1. Begging the question, also called circular reasoning, assumes the truth of a statement before it
has been proved. You appear to be giving a reason
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3. Stereotyping gives all members of a group the
same (usually undesirable) characteristics. It assumes that everyone (or everything) in that group
is alike. (The word stereotype comes from the word
for a metal plate that was used to print the same
image over and over.) Stereotypes are often based
on misconceptions about racial, social, religious,
gender, or ethnic groups.
Small towns are boring.
Cats are self-centered.
4. Hasty generalization is a broad, general statement or conclusion that is made without sufficient
evidence to back it up. A hasty generalization is
often made on the basis of one or two experiences
or observations.
Insufficient evidence: I read about a healthy
eighty-eight-year-old woman who smokes a
pack of cigarettes every day. My grandfather
smokes, too, and he’s in great shape physically.
Hasty generalization: Smoking does not affect
your health.
If any exceptions to the conclusion can be found, the
generalization is not true.
5. Either/or fallacy assumes that there are only two
possible choices or solutions (usually extremes),
even though there may be many.
Either I get a cell phone, or you’re never going
to know where I am after school.
Her grades improved when she got a job after
school.
Specific facts: One alternative to the traditional
automobile is the hybrid car, which burns
far less gasoline. There is plenty of renewable energy, which can be tapped from many
sources, including wind, and water.
Generalization: Many alternative energy
sources are available today.
A generalization jumps from your own specific experiences and observations to a larger, general understanding.
GRAPHS Graphic depiction of information. Line
graphs generally show changes in quantity over time.
Bar graphs usually compare quantities within categories. Pie graphs, or circle graphs, show proportions by
dividing a circle into different-sized sections, like slices
of a pie.
How to Read a Graph
1. Read the title. The title will tell you the subject
and purpose of the graph.
2. Read the headings and labels. These will help
you determine the type of information presented.
3. Analyze the details. Read numbers carefully.
Note increases or decreases. Look for the direction
or order of events and trends and for relationships.
“You ought to be my son. I would teach you
right from wrong. Least I can do right now is to
wash your face. Are you hungry?”
From these statements, you can infer that the woman
is strong and not easily intimidated. You can infer that
she is also kind, that she understands why the boy tried
to steal from her. Values are important to her, and she is
determined to do what she can to help him.
When you’re writing about a story or an informational text, you must be sure your inferences are supported by details in the text. Supported inferences
are based directly on evidence in a text that you can
point to and on reasonable prior knowledge. Some interpretation of the evidence is possible, but you cannot
ignore or contradict facts that a writer gives you.
INFORMATIVE TEXTS Texts that communicate
information and data. When you’re reading informative texts, you need to read slowly, looking for main
ideas and important details. Slow and careful reading is
especially important when you’re trying to get meaning from consumer, workplace, and public documents.
These documents are often not written by professional
writers, so they may be difficult to read.
See also Consumer Documents, Public Documents,
Workplace Documents.
LOGIC Correct reasoning. A logical text presents
reasons supported by evidence (facts and examples).
A text is illogical when it does not provide reasons
backed by evidence. Notice how each sentence in this
text, from “A Country Divided,” gives evidence that supports the sentence that precedes it.
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms 1257
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
GENERALIZATION A broad statement that applies to or covers many individuals, experiences,
situations, observations, or texts. A valid generalization is a type of conclusion that is drawn after
considering as many of the facts as possible. Here are
some specific facts from “The Next Green Revolution”
(page 551) and a generalization based on them. Notice
that each fact is one piece of evidence. The generalization then states what the evidence adds up to, drawing
a conclusion that applies to all members of the group.
INFERENCE A guess based on observation and
prior experience. When you make inferences about
a literary work, you use evidence from the text as well
as from other texts you have read and from your own
prior experience. One way to analyze a character, for
instance, is to consider what the person says and how
he or she interacts with other characters. In the story
“Thank You, M’am” (page 137), after the woman is
almost mugged, she says to the boy who tried to steal
her pocketbook:
RESOURCE CENTER
6. False cause and effect occurs when one event is
said to be the cause of another event just because
the two events happened in sequence. You cannot
assume that an event caused whatever happened
afterward.
RESOURCE CENTER
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
Through the long years of British rule, the Irish
fought for their freedom. They fought with
what weapons they had, in rebellions great and
small—rebellions that the vast British army
always put down. The Irish fought with words
as well as weapons. They organized and signed
petitions, held massive nonviolent protests,
and after Catholics regained the vote in 1829,
they lobbied in the English Parliament for their
freedom.
See also Logical Order.
LOGICAL ORDER A method of organizing information by putting details into related groupings.
Writers use logical order most often when they want to
classify information, that is, to examine a subject and
its relationship to other subjects. When you classify,
you can divide a subject into its parts (for example, presenting research from various sources about plagiarism
and memory in “Kaavya Syndrome” (page 583).
See also Text Structures.
MAIN IDEA The writer’s most important point,
opinion, or message. The main idea may be stated
directly, or it may be only suggested or implied. If the
idea is not stated directly, it’s up to you to look at the
details and decide on the idea that they all seem to
support. Try to restate the writer’s main idea in your
own words.
In an argument, the main idea (the generalization
that the writer is trying to prove) is called the claim, or
opinion.
Political maps show political units, such as states and
nations. They usually also show borders and capitals
and other major cities. Special-purpose maps present
specific information, such as the routes of the explorers. The special-purpose map on page 1034 shows the
route of Odysseus’s journey. Use these guidelines to
help you read the map on the right.
How to Read a Map
1. Determine the focus of the map. The map’s title
and labels tell you its focus—its subject and the
geographical area it covers.
2. Study the legend. The legend, or key, explains
the symbols, lines, colors, and shadings used in
the map.
3. Check directions and distances. Maps often
include a compass rose, a diagram that shows
north, south, east, and west. If there isn’t one, assume that north is at the top, west to the left, and
so on. Many maps also include a scale that relates
distances on the map to actual distances.
4. Look at the larger context. The absolute location of any place on earth is given by its latitude (the number of degrees north or south of
the equator) and its longitude (the number of
degrees east or west of the prime meridian, or
0 degrees longitude). Some maps also include
locator maps, which show the area depicted in
relation to a larger area.
.
7
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3
Main idea of essay: Animals have a sixth sense
about approaching natural disasters (for “Did
Animals Sense Tsunami Was Coming?” page
107).
#!.!$!
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Claim of argument: Power can be nurturing—
it does not have to come at the price of another’s well-being (for “Cinderella’s Stepsisters,”
page 543).
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5.)4%$34!4%3
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MAPS A drawing showing all or part of the earth’s
surface or of bodies in the sky. Physical maps
illustrate the natural landscape of an area, using shading, lines, and color to show landforms and elevation.
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-%8)#/
-EXICO
#ITY
-ILES
+ILOMETERS
.ATIONALBOUNDARY
.ATIONALCAPITAL
!4,!.4)#
/#%!.
A valid opinion is an opinion that is supported by
verifiable facts. In the following example, the verifiable
facts are underlined:
I think that William Shakespeare was a great
writer because most of his plays and poems are
still read and enjoyed today, four hundred years
after they were written.
When you read a persuasive text, remember that statements of opinion can’t be proved, but they can and
should be supported by facts and logical reasoning.
ORDER OF IMPORTANCE A means of organizing
information by ranking details in the order of their
importance.
Writers of persuasive texts have to decide whether
to give the strongest reason first or to present the
weakest reason first and end with the strongest point.
Informational texts such as news articles always begin
with the most important details because they want to
grab the readers’ attention immediately. The structure
of a news article looks like an upside-down triangle,
with the least important details at the bottom.
See also Text Structures.
OUTLINING A way of organizing information to
show relationships among key details in a text. You
can use outlining as a writer and as a reader. Outlining
puts main ideas and details in a form that you can review quickly. An informal outline, sometimes called a
working outline, should have at least three main ideas.
You put supporting details under each main idea, like
this:
A formal outline is especially useful if you’re writing a
research paper. You might start with a working outline
and then revise it into a formal one. Your teacher may
ask you to submit a formal outline with your completed research paper.
Formal outlines use Roman numerals (I, II, III), capital letters (A, B, C) and Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) to show
order, relationship, and relative importance of ideas.
The headings in a formal outline should have the same
grammatical structure, and you must be consistent
in your use of either phrases or sentences. (You can’t
move back and forth between them.) There should
always be at least two divisions under each heading or
none at all.
PARAPHRASING Restating each sentence of a
text in your own words. Paraphrasing is usually done
only for difficult texts. Paraphrasing a text helps you to
be certain you understand it. When you paraphrase,
you follow the author’s sequence of ideas. You carefully reword each line (if it’s a poem) or sentence (if it’s
prose) without changing the author’s ideas or leaving
anything out. You restate each figure of speech to
be sure you understand the basis of the comparison.
If sentences are missing words or if the words are
wrenched out of the usual order, you rephrase the
sentence.
PRIMARY SOURCE An original, firsthand account. Primary sources may include an autobiography;
an eyewitness testimony; a letter, speech, or literary
work; a historical document; or information gathered
from firsthand surveys or interviews. For example,
Albert Einstein’s “Letter to President Roosevelt” (page
399) is a primary source. It’s important to use primary
sources wherever they are available on a topic, but you
need to research widely to make sure that a primary
source is not biased.
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms 1259
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
William Shakespeare is the greatest writer that
the world has ever known.
Informal Outline
I. First main idea
A. First detail supporting first main idea
B. Second detail supporting first main
idea
C. Third detail supporting first main idea
II. Second main idea
[etc.]
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OPINION A statement of a person’s belief, idea,
or attitude. A fact is something that can be verified or
proved by direct observation or by checking a reliable reference source. An opinion cannot be proved
to be either true or false—even when it is supported
by facts. The following statement is an unsupported
opinion:
RESOURCE CENTER
Be sure to keep track of your primary sources by
numbering each source and recording the necessary
publishing information. If you quote directly from the
primary source, be sure to use quotation marks and to
give credit to your source.
See also Secondary Source.
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
PUBLIC DOCUMENTS Informative texts put out
by the government or public agencies. Public documents include political platforms, public policy
statements, speeches, and debates. These documents inform the public about government policy,
laws, municipal codes, records, schedules, and the like.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS Questions that are
focused on a specific subject, which the researcher
searches to answer. Such questions are essential tools
for focusing your research.
One way to generate research questions is to use
the 5W-How? questions: Who? What? When? Where?
Why? and How? As you seek primary and secondary
source information at libraries and museums, in various
electronic media (Internet, films, tapes), and from personal interviews, you will come up with more research
questions. Always remember to keep your questions
focused on the specific subject you have chosen.
ROOTS, PREFIXES, SUFFIXES
English words are often made up of two or more word
parts. These words parts include—
• roots, which carry a word’s core meaning
• prefixes, added onto the beginning of a word or in
front of a word root to form a new word
• suffixes, added onto the end of a word or after a
word root to form a new word
Most word roots come from Greek and Latin. Prefixes and suffixes come from Greek, Latin, and AngloSaxon.
Greek Roots
Meaning
Examples
–dem–
people
–hydr–
water
–psyche-
mind, soul
–syn–, –sym–
together
democracy,
epidemic
dehydrate,
hydrogen
psychic,
psychology
synthesize,
symphony
Latin Roots
Meaning
Examples
–cog–
think, know
–dic–, –dict–
–juven–
say, speak
young
–mar–
–somn–
war
sleep
incognito,
recognize
diction, interdict
juvenile,
rejuvenate
martial, martinet
somnolent, somnambulate
Greek Prefixes
Meaning
Examples
a–
neo–
lacking, without
new
amoral, atypical
neoclassic,
neonatal
Latin Prefixes
Meaning
Examples
e–, ef–, ex–
away, from,
out
back
efface, expunge
retroactive,
retrospective
Anglo-Saxon/
Old English
Prefixes
Meaning
Examples
be–
around
over–
mis–
above
badly, not
befriend,
begrime
overbite, oversee
mishap, miscopy
Greek Suffixes
Meaning
Examples
–logue
speech
–ism
act, manner
dialogue,
epilogue
criticism,
ostracism
Latin Suffixes
Meaning
–esce
become, grow coalesce,
effervesce
aptitude,
quality of
multitude
being
retro–
–tude
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Examples
Meaning
Examples
–less
–ful
lacking
full of, marked
by
become
aimless, restless
restful, wonderful, strengthen,
lighten
–en
SPATIAL ORDER A means of organizing information by showing where things are located. (The
word spatial is related to the word space. Spatial order
shows where things are located in space.) Spatial order
is often used in descriptive writing. Here is an example
from “The Most Dangerous Game” (page 19). Phrases
showing spatial order are underlined.
The baying of the hounds drew nearer, then
still nearer, nearer, ever nearer. On a ridge
Rainsford climbed a tree. Down a water course,
not a quarter of a mile away, he could see the
bush moving.
See also Text Structures.
SYNTHESIZING Putting all the different sources
of information together in a process that gives you
a better understanding of the whole subject. In order to synthesize information, you first gather information about a topic from several sources. Then you find
each writer’s main ideas. Paraphrasing ideas, restating
them in your own words, can help you understand difficult texts. Next you examine the ideas in each source,
and you compare and contrast the ideas you’ve found.
To synthesize what you have learned, you draw conclusions about the information you have gathered .
See also Generalization.
Other methods used to organize texts include:
• cause and effect—showing how events happen as
a result of other events.
• problem-solution—explaining how a problem may
be solved.
• question-answer—asking questions, then giving
the answers. See “Did Animals Sense Tsunami Was
Coming?” (page 107).
Recognizing these structures will help you understand
the ideas in a text. The following guidelines can help
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms 1261
Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
SECONDARY SOURCE A secondhand account
written by a writer who did not participate directly
in the events he or she interprets, relates, or analyzes. Secondary sources may include encyclopedias,
magazine articles, textbooks, biographies, and technical journals. The news feature “Dear Juliet” (page 974)
is an example of a secondary source. A research paper
may include both primary and secondary sources.
TEXT STRUCTURES Any organizational patterns
that writers use to make their meaning clear. In
imaginative literature, text structures range from the
plot structures in stories and dramas to the sonnet
structure in poetry.
In nonfiction and informational texts, the writer’s
intent or purpose in creating the text determines how
the text will be organized. Don’t expect writers of informational texts and nonfiction to use the same structure throughout an entire text. Most writers switch
from one type of structure to another and may even
combine structures. The four basic ways of arranging
ideas or details in nonfiction and informational texts
are:
1. Chronological order, time order or sequence—
putting events or steps in the order in which they
occur. Most narrative and historical texts are written in chronological order. Chronological order is
also found in writing that explains a process such
as technical directions and recipes. This type of
chronological order is called step-by-step order.
2. Spatial order—the order that shows where
things are located. This pattern is used in descriptive writing. It is especially useful in helping
readers visualize setting. See the first paragraph of
“Teaching Chess, and Life” (page 205).
3. Order of importance—ranking details from
most important to least important or from least
important to most important. Writers of persuasive texts in particular have to decide which order
makes the strongest impact: putting the strongest
reason first and the weaker ones later or saving
the strongest reason for last. News articles always
begin with the most important details because
they want to grab the readers’ attention immediately.
4. Logical order—classifying details into related
groups. One type of logical order is the comparison-and-contrast text structure, which shows
similarities and differences among various groups.
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Anglo-Saxon/
Old English
Suffixes
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Handbook of Reading and Informational Terms
you recognize text structures:
1. Search the text for the main idea. Look for clue
words (transitions) that signal a specific pattern
of organization. Also note colors, special type,
headers, numbered lists, and icons that may be
used to highlight terms or indicate text structure.
2. Analyze the text for other important ideas. Think
about how the ideas connect, and look for an
obvious pattern.
3. Remember that a writer might use one organizational pattern throughout a text or combine two
or more patterns.
4. Draw a graphic organizer that maps how the text
is structured. Some common graphic organizers are a causal chain (for the cause-effect text
structure), a flowchart (showing chronological
sequence), and a Venn diagram (showing similarities and differences).
See also Chronological Order, Logical Order,
Order of Importance, Spatial Order.
WORKPLACE DOCUMENTS Job-related texts,
such as job applications, memos, instructional
manuals, and employee handbooks. When you read
workplace documents, keep these points in mind (in
addition to the points about reading consumer documents, cited on page 1188):
1. Take all the time you need to read and understand
the document. Don’t be rushed or think that a
document is unimportant or just a formality.
2. Read technical directions carefully before you
start. Ask questions if you’re not sure how to
proceed. Don’t try anything out before you know
what will happen next.
3. The employee handbook contains the “rules of the
game” at that particular business. It tells you about
holidays, work hours, break times, and vacations
as well as other important company policies. Read
the employee handbook from cover to cover.
See also Consumer Documents.
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Writer’s Handbook
The Writing Process
Good writing doesn’t just appear, ready-made, out of nowhere. The writer of
an enjoyable piece uses a process to create it. The writing process has four
stages, each with several steps. The chart below lists what happens during
each stage.
Stages of the Writing Process
Prewriting
• Choose your topic.
• Identify your purpose and audience.
• Generate ideas, and gather information about the topic.
• Begin to organize the information.
• Draft a sentence that expresses your main point and your perspective on the topic.
Writing
a Draft
• Grab your readers’ attention in the introduction.
• Provide background information.
• State and support your main points, and elaborate on them.
• Follow a plan of organization.
• Wrap up with a conclusion.
Evaluating and
Revising
• Evaluate your draft.
Proofreading
and Publishing
• Proofread, or edit, your final draft.
• Revise the draft’s content, organization, and style.
• Publish, or share your finished writing with readers.
• Reflect on your writing experience.
You can always return to an earlier stage in the process to improve your writing. For example, if in revising you find that you need more information, you
can return to prewriting to gather ideas and then draft a new paragraph.
As you progress through the stages of the writing process, make sure
you do the following:
Keep your ideas focused. Your writing should be coherent, with ideas
clearly connected to one another. To keep your writing on track, pin down
the specific purpose you want the piece to achieve and establish a coherent thesis. Every idea in a piece must support your thesis or the controlling
impression you want to create. Eliminate anything that doesn’t fit your distinct perspective or that might detract from a tightly reasoned argument.
Your focus should be clear and consistent throughout a piece of writing.
Use a consistent tone. To unify the ideas in a piece of writing, keep your
tone consistent. Avoid jumping from a serious, formal tone to a casual
Writer’s Handbook 1263
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or sarcastic tone midway through a piece. Choose your tone by thinking
about your specific audience. What tone would they appreciate? Does that
tone fit your topic?
Plan to publish. Develop each piece as though it might be published, or
shared with an audience. When you proofread, use the following questions
to guide you. The numbers in parentheses indicate the sections in the
Language Handbook that contain instruction on these topics.
Writer’s Handbook
Guidelines for Proofreading
1. Is every sentence complete, not a fragment or run-on? (9a, b)
2. Are punctuation marks used correctly? (12a–r, 13a–j, 14a–o)
3. Are the first letters of sentences and proper nouns and adjectives capitalized? (11a, d)
4. Does each verb agree in number with its subject? (2a) Are verb forms and tenses used correctly? (3a–e)
5. Are subject and object forms of personal pronouns used correctly? (4a–e) Does every pronoun agree
with a clear antecedent in number and gender? (4i)
To mark proofreading corrections, use the symbols below.
Proofreading Symbols
Symbol
Example
Meaning of Symbol
Fifty-first street
Capitalize a lowercase letter.
Jerry’s Aunt
Lowercase a capital letter.
of
the capital Ohio
beside the river
Insert a missing word, letter,
or punctuation mark.
lake
Replace a word.
Where’s the the key?
Delete a word, letter, or
punctuation mark.
thier
Change the order of letters.
“Hi,” he smiled.
Begin a new paragraph.
Paragraphs
A paragraph is made up of sentences grouped together for a reason—usually to present and support a single idea. Each paragraph in a composition
is like a member of a team, working with other paragraphs to develop ideas.
Think of a paragraph as a link in a chain connecting ideas.
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Paragraphs are used to divide an essay into blocks of separate thoughts
or to divide a story into a series of events. Paragraphs signal readers that a
new thought or a new speaker is coming. They also allow readers to pause to
digest what they’ve read so far.
Parts of a Body Paragraph
THE MAIN IDEA AND TOPIC SENTENCE Together, the sentences in a paragraph make its main idea clear. Many paragraphs express the main idea in a
single sentence, called a topic sentence.
Although a topic sentence can be placed at any point in the paragraph,
it often appears as the first or second sentence. A topic sentence at the
beginning of a paragraph helps a reader know what to expect in the rest of
the paragraph. The diagram below shows the typical three-part structure of a
body paragraph that begins with a topic sentence.
Tip Although many paragraphs you read
will not have topic sentences, it’s a good idea
to use them in your own writing to keep you
focused on your main idea and to organize
your support.
Typical Body Paragraph Structure
Topic Sentence
Support
Support
Support
Clincher Sentence
A topic sentence placed at the end of a paragraph can be an effective way to create surprise or summarize ideas. As you read the following
paragraph, notice how the writer sews all the details together with a topic
sentence at the very end.
In the summer, hosts of big red-and-yellow grasshoppers, with
heads shaped like horses, will descend and eat holes in all the
softer leaves. Walking sticks fly like boomerangs. Shining brown
leaf-shaped palmetto bugs scurry like cockroaches. Spiders like
tiny crabs hang in stout webs. The birds snap at small moths
and butterflies of every kind. A blue racer, the snake that moves
across the cleared land like whiplash, will with one flick destroy
the smooth, careful cup of the ant lion in the hot sand. The whole
world of the pines and of the rocks hums and glistens and stings
with life.
from The Everglades: River of Grass by Marjory
Stoneman Douglas
Writer’s Handbook 1265
Writer’s Handbook
Although some paragraphs—especially in narrative writing—do not have a
central focus, most paragraphs do emphasize one main idea. Paragraphs like
this, often called body paragraphs, usually have three major parts: a topic
sentence, which states the paragraph’s main idea; additional supporting
sentences that elaborate on and support the topic sentence; and (often, but
not always) a concluding clincher sentence.
provide evidence, but also elaborate on it.
Every piece of support must clearly relate
to the main idea; you may need to use supporting sentences to explain this connection
or simply to explain a piece of evidence to
make it more clear.
Writer’s Handbook
RESOURCE CENTER
Tip Supporting sentences don’t just
SUPPORTING SENTENCES To make your main idea clear and interesting,
elaborate on it, or develop it in detail. Use supporting sentences to give the
types of specific evidence below for the main idea.
Sensory Details Details collected through the senses of sight, hearing, smell,
touch, or taste are called sensory details.
Facts and Statistics A fact is a statement that can be proved true. A statistic
is a fact based on numbers, such as “During the Civil War, the South lost about
260,000 soldiers, and the North lost about 360,000.” Choose facts and statistics
from reliable, unbiased sources.
Examples An example is a specific instance or illustration of a general idea. A
cow is an example of an animal.
Other Types of Supporting Evidence Some types of supporting evidence
are useful only in certain kinds of writing.
Scenarios are general descriptions of potential events or common situations. They can support ideas in persuasive writing and in cause-and-effect
or problem-solution essays.
Commonly held beliefs help support appeals in persuasive pieces. For example, to encourage voter registration, you could note the commonly held
belief that everyone’s vote should count. You could also grab attention at
the beginning of a research report by stating a commonly held belief that
your research disproves.
Hypotheses are unproven theories that serve as the basis for investigation. They can support ideas in cause-and-effect papers or in research
reports by providing background information or by presenting possible
results of events or situations.
Definitions provide support in expository and persuasive pieces by clarifying for readers exactly what a particular term means.
THE CLINCHER SENTENCE Some paragraphs, especially long ones, end with
a clincher—a sentence that emphasizes the paragraph’s main idea. A clincher
pulls together details and signals the end of the paragraph, often using a transition such as therefore or as a result.
The Makings of a Good Paragraph
A good paragraph has unity and coherence. Use the following guidelines to
give your own writing these two important qualities.
UNITY When a paragraph has unity, all its sentences work together as a unit
to express or support one main idea. Sentences can work as a unit by supporting a main idea that is either stated or implied, or by expressing a related
series of actions. Sentences that interrupt the consistent focus of a paragraph
destroy its unity.
COHERENCE A paragraph lacking coherence fails to make clear how the
ideas it presents fit together. Create coherence by using a clear order, or
structure, of ideas and by making strong connections between ideas.
Order of Ideas How you structure ideas in a paragraph can help your readers
follow those ideas. Here are four ways to organize a paragraph:
• Use chronological order, relating events in the order they happened, to
explain a process, tell a story, or explain a cause-and-effect sequence.
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• Use spatial order, describing things according to where they are located in
relation to one another or to a viewer (for example, moving from nearest to
farthest or from left to right) for descriptive writing.
• Use order of importance, showing the importance of details in relation to
one another, to build up to or down from your most important point. Place
that point prominently—first or last.
• Use logical order, grouping related ideas together, to compare and contrast subjects (explaining how they are alike and different) or to define a
subject. The paragraph below defines mummies.
Definition
Specific example
Details
Details
Details
Mummies, Myth and Magic in Ancient Egypt by
Christine El Mahdy
Connections Between Ideas Along with putting ideas in an order that
makes sense, you create coherence in a paragraph by showing how ideas are
connected. You can show connections by using direct references and by using transitional words and phrases.
Direct References Direct references link ideas by referring to a noun or
pronoun used earlier in a paragraph. You can make direct references by
using a noun or pronoun that refers to a noun used earlier, by repeating a
word used earlier, or by using a word or phrase with the same meaning as
one used earlier.
Tip Direct references and transitional
words and phrases can make connections
between paragraphs as well as within
paragraphs.
Transitional Words and Phrases A transitional expression—whether a
word, a phrase, or a sentence—shows how ideas are connected, often by
using a conjunction or preposition. The chart below shows transitions that
fit certain types of writing.
Transitional Words and Phrases
Comparing
Ideas
also
and
another
moreover
similarly
too
Contrasting
Ideas
although
however
in spite of
instead
on the other
hand, yet
Showing
Cause and
Effect
as a result
because
consequently
for
since
so
so that
thus
therefore
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Writer’s Handbook
A mummy is the preserved body of a human being or an
animal, by any means, either deliberate or accidental. Mummies
survive from many ancient cultures, some preserved in a wet
state, others dry. The bog bodies of northern Europe, such as
the 2,000-year-old Lindow Man, found in Cheshire, England, in
1984, belonged to people who had either fallen, or been thrown,
into wet, marshy places. The exclusion of oxygen and acidity in
the peat of the bog effectively preserved their bodies. Most mummies, though, were preserved by being dried, or desiccated. Many
civilizations, including the Egyptian, Chinese, and some South
American cultures, tried to achieve this artificially.
RESOURCE CENTER
Writer’s Handbook
Showing
Chronological
Order
after
at last
before
eventually
finally
first
meanwhile
next
then
Showing
Spatial
Order
above
across
around
behind
beyond
down
here
inside
into
next to
over
under
Showing
Importance
first
last
mainly
more
important
then
to begin
with
YOUR TURN Draft a paragraph on a topic of your choice. First, identify your
main idea. As you write, give your paragraph a clear topic sentence, several
types of support for your main idea, and a clincher sentence; unity and
coherence, with all ideas creating a controlling impression; and an easy-tofollow structure with clear connections between ideas.
The Writer’s Language
Revising to Improve Style
When you revise a draft, be sure to look at your style—the way you express
your ideas. Consider your audience and purpose, and examine your draft for
precise language, action verbs, sensory details, appropriate modifiers,
and the active voice.
WHO AND WHY As you re-read your draft, answer these questions:
• What is my purpose? Ask yourself why you are writing this piece and what
you hope it will achieve. Make sure your tone—your attitude toward your
topic—fits this purpose.
• Who is my audience? Does my essay speak directly to them? Consider
whether your level of formality is appropriate. Avoid making your writing
too formal or too informal for your audience.
THE FINER POINTS When revising, consider your word choice—particularly
precise language, action verbs, sensory details, and appropriate modifiers.
Also, use the active voice as much as possible. Read this example:
I was hungry. I went home after school. Thoughts of eating were
starting to come into my mind. I opened the refrigerator door and
looked inside. There was nothing good to eat. The loud refrigerator
door closed. Then I saw exactly what I wanted to eat—food that had
been made for my mother for her birthday. I ate it all and then had
to replace it.
Because it lacks stylistic elements such as precise language and sensory
detail, this paragraph fails to create a complete picture.
Precise Language To paint a clear picture of a subject, use precise verbs,
nouns, and adjectives. For example, the phrase “nothing good to eat”
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doesn’t show what is in the refrigerator. Are there moldy green leftovers? a
wilted head of lettuce? Create a vivid picture for readers.
Action Verbs Avoid overusing dull verbs, such as be, go, have, and do. To improve the dull sentence “I went home after school,” try substituting the more
vivid ran, galloped, dragged, or hurried for the verb went. Action verbs such as
these show what happened. When revising, replace dull verbs, especially be
verbs, with more vivid action verbs.
Writer’s Handbook
Sensory Details Words and phrases that appeal to the senses— sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell—are called sensory details. For example, noting
the sound of the narrator’s growling stomach would help readers experience
his or her hunger.
Appropriate Modifiers Appropriate modifiers clearly relate to the correct
word. For example, in the paragraph on page 1268, the use of “loud” as an
adjective implies that the refrigerator door is loud all by itself. Instead, the
adverb loudly should modify the verb closed. Also, consider whether you really
need a modifier; a more precise noun or verb is often a better solution, as in
the revised sentence, “I slammed the refrigerator door.”
Active Voice Use the active rather than the passive voice whenever possible in your writing. The phrase “food that had been made for my mother”
is in the passive voice. The action just “happens” to the subject. To show who
performed the action, the phrase should be turned around: “food I had made
for my mother.” To find passive constructions in your writing, first look for beverbs. Then, decide whether the action of the sentence is being done by the
subject or to the subject. If the subject is receiving the action, revise.
Read the following revision of the passage from page 1268. Notice how
precise language, action verbs, sensory details, appropriate modifiers, and the
active voice make the writing more vivid and entertaining.
A Writer’s Model
My stomach growled, and I galloped home from school—all I
could think about was food. I opened the refrigerator door and peeked
inside. A wilted head of lettuce stared back at me, along with a mysterious something, squishy and greenish brown in a plastic bag. “Yuck,” I
thought, hungrier than ever. I slammed the refrigerator door. Suddenly,
my mouth watered as I saw just what I wanted to eat on the kitchen
counter. The muffins I had made for my mother for a birthday breakfast
were irresistible. By the time I thought about what I was doing, I had
wolfed down all of them. Now I had to figure out how to replace the
birthday treat before my mother got home!
Action verbs
Precise language and sensory
detail
Action verb
Precise language and active
voice
YOUR TURN Revise the following paragraph to improve its style. Make up
details as needed.
A collection of American Indian items is on display at a museum in town.
They have arrowheads, blankets, and cooking pots. Some of the arrowheads
are small, and some are larger. The blankets are colorful, and the cooking pots
are interesting. One of the pots can be touched. A lecture is given. The exhibit
is unique.
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Designing Your Writing
No matter how well-written a document’s content might be, if it looks confusing or hard to read, it won’t make a strong impact on the audience. Some
readers may give up trying to read a badly designed document. Others may
assume that a writer who is careless about design is also careless about facts.
Use the suggestions in this section to get your ideas across clearly.
Writer’s Handbook
Page Design
EASY ON THE EYES If you want your documents to make a good impression,
make sure they are visually appealing and easy to read. You can improve the
readability and impact of your papers by using some of the design elements
below, whether you create those documents by hand or by using a wordprocessing program.
Design Elements
Element
Definition
Purpose
Bullets
A bullet (•) is an icon used to make
information stand out.
Bullets are most often used
for lists.
Captions
A caption is text printed beneath an
illustration.
Captions explain photos,
maps, and graphs.
Columns and
blocks of text
Columns arrange text in two or more
separate sections printed side by side. A
block is a section of text shorter than a
page—for example, one story would fill a
rectangular block on the front page of the
newspaper. Columns and blocks of text are
separated from each other by white space.
Columns and blocks make
text easier to read.
Headings and
subheadings
A heading gives readers a general idea of
what a section of text, such as a chapter,
will be about. A subheading is used to
indicate subsections of the text.
Headings and subheadings
give readers clues about the
content and organization of
the document.
Leading
Leading (rhymes with heading) is the
amount of white space between lines of
text. This text is single-spaced.
For school papers, use
double-spaced text, which
gives your teacher space to
comment on your ideas.
Margins
Margins are the white space at the top,
bottom, and both sides of a page.
Page margins of about one
inch create a visual break for
readers and make text easier
to read.
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A CAPITAL IDEA Your choice of type can affect a document’s readability and
attractiveness. You can vary the case of type (from the usual lowercase, or
small type) to add interest to a document and make it easier to navigate.
Uppercase, or all capital, letters attract readers’ attention and may be used
in headings or titles. Words in uppercase letters can be difficult to read. Use
uppercase letters for emphasis, not for large bodies of text.
Small caps are uppercase letters that are reduced in size. Usually they appear in abbreviations of time, such as 9:00 A.M. and A.D. 1500.
Writer’s Handbook
FONTASTIC! A font is one complete set of characters (such as letters, numbers, and punctuation marks) of a given size and design. Here are the types of
fonts. (The chart below uses a sans serif font.)
Types of Fonts
Category
Explanation
How They Are Used
decorative,
or script,
fonts
elaborately designed
characters that
convey a distinct
mood or feeling
Decorative fonts are
difficult to read and
should be used sparingly
for an artistic effect.
serif fonts
characters with
small strokes (serifs)
attached at each end
Because the strokes on
serif characters guide
the reader’s eyes from
letter to letter, serif type
is often used for large
bodies of text.
sans serif
fonts
characters formed of
neat straight lines,
with no serifs at the
ends of letters
Sans serif fonts are easy
to read and are used for
headings, subheadings,
callouts, and captions.
Graphics and Visuals
THE BIG PICTURE Some information is difficult to communicate in words
but easy to communicate visually. Fortunately, advanced publishing software
has made creating many kinds of visuals easy. A graphic program may allow
you to enter your information and choose the most appropriate type of visual.
You can also create nearly any type of graphic by hand.
Choosing the right visual to show a piece of information will help you
avoid confusing your readers. Include a caption or title that explicitly tells
readers what they are to see in the visual and why it is there. Use color sparingly to emphasize ideas, not as decoration. The following pages explain
some useful types of visuals.
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Charts show relationships among ideas or data. Two types of charts you
are likely to use are flowcharts and pie charts. A flowchart uses geometric
shapes linked by arrows to show the sequence of events in a process.
Planning and Drafting a Research Paper
Writer’s Handbook
Brainstorm possible topics
Choose one topic
Research the topic and take notes
Organize ideas
Write a first draft
A pie chart shows the parts of a whole. This type of chart is a circle that is
divided into wedges. Each wedge represents a certain percentage of the total.
A legend tells what idea or characteristic of the whole is represented by each
wedge color.
Career Goals of Seniors at Felicity High School
6%
9%
40%
18%
27%
COMPUTER
TECHNOLOGY
MEDICINE
EDUCATION
ARTS
SCIENCE
Graphs use numbers to present facts and figures. There are two types of
graphs, both used to show how one thing changes in relation to another. A
bar graph can be used to compare quantities at a glance, to show trends
or changes over time, or to indicate the parts of a whole. Bar graphs, such
as the example at the top of the next page, are formed along a vertical and
horizontal axis.
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100
97
85
76
60
55
50
40
Females
Males
Freshmen Sophomores
Juniors
Writer’s Handbook
Number of Students Voting
Number of Students Voting in School Elections by Class
Seniors
Class
A line graph can be used to show changes or trends over time, to compare
trends, or to show how two or more variables interact.
Number of Students Voting
Number of Students Voting in School Elections
390
299
250
240
2004
2005
Year
2006
2007
Maps represent part of the earth or space. Maps of the earth may show
geographical features, roads, cities, and other important locations.
Other types of visuals you might use to present information include
illustrations showing your subject, diagrams clarifying a process you
explain, and time lines pinpointing historical events you discuss.
YOUR TURN Choose the visual you think would most effectively communicate the information below. Then, use the guidelines in this section to
create the visual.
Diameters of selected solar system planets in kilometers:
Mercury 4,878
Earth 12,756
Jupiter 142,800
Neptune 49,528
Writer’s Handbook 1273
Language Handbook
1. The Parts of Speech
Part of Speech
Definition
Examples
NOUN
Names a person, place, thing, or idea
captain, swimmers, team, London, justice
PRONOUN
Takes the place of a noun or pronoun
personal
Refers to the one(s) speaking (first
person), spoken to (second person), or
spoken about (third person)
I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours
you, your, yours
he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its
they, them, their, theirs
reflexive
Refers to and directs action of verb
back to subject
myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves,
himself, herself, itself, themselves
intensive
Refers to and emphasizes a noun or
pronoun
(See reflexive above.)
demonstrative
Refers to specific one(s) of group
this, that, these, those
interrogative
Introduces a question
what, which, who, whom, whose
relative
Introduces subordinate clause and
refers to noun or pronoun outside
clause
that, which, who, whom, whose
indefinite
Refers to one(s) not specifically named
all, any, anyone, both, each, either,
everybody, many, none, nothing
ADJECTIVE
Modifies noun or pronoun by telling
what kind, which one, how many, or
how much
an old, flea-bitten dog, that one, the
twelve red roses, more water
VERB
Shows action or state of being
action
Expresses physical or mental activity
paint, jump, write, know, imagine
linking
Connects subject with word identifying
or describing it
appear, be, seem, become, feel, look,
smell, sound, taste
helping
(auxiliary)
Combines with another verb to form a
verb phrase
be, have, may, can shall, will, would
ADVERB
Modifies verb, adjective, or adverb by
telling how, when, where, or to what
extent
drives carefully, quite dangerous,
shortly afterward, arrived there late
PREPOSITION
Relates noun or pronoun to another
word
across, between, into, near, of, on, with,
aside from, instead of, next to
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CONJUNCTION
Joins words or word groups
coordinating
Joins words or word groups used
similarly
and, but, for, nor, or, so yet
correlative
A pair of conjunctions that join parallel
words or word groups
both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . .
nor, not only . . . but (also)
subordinating
Begins subordinate clause and
connects it to independent clause
as though, because, if, since, so that,
than, when, where, while
INTERJECTION
Expresses emotion
hey, oops, ouch, wow
Your Turn
Examples
Determining Parts of Speech
The way a word is used in a sentence determines the word’s part of speech:
The fine feathers of birds are called down. [noun]
She wore a down vest. [adjective]
We watched him down the milk in gulps. [verb]
Her poster fell down. [adverb]
We coasted down the hill. [preposition]
Write three sentences using the word water as a noun, a verb, and as an adjective.
Language Handbook 1275
Language Handbook
Definition
RESOURCE CENTER
Part of Speech
RESOURCE CENTER
2. Agreement
Agreement of Subject
and Verb
Language Handbook
2a.
A verb should always agree with its subject in
number. Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural
subjects take plural verbs.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
SINGULAR
PLURAL
She searches for the necklace.
They search for the necklace.
The flower garden was destroyed.
The marigolds were destroyed.
COMPUTER NOTE Some word-processing programs
can identify problems in subject-verb agreement. You
can use such a program to help you search for errors
when you are proofreading your writing. If you are not
sure if a problem identified by the program is actually an error, check it in this section of the Language
Handbook.
2b.
The number of the subject is not changed by a
phrase following the subject.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
SINGULAR
PLURAL
The sign near the glass doors explains
the theme of the exhibit.
Several paintings by Emilio Sánchez
were hanging in the gallery.
Romeo, together with Benvolio and
Mercutio, goes to Lord Capulet’s party.
The combs made of pure tortoise shell
were expensive.
The number of the subject is not changed by a negative construction following the subject.
A human being, not a tiger nor any other animal, is
the prey hunted by General Zaroff.
2c.
The following indefinite pronouns are singular:
anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody,
everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing,
one, somebody, someone, something.
Each of the poems was written by Gary Soto.
Has anyone in your study group read The Skirt?
2d. The following indefinite pronouns are plural:
both, few, many, several.
Both of the poems were written by Gary Soto.
How many in your study group have read The
Skirt?
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2e. The indefinite pronouns all, any, most, none, and
some are singular when they refer to singular words
and are plural when they refer to plural words.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Some of the show was funny.
Some of the skits were funny.
All of the house looks clean.
All of the houses look clean.
2f.
A compound subject, which is two or more
subjects that have the same verb, may be singular,
plural, or either.
(1) Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb.
Leslie Marmon Silko and Mari Evans are poets.
A compound subject that names only one person or
thing takes a singular verb.
My pen pal and best friend is my cousin.
Macaroni and cheese makes a good side dish.
(2) Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.
Either the principal or the coach has to approve it.
Neither Della nor Jim was disappointed.
(3) When a singular subject and a plural subject are
joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb.
Neither the losers nor the winner was happy with
the outcome of the match.
Neither the winner nor the losers were happy with
the outcome of the match.
NOTE If such a construction sounds awkward, revise
the sentence to give each subject its own verb.
The losers were not happy with the outcome of the
match, and neither was the winner.
2g. Don’t and doesn’t must agree with their
subjects.
With the subjects I and you and with plural subjects,
use don’t (do not).
I don’t know.
You don’t seem happy.
Some people don’t care.
He doesn’t drive.
Donna doesn’t work.
It doesn’t have one.
PLURAL
2h. A collective noun takes a singular verb when
the noun refers to the group as a unit and takes a
plural verb when the noun refers to the individual
parts or members of the group.
PLURAL
The class has elected its officers. [class =
a unit]
The class have completed their reports.
[class = individual students]
Common Collective Nouns
army
club
group
public
assembly
committee
squad
majority
audience
couple
jury
staff
crew
class
flock
pair
cast
crowd
number
team
chorus
family
pack
troop
2i.
A verb agrees with its subject, not with its
predicate nominative.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
The main attraction is the marching
bands.
The marching bands are the main
attraction.
2j. A verb agrees with its subject even when the
verb precedes the subject, as in sentences beginning
with here or there and in questions.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Here is my drawing of the Cyclops.
Here are my drawings of the Cyclops.
NOTE Contractions such as here’s, there’s, and where’s
should be used only with singular subjects.
2k.
An expression of an amount (a length of time, a
statistic, or a fraction, for example) is singular when
the amount is thought of as a unit or when it refers
to a singular word and is plural when the amount is
thought of as many parts or when it refers to a plural
word.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Twenty dollars was the amount Della
received for her hair. [Twenty dollars is
the single amount Della receives.]
Twenty dollars were hidden in the
book. [Twenty dollar bills were hidden.]
Half of the barrel is full. [Half refers to
barrel.]
Half of the barrels are full. [Half refers
to barrels.]
2l.
The title of a creative work (such as a book, song,
film, or painting) or the name of an organization, a
country, or a city (even if it is plural in form) takes a
singular verb.
“Marigolds” is a story by Eugenia W. Collier.
Friends of the Earth was founded in 1969.
The Netherlands has thousands of canals.
2m. A few nouns, although plural in form, take
singular verbs.
The news was reported in all the media.
Some nouns that end in –s take a plural verb even
though they refer to a single item.
The scissors need to be sharpened.
Were these pants on sale?
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND
ANTECEDENT
A pronoun usually refers to a noun or another pronoun. The word that a pronoun refers to is called its
antecedent.
2n. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
number and gender. A few personal pronouns
indicate gender: feminine, masculine, or neuter. No
plural pronouns indicate gender.
masculine
feminine
neuter
he
him
his
himself
she
her
hers
herself
it
it
its
itself
Juliet stabs herself. [singular, feminine]
General Zaroff thinks that Rainsford has escaped
him. [singular, masculine]
After eating the Lotus plant, the men did not want
to return to their homeland. [plural]
Language Handbook 1277
Language Handbook
A collective noun is singular in form but names a
group of persons or things.
SINGULAR
SINGULAR
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With other subjects, use doesn’t (does not).
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Language Handbook
2o.
A singular pronoun is used to refer to anybody,
anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, no one,
nothing, one, somebody, someone, or something. The
gender of any of these pronouns can sometimes
be determined by a word in a phrase following the
pronoun.
Each of the boys held some pebbles in his hand.
Everyone on the girls’ tennis team won her match.
AWKWARD
REVISED
2q. A plural pronoun is used to refer to two or more
antecedents joined by and.
Romeo and Juliet marry despite the feud between
their families.
Because Doodle and his brother spent much time
together, they became very close.
When the antecedent is unclear, use both a masculine
and feminine pronoun connected by or.
Everybody shared his or her opinion.
2p.
A singular pronoun is used to refer to two or
more singular antecedents joined by or or nor.
Either Ben or Maya will read his or her
report on O. Henry.
Either Ben will read his report on O.
Henry, or Maya will read hers.
2r.
The number of a relative pronoun (such as who,
whom, whose, which, or that) depends on the number
of its antecedent.
Paula or Janet will present her report next.
Neither Richard nor Bob has finished his report.
If a sentence sounds awkward when the antecedents
are of different genders, revise it.
Aretha is a friend who always keeps her word.
Many who volunteer find their experiences
rewarding.
Your Turn
When an antecedent can be either masculine or feminine, you can avoid the his
or her construction by using plural nouns and pronouns. Revise each of the
following sentences to eliminate the his or her construction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Each person had to hide his or her talents.
Could anyone take off his or her handicap bag?
Everybody had to be equal to his or her neighbor.
Did Harrison or the dancer realize his or her fate?
Neither he nor she wore his or her handicaps.
1278 Resource Center
The Principal Parts of Verbs
3a.
Common Regular Verbs
BASE FORM
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
ask
(is) asking
asked
(have) asked
raise
(is) raising
raised
(have) raised
plan
(is) planning
planned
(have) planned
try
(is) trying
tried
(have) tried
Common Irregular Verbs
BASE FORM
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
be
(is) being
was, were
(have) been
begin
(is) beginning
began
(have) begun
bring
(is) bringing
brought
(have) brought
drink
(is) drinking
drank
(have) drunk
eat
(is) eating
ate
(have) eaten
fall
(is) falling
fell
(have) fallen
find
(is) finding
found
(have) found
go
(is) going
went
(have) gone
keep
(is) keeping
kept
(have) kept
lay
(is) laying
laid
(have) laid
lead
(is) leading
led
(have) led
lie
(is) lying
lay
(have) lain
ride
(is) riding
rode
(have) ridden
set
(is) setting
set
(have) set
shake
(is) shaking
shook
(have) shaken
sing
(is) singing
sang
(have) sung
sit
(is) sitting
sat
(have) sat
steal
(is) stealing
stole
(have) stolen
swim
(is) swimming
swam
(have) swum
tear
(is) tearing
tore
(have) torn
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The four principal parts of a verb are the base form, the present participle, the past,
and the past participle. These principal parts are used to form all the different verb tenses.
The present and past participles are always used with helping verbs—forms of be or have.
If you are unsure about the principal parts of a verb, you can find them in a dictionary.
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3. Using Verbs
RESOURCE CENTER
3b.
A regular verb forms its past and past participle
by adding –ed to the base form.
3c.
An irregular verb forms its past and past
participle in a way other than adding –ed to the base
form.
Language Handbook
TENSE
3d.
The tense of a verb indicates the time of the
action or the state of being expressed by the verb.
Verbs in English have six tenses: present, past, future,
present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. The
tenses are formed from the verb’s principal parts.
(1) The present tense is used mainly to express an
action or a state of being that is occurring now.
The car turns into the driveway.
They like my idea for a science project.
The present tense is also used—
• to show a customary action or state of being
Every November she bakes fruitcakes for her
friends.
• to express a general truth—something that is
always true
The sun sets in the west.
• to make historical events seem current (such use
is called the historical present)
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposes his theory of
relativity.
• to discuss a literary work (such use is called the
literary present)
Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
tells the story of her childhood.
• to express future time
Finals begin next week. [future time]
(2) The past tense is used to express an action or a
state of being that occurred in the past but that is
not occurring now.
Jim gave Della a set of combs.
The children annoyed Miss Lottie.
A past action or state of being can also be shown with
the verb used followed by an infinitive.
We used to live in Chicago.
(3) The future tense (formed with will or shall and the
verb’s base form) is used to express an action or a
state of being that will occur.
I shall play the part of Romeo.
They will arrive soon.
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A future action or state of being can also be shown in
other ways.
They are going to win.
We leave for the theater in an hour.
(4) The present perfect tense (formed with have
or has and the verb’s past participle) is used
to express an action or a state of being that
occurred at some indefinite time in the past.
Doodle has learned how to walk.
We have read the Odyssey.
The present perfect tense is also used to express an
action or a state of being that began with the past and
continues into the present.
We have lived in the same house for nine years.
(5) The past perfect tense (formed with had and the
verb’s past participle) is used to express an action
or a state of being that was completed in the past
before some other past action or event.
Lizabeth regretted what she had done. [The doing
occurred before the regretting.]
When you called, I had already eaten supper. [The
eating occurred before the calling.]
(6) The future perfect tense (formed with will have or
shall have and the verb’s past participle) is used to
express an action or a state of being that will be
completed in the future before some other future
occurrence.
When Mom returns, I will have done my chores.
[The doing will be completed before the
returning.]
He will have finished his Hebrew lessons before his
bar mitzvah. [The finishing will be completed
before the bar mitzvah.]
Each of the six verb tenses has an additional form
called the progressive form. The progressive form
expresses a continuing action or state of being. It
consists of the appropriate tense of be plus the verb’s
present participle. For the perfect tenses, the progressive form includes one or more helping verbs.
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
Future Progressive
Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Future Perfect Progressive
am, are, is giving
was, were giving
will (shall) be
giving
has, have been
giving
had been giving
will (shall) have
been giving
AWKWARD PASSIVE
Do not change needlessly from one tense to
another
INCONSISTENT
CONSISTENT
Jim sold his watch and buys Della a set
of combs.
Jim sold his watch and bought Della a
set of combs.
ACTIVE
The passive voice is useful, however, in certain situations:
The Globe Theatre was built in 1599.
3f.
A verb in the active voice expresses an action
done by its subject. A verb in the passive voice
expresses an action received by its subject.
(2) when you do not want to reveal the performer of
the action
A verb in the passive voice is always a verb phrase that
includes a form of be and the main verb’s past participle.
PASSIVE VOICE
3g.
Rainford surprised General Zaroff.
[The subject, Rainsford, performs the
action.]
General Zaroff was surprised by
Rainsford. [The subject, General Zaroff,
receives the action.]
Mistakes were made.
(3) when you want to emphasize the receiver of the
action
Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860.
COMPUTER NOTE Some software programs can identify and highlight passive-voice verbs. If you use such
a program, keep in mind that it can’t tell why you used
the passive voice. If you did so for one of the reasons
listed in 3g, you may want to leave it.
Use the passive voice sparingly.
The passive voice is not any less correct than the active
voice, but it is less direct, less forceful, and less concise.
As a result, a sentence written in the passive voice can
often sound awkward or weak.
Your Turn
Change the verb tenses in each sentence to make the verb tenses consistent.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Before he went away, they are going to the ocean.
I am eating dinner, and I will have taken a nap.
What he drank is a glass of milk.
She writes ghost stories and was superstitious.
He was grateful for the help she will offer.
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(1) when you do not know the performer of the
action
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
ACTIVE VOICE
Mme. Forestier’s necklace was
borrowed by Mme. Loisel.
Mme. Loisel borrowed Mme.
Forestier’s necklace.
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3e.
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Language Handbook
4. Using Pronouns
Case
Case is the form that a pronoun takes to indicate its use in a sentence. In English, there are
three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Most personal pronouns have a different
form for each case.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Singular
NOMINATIVE
OBJECTIVE
POSSESSIVE
FIRST PERSON
I
me
my, mine
SECOND PERSON
you
you
your, yours
THIRD PERSON
he, she, it
him, her, it
his, her, hers, its
Plural
NOMINATIVE
OBJECTIVE
POSSESSIVE
FIRST PERSON
we
us
our, ours
SECOND PERSON
you
you
your, yours
THIRD PERSON
they
them
their, theirs
The Nominative Case
4a.
A subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
She was glad they were elected. [She is the subject of
was; they is the subject of were elected.]
Are Della and he disappointed? [Della and he are
the compound subject of are.]
4b.
A predicate nominative is in the nominative case.
A predicate nominative follows a linking verb and
explains or identifies the subject of the verb.
The woman who borrows the necklace is she. [She
identifies the subject woman.]
The main characters are he and his brother Doodle.
[He and brother identify the subject characters.]
The Objective Case
4c.
A direct object of a verb is in the objective case.
A direct object follows an action verb and tells whom
or what.
Lizabeth destroyed them. [Them tells what Lizabeth
destroyed.]
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Friar Laurence helps him. [Him tell whom Friar
Laurence helps.]
4d.
An indirect object of a verb is in the objective
case.
An indirect object comes before a direct object and
tells to whom or to what or for whom or for what.
Buddy gave her a kite. [Her tells to whom Buddy
gave a kite.]
Molly made him and me a tape. [Him and me tell
for whom Molly made a tape.]
4e.
An object of a preposition is in the objective case.
An object of a preposition comes at the end of a
phrase that begins with a preposition.
Mme. Loisel borrows a necklace from her.
This gift is for them.
SPECIAL PRONOUN PROBLEMS
4f.
The pronoun who (whoever) is in the nominative
case. The pronoun whom (whomever) is in the
objective case.
OBJECTIVE
Who wrote Black Boy? [Who is the
subject of wrote.]
From whom did Mme. Loisel borrow
the necklace? [Whom is the object of
the preposition from.]
When choosing between who and whom in a subordinate clause, be sure to base your choice on how the
pronoun functions in the subordinate clause.
CLEAR
CLEAR
(2) Avoid a general reference, which occurs when a
pronoun refers to a general idea rather than to a
specific antecedent.
Rainsford had escaped. This annoyed
General Zaroff. [This has no specific
antecedent.]
That Rainsford had escaped annoyed
General Zaroff.
GENERAL
CLEAR
4g.
An appositive is in the same case as the noun or
pronoun to which it refers.
An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to
another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it.
The main characters, Romeo and Juliet, are lovers.
[The appositive, Romeo and Juliet, identifies the
subject, characters.]
The teacher did not say a word to either of the boys,
Ned or Sam. [The appositive, Ned or Sam, identifies an object of a preposition, boys.]
Sometimes the pronouns we and us are used with
noun appositives.
We cast members have a dress rehearsal tonight.
[The pronoun we is the subject of have.]
The principal praised us members of the Ecology
Club. [The pronoun us is in the direct object of
praised.]
4h.
A pronoun following than or as in an
incomplete construction is in the same case as it
would be if the construction were completed.
I wrote you more often than he [wrote you].
I wrote you more often than [I wrote] him.
Did you help Ada as much as I [helped Ada]?
Did you help Ada as much as [you helped] me?
Miss Lottie saw Lizabeth when she was
in the garden. [She can refer to either
Miss Lottie or Lizabeth.]
When Miss Lottie was in the garden,
she saw Lizabeth.
When Lizabeth was in the garden, Miss
Lottie saw her.
(3) Avoid a weak reference, which occurs when a
pronoun refers to an implied antecedent.
Ralph enjoys writing poetry, but he
never shows them to anyone else. [Them
most likely refers to the unstated plural
poems, but the writer has used the word
poetry.]
Ralph enjoys writing poetry, but he
never shows his poems to anyone else.
WEAK
CLEAR
(4) Avoid using an indefinite reference, which occurs
when a pronoun (such as you, it, or they) refers to
no particular person or thing.
INDEFINITE
CLEAR
In the owner’s manual, they explain how
to program the DVD player.
The owner’s manual explains how to
program the DVD player.
NOTE The indefinite use of it is acceptable in familiar
expressions such as It is snowing.
Your Turn
Insert whom where it is appropriate in each of these
sentences. Make other changes as needed for the
sentence to sound correct.
Clear Pronoun Reference
4i.
A pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent.
An antecedent is the word a pronoun stands for.
1. The girl they admired was reading.
2. Do you know boys like the ones he speaks
of?
3. They talked about the woman each of them
(1) Avoid an ambiguous reference, which occurs
when a pronoun can refer to any one of two or
more antecedents.
would marry.
4. The other boy Gary Soto wrote of said that
he would go to school.
5. The field of carpentry appealed to the boy
that kind of work was easy for.
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The sniper learned who his enemy had been. [Who
is the predicate nominative identifying the subject enemy.]
The sniper learned the identity of the man whom he
had shot. [Whom is the direct object of had shot.]
AMBIGUOUS
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NOMINATIVE
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Language Handbook
5. Using Modifiers
What Is a Modifier?
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
A modifier is a word or group of words that limits the
meaning of another word or group of words The two
kinds of modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. An adjective limits the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. An
adverb limits the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
deep
deeper
deepest
gentle
gentle
gentlest
careful
more careful
most careful
Adjective or Adverb?
Adverbs not Ending in –LY
sit here
run loose
Adjectives Ending in –LY
daily diet
holy place
more important
most important
common
less common
least common
Irregular Comparison
Not all adverbs end in –ly, and not all words that end
with –ly are adverbs. Some adjectives also end in –ly.
You can’t tell whether a word is an adjective or adverb
simply by looking for the –ly ending.
arrive soon
important
(5) Some modifiers form the comparative and superlative in other ways.
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
bad
worse
worst
good/well
better
best
little
less
least
many/much more
silly joke
Some words can be used as adjectives or adverbs.
Adjectives
Adverbs
He is an only child.
She has only one sister.
I have an early class.
I get up early.
We caught the last bus.
We left last.
COMPARISON OF MODIFIERS
5a.
The forms of modifiers change to show
comparison.
Use of Comparative and Superlative Forms
5b.
Use the comparative degree when comparing
two things. Use the superlative degree when
comparing more than two.
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Regular Comparison
(1) Most one-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative by adding –er and –est.
(2) Some two-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative by adding –er or –est. Some
form the comparative and superlative with more
and most.
(3) Modifiers of more than two syllables form the
comparative and superlative by using more and
most.
(4) All modifiers show decreasing degrees of comparison by using less and least.
Rainsford was more resourceful than
Zaroff thought he would be.
This was the most suspenseful story I
have ever read.
5c.
Include other or else when comparing one thing
with others in the same group.
ILLOGICAL
The three degrees of comparison are positive, comparative, and superlative.
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most
LOGICAL
ILLOGICAL
LOGICAL
Ruth is more agile than any member of
her gymnastics team [Ruth is a member
of her team; she cannot be more agile
than herself.]
Ruth is more agile than any other
member of her gymnastics team.
Carlos ran faster than everyone.
[Everyone includes Carlos; he cannot
run faster than himself.]
Carlos ran faster than everyone else.
Avoid a double comparison—using both –er
and more (or less) or both –est and most (or least) to
modify the same word.
William Sydney Porter is better [not more better]
known as O. Henry.
This is the cheapest [not most cheapest] bicycle in
the store.
ILLOGICAL
LOGICAL
ILLOGICAL
LOGICAL
The average temperature in Dallas is
higher than Spokane.
The average temperature in Dallas is
higher than the average temperature in
Spokane.
A coral snake’s venom is more dangerous than a rattlesnake.
A coral snake’s venom is more dangerous than a rattlesnake’s [or rattlesnake’s
venom].
State both parts of an incomplete comparison if there
is any chance of misunderstanding.
CLEAR
I visited her more than Elise.
I visited her more than I visited Elise.
CLEAR
I visited her more than Elise did.
UNCLEAR
PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS
CLEAR
CLEAR
Working together, our goal can be
attained within a few months.
Working together, we can attain our goal
within a few months.
We can attain our goal within a few
months by working together.
You may correct a dangling modifier—
• by adding a word or words that the dangling modifier can sensibly modify
• by adding a word or words to the dangling modifier
• by rewording the sentence
NOTE A sentence may appear to have a dangling
modifier when you is the understood subject. In such
cases, the modifier is not dangling but modifies the
understood subject.
To find the correct spelling, [you] look up the word
in a dictionary.
5g. Avoid using a misplaced modifier—a modifying
word or word group that sounds awkward because it
seems to modify the wrong word or word group.
To correct a misplaced modifier, place the modifier as
near as possible to the word or word group you intend
it to modify.
MISPLACED
CLEAR
Doodle reveals to his family that he has
learned to walk on his sixth birthday.
On his sixth birthday, Doodle reveals to
his family that he has learned to walk.
5f.
Avoid using a dangling modifier—a modifying
word or word group that does not modify any word
or word group in the same sentence.
Your Turn
Rewrite the sentences to correct any dangling or misplaced modifiers.
Laughing out loud, the funny card was purchased by Bob.
Exhausted, a good night’s sleep was what the hikers needed.
Carrying a bag of groceries, her ankle turned on the uneven pavement.
At the meeting, the teachers discussed the idea of decorating the school
halls with the parents.
5. Walking up the street, the store windows looked cheerful.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Language Handbook
5e. Avoid comparing items that cannot logically be
compared.
DANGLING
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5d.
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Language Handbook
6. Phrases
6a.
A phrase is a group of related words that is used
as a single part of speech. A phrase does not contain
both a verb and its subject.
has been sitting [verb phrase; no subject]
about you and me [prepositional phrase; no subject
or verb]
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
6b.
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition
and ends with a noun or pronoun that is the object
of the preposition. A prepositional phrase may also
contain modifiers of the object of the preposition.
The sniper ran across the street. [Street is the object
of the preposition across.]
In front of him was Fortunato. [Him is the object of
the compound preposition in front of.]
(1) A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or
pronoun is called an adjective phrase.
Everyone remained quiet because of the snake.
[Phrase modifies an adjective and tells why.]
Is the water warm enough for swimming? [Phrase
modifies the adverb and tells to what extent.]
An adverb phrase may come either before or after the
word or word group it modifies.
For Christmas, Buddy gave her a kite.
Buddy gave her a kite for Christmas.
More than one adverb phrase may modify the same
word or group of words.
In November she and Buddy bake fruitcakes for
their friends. [In November tells when and for
their friends tells why they bake fruitcakes.]
VERBALS AND VERBAL PHRASES
A verbal is a form of a verb used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A verbal phrase consists of a verbal
and all the words related to it. The three kinds of verbals are participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
An adjective phrase tells what kind or which one.
Lizabeth destroyed Miss Lottie’s garden of marigolds. [Of marigolds modifies garden, telling
what kind.]
All of them watched Doodle bury the scarlet ibis.
[Of them modifies all, telling which ones.]
An adjective phrase usually follows the word it modifies. That word may be the object of another preposition.
“Boy” is the title of a story by Roald Dahl. [Of
a story modifies title. By Roald Dahl modifies
story.]
More than one adjective phrase may modify the same
noun or pronoun.
The bottle of vitamins on the shelf is almost empty.
[Of vitamins and on the shelf modify the noun
bottle.]
(2) A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb is called an adverb
phrase.
An adverb phrase tells when, where, how, why, or to
what extent.
By his sixth birthday, Doodle could walk. [Phrase
modifies the verb and tells when.]
Had a snake crawled under the sheet? [Phrase
modifies the verb and tells where.]
She answered with a smile. [Phrase modifies the
verb and tells how.]
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Participles and Participial Phrases
6c.
A participle is a verb form that can be used as an
adjective. A participial phrase consists of a participle
and all the words related to it.
(1) Present participles end in -ing.
Doodle collapsed in the pouring rain. [The present
participle pouring modifies the noun rain.]
Lying quietly in his bed, Harry told Timber about
the snake. [The participial phrase lying quietly in
his bed modifies the noun Harry.]
(2) Most past participles end in –ed. Others are
irregularly formed.
Lizabeth sat in the ruined garden and cried. [The
past participle modifies the noun garden.]
The speaker, known for her strong support of
recycling, was loudly applauded. [The participial
phrase modifies the noun speaker.]
Do not confuse a participle used as an adjective with a
participle used as part of a verb phrase.
ADJECTIVE
VERB PHRASE
Fortunato, struggling to free himself,
begged Montresor to unchain him.
Fortunato, who was struggling to free
himself, begged Montresor to unchain
him.
6d.
A gerund is a verb form ending in –ing that is
used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund
and all the words related to the gerund.
Do not confuse a gerund with a present participle used
as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase.
Following her coach’s advice, she was planning to
go on with her training.[Following is a present
participle modifying she. Planning is part of the
verb phrase was planning. Training is a gerund
used as the object of the preposition with.]
NOTE When preceding a gerund, a noun or pronoun
should be in the possessive form.
Pedro’s constant practicing improved his playing.
Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
6e. An infinitive is a verb form, usually preceded
by to, that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive
and all the words related it.
NOUN
To proofread your writing carefully is
important. [The infinitive phrase is the
subject of is.]
Why did she finally decide to buy that
video? [The infinitive phrase is the
direct object of decide.]
Zaroff ’s plan was to hunt Rainsford.
[The infinitive phrase is the predicate
nominative identifying the subject plan.]
ADJECTIVE
Friar Laurence’s plan to help Romeo
and Juliet failed. [The infinitive phrase
modifies the noun plan.]
ADVERB
Fortunato was eager to taste the amontillado. [The infinitive phrase modifies
the adjective eager.]
You should go [to] get a warmer jacket.
NOTE Do not confuse an infinitive with a prepositional
phrase that begins with to.
Doodle and he went to the creek [prepositional
phrase] to swim [infinitive].
6f.
An infinitive may have a subject, in which case it
forms an infinitive clause.
Juliet trusted Friar Laurence and asked him to help
her. [The infinitive clause is the direct object of
asked. Him is the subject of the infinitive to help;
her is the direct object.]
Note that a pronoun functioning as the subject of an
infinitive clause takes the objective form.
APPOSITIVES AND APPOSITIVE
PHRASES
6g. An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed
beside another noun or pronoun to identify it
or explain it. An appositive phrase consists of an
appositive and its modifiers.
Kurt Vonnegut wrote the story “Harrison
Bergeron.” [The appositive identifies the noun
story.]
Odysseus blinded Cyclops, the one-eyed giant.
[The appositive phrase explains the noun
Cyclops.]
An appositive phrase usually follows the noun or pronoun it refers to. For emphasis, however, it may come
at the beginning of a sentence.
A noble leader of his people, Chief Joseph spoke
with quiet dignity.
Appositives and appositive phrases are usually set off
by commas. However, if the appositive is necessary for
identifying the preceding noun or pronoun, it should
not be set off by commas.
My brother Richard goes to college. [The writer has
more than one brother, and the appositive identifies which brother goes to college.]
My brother, Richard, goes to college. [The writer
has only one brother; therefore, the appositive is
not necessary to identify him.]
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Violently destroying the marigolds was Lizabeth’s
last act of childhood. [The gerund phrase is the
subject of was.]
They enjoy making fruitcakes together. [The gerund phrase is the direct object of enjoy.]
Rainsford escaped from Zaroff by leaping into
the sea. [The gerund phrase is the object of the
preposition by.]
Sometimes the to of the infinitive is omitted.
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Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
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Language Handbook
Your Turn
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences by using the predicate of one
sentence to form a verbal or verbal phrase that can be added to the other sentence. Revise your sentence as needed to make it clear and concise.
1. N. Scott Momaday often rode his horse.
For him, this activity was “an exercise of the
mind.”
2. He rode his horse, Pecos, over the hills of
New Mexico. Along the way, he liked to
imagine that he was traveling with Billy the
Kid.
3. Sometimes he and Billy saved a wagon
train in trouble. Such a rescue was one of
Momaday’s favorite adventures.
4. Pecos could outrun the other horses in
Jemez. Momaday was proud of his horse’s
ability.
5. Scents of pine and cedar smoke filled the air.
A fresh, cold wind carried them from the
canyon.
7. Clauses
7a.
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb
and its subject and is used as part of a sentence.
KINDS OF CLAUSES
7b.
An independent (or main) clause expresses
a complete thought and can stand by itself as a
sentence.
Della gives Jim a watch chain, and Jim gives Della
a set of combs.
When I wrote my report on William Shakespeare, I
quoted from Hamlet and Macbeth.
7c.
A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not
express a complete thought and cannot stand alone.
Because I told him the truth, Dad wasn’t too angry
about the broken window.
Stephanie wants to know what the show is about.
7d. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a noun or pronoun.
Not all the stories that Edgar Allan Poe wrote deal
with horror or terror. [The adjective clause modifies stories.]
I read about Sequoyah, whose invention of a written language aided other Cherokees. [The
adjective clause modifies Sequoyah.]
A relative pronoun is sometimes left out of an adjective
clause.
Was The Miracle Worker the first play [that]
William Gibson wrote?
The mechanic [whom] you recommended fixed my
stepfather’s motorcycle.
Occasionally, an adjective clause begins with the relative adverb where or when.
We visited the town where Shakespeare was born.
Summer is the season when I feel happiest.
7e. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
An adjective clause always follows the word it modifies
and usually begins with a relative pronoun, such as
who, whom, whose, which, or that.
An adverb clause, which may come before or after the
word it modifies, tells how, when, where, why, to what
extent (how much), or under what condition. An adverb
clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, such
as although, because, if, or so that.
Della and Jim, who are deeply in love, make sacrifices to buy gifts for each other. [The adjective
clause modifies Della and Jim.]
Because we did so well in the discussion, our
teacher did not assign any homework. [The
adverb clause modifies the verb and tells why.]
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A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a
subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an
indirect object, or an object of a preposition.
The words commonly used to begin noun clauses
include that, what, whether, who, and why.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
DIRECT OBJECT
INDIRECT OBJECT
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
What Odysseus did was
clever.
The captains are who pick
the players for their teams.
The sniper discovered that
his brother was the enemy.
The clerk should tell whoever asks the sale prices.
He knew the price of whatever they requested.
The word that introduces a noun clause may or may
not have a function within the noun clause.
Lizabeth regretted what she had done. [What is the
direct object of had done.]
Mme. Loisel learned that the necklace was fake.
[That has no function in the clause.]
Sometimes the word that introduces a noun clause is
not stated, but its meaning is understood.
His mother said [that] he could go to the concert.
Your Turn
Using adjective and adverb clauses can help make your writing smoother. Use
these clauses to combine each of the following pairs of short, choppy sentences.
1. Many people do not have homes. They wan-
der the cities.
2. Ann appears in this article. She is one of
these homeless people.
3. Ann lost her job. She lost her house, too.
4. Now she has only a coat. The coat is dirty
and creased.
5. People like Ann need help, not labels. Their
lives are hard.
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7f.
SUBJECT
RESOURCE CENTER
I wrote a poem about war after I read “The Sniper.”
[The adverb clause modifies the verb and tells
when.]
If Harry moves, he may disturb the sleeping snake.
[The adverb clause modifies the verb and tells
under what condition.]
His pitching arm is stronger today than it ever was.
[The adverb clause modifies an adjective and tells
to what extent.]
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Language Handbook
8. Sentence Structure
Sentence or Sentence
Fragment?
8a. A sentence is a group of words that contains
a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought.
A sentence should begin with a capital letter and end
with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
point. A group of words that does not contain a subject
and verb or does not express a complete thought is
called a sentence fragment.
FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
Romeo banished from Verona?
Was Romeo banished from Verona?
What a clever plan!
What a clever plan it was!
When the families learned of the deaths
of Romeo and Juliet.
When the families learned of the deaths
of Romeo and Juliet, they ended their
feud.
COMPUTER NOTE Many word-processing programs
can identify sentence fragments. If you have access to
such a program, use it to help you evaluate your writing. Revise each fragment to make sure that all your
sentences are complete.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
8b.
A sentence consists of two parts: the subject
and the predicate. The subject tells whom or what
the sentence is about. The predicate tells something
about the subject.
In the following examples, all the words labeled subject
make up the complete subject, and all the words
labeled predicate make up the complete predicate.
SUBJECT
Tybalt
PREDICATE
| was Juliet’s cousin.
SUBJECT
Two of Prince Escalus’s kinsmen
PREDICATE
| died.
PREDICATE
SUBJECT
Why did | Juliet |
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PREDICATE
take the sleeping potion?
The Simple Subject
8c.
The simple subject is the main word or words
that tell whom or what the sentence is about.
An excerpt from Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the
Caged Bird Sings appears in this book. [The complete subject is An excerpt from Maya Angelou’s I
Know Why the Caged Bird Sings.]
The talented Georgia O’Keeffe is known for her
paintings of huge flowers. [The complete subject
is The talented Georgia O’Keeffe.]
The Simple Predicate
8d. The simple predicate, is the main word or words
that tell something about the subject.
A simple predicate may be a single word or a verb
phrase (a verb with one or more helping verbs).
Montresor led Fortunato to the catacombs. [The
complete predicate is led Fortunato to the
catacombs.]
Did Mme. Loisel find the necklace? [The complete
predicate is did find the necklace.]
NOTE In this book, the term subject refers to the
simple subject and the term verb refers to the simple
predicate unless otherwise indicated.
The Compound Subject and the Compound Verb
8e. A compound subject consists of two or more
subjects that are joined by a conjunction—usually
and or or—and have the same verb.
Does Rainsford or Zaroff win the game?
Romeo, Benvolio, and Mercutio attend the
Capulets’ party.
8f.
A compound verb consists of two or more verbs
that are joined by a conjunction—usually and, but, or
or—and that have the same subject.
Della sold her hair and bought Jim a watch chain.
Timber looked for the snake but did not find it.
The Subject Complement
8g. To find the subject of a sentence, ask “Who?” or
“What?” before the verb.
8i.
The price of those videos seems high. [What seems
high? The price seems high. Price is the subject.]
(1) The subject of a sentence is never in a prepositional phrase.
(2) The subject of a sentence expressing a question
usually follows the verb or a part of the verb
phrase. Turning the question into a statement
may help you find the subject.
QUESTION
STATEMENT
QUESTION
STATEMENT
Did she give Buddy a kite?
She did give Buddy a kite.
Is the Odyssey an epic?
The Odyssey is an epic.
(3) The word there or here is never the subject of a
sentence.
There are your keys. [What are there? Keys are.]
Here is your pencil. [What is here? Pencil is.]
(4) The subject of a sentence expressing a command
or request is always understood to be you.
[You] Listen carefully to this question.
The subject of a command or request is you even
when the sentence contains a noun of direct
address, a word naming the one or ones spoken
to.
Ellen, [you] please read the part of Juliet.
COMPLEMENTS
8h. A complement is a word or group of words that
completes the meaning of a verb.
Three kinds of complements are the subject complement, the direct object, and the indirect object.
The two types of subject complements are the predicate nominative and the predicate adjective.
(1) A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun
that follows a linking verb and renames or identifies the subject of the verb.
“The Necklace” is a classic story. [The noun story
identifies the subject “The Necklace.”]
The only people in line were they. [The pronoun
they renames the subject people.]
(2) A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows
a linking verb and that modifies the verb’s subject.
The necklace was inexpensive. [The adjective inexpensive modifies the subject necklace.]
The corn tasted sweet and buttery. [The adjectives
sweet and buttery modify the subject corn.]
The Direct Object and Indirect Object
8j. A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives
the action of a verb or that shows the result of the
action. It tells whom or what after a transitive verb.
The sniper killed his own brother. [killed whom?
brother]
Shakespeare wrote not only plays but also beautiful
sonnets. [wrote what? plays and sonnets]
8k.
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that
precedes the direct object and that usually tells to
whom or for whom (or to what or for what) the action
of the verb is done.
Sheila read the children a story by Truman Capote.
[read to whom? children]
Frank gave the Red Cross a donation. [gave to
what? Red Cross]
NOTE A complement may precede the subject and
the verb.
DIRECT OBJECT
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
What a good friend Buddy has!
How happy Della is!
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Her garden of marigolds was ruined. [What was
ruined? Garden was ruined. Marigolds is the
object of the preposition of.]
On the rooftop crouched the sniper. [Who
crouched? The sniper crouched. Rooftop is the
object of the preposition on.]
A subject complement is a word or word group
that completes the meaning of a linking verb and
identifies or modifies the subject.
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Finding the Subject of a Sentence
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Language Handbook
CLASSIFYING SENTENCES
ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
8l.
Sentences may be classified as declarative,
imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory.
Classification
Purpose
Punctuation
Example
Declarative
Makes a statement
Period
My favorite story is “Thank You,
M’am.”
Imperative
Makes a request or gives a
command
Period or exclamation
point
Please open your books.
Stop that right now!
Interrogative
Asks a question
Question mark
What did Romeo do when he
saw Juliet?
Exclamatory
Expresses strong feeling
Exclamation point
What a mess we’re in now!
CLASSIFYING SENTENCES
ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
8m. Sentences may be classified as simple,
compound, complex, or compound-complex.
Classification
Structure
Example
Simple sentence
One independent clause and no
subordinate clauses
Frankenstein was written in the
nineteenth century.
Compound sentence
Two or more independent clauses
but no subordinate clause
Rita wanted to see a serious film,
but Carlos preferred a comedy.
Harriet Tubman led people to
freedom; she was a leader of the
Underground Railroad.
Complex sentence
One independent clause and at
least one subordinate clause
On Shakespeare’s gravestone is an
inscription that places a curse on
anyone who moves his bones.
Compound-complex sentence
Two or more independent clauses William Golding published Lord of
and at least one subordinate clause the Flies, which is his best-known
novel, in 1954, and he received the
Nobel Prize in 1963.
Your Turn
The following paragraph is composed of simple sentences. Revise the paragraph,
using a variety of sentence structures.
[1] “The Most Dangerous Game” begins with a
conversation about hunting. [2] Rainsford is
the protagonist. [3] He and Whitney are on a
yacht in the Caribbean. [4] They’re near the
eerie Ship-Trap Island. [5] Rainsford loves
hunting. [6] He thinks that sympathy for the
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hunted animal is foolish. [7] Later Rainsford
falls overboard. [8] He swims to the island.
[9] He meets General Zaroff at the general’s
chateau. [10] Zaroff hunts human beings
for sport. [11] Soon Rainsford the hunter
becomes the hunted.
RUNON SENTENCES
9a. Avoid using a sentence fragment—as part of
a sentence that has been punctuated as if it were a
complete sentence.
9b.
Here are two ways to correct a sentence fragment.
1. Add words that will make the thought complete.
There are two kinds of run-on sentences.
• A fused sentence has no punctuation between the
complete sentences.
FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
Shortly after his birth, was baptized in a
small church in Stratford. [The subject is
missing.]
Shortly after his birth, Shakespeare was
baptized in a small church in Stratford.
Odysseus a great hero of the Greeks.
[The verb is missing.]
Odysseus became a great hero of the
Greeks.
2. Attach the fragment to a sentence that comes
before or after it.
FRAGMENT
REVISED
FRAGMENT
REVISED
When she takes off her coat. [fragment]
Mme. Loisel discovers that she is no longer wearing the necklace. [sentence]
When she takes off her coat, Mme.
Loisel discovers that she is no longer
wearing the necklace.
Odysseus figured out a way for his men
and him. [sentence] To escape from the
Cyclops. [fragment]
Odysseus figured out a way for his men
and him to escape from the Cyclops.
Avoid using a run-on sentence—two or more
complete sentences that run together as if they were
one complete sentence.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain Jim sold
his watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
• A comma splice has only a comma between the
complete sentences.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain, Jim
sold his watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
COMPUTER NOTE Many word-processing programs
can identify and highlight sentence fragments. You can
also use the “Search” command to locate sentences in
which you’ve used a comma and a coordinating conjunction—one search for each different conjunction.
These searches can help you check to see if the ideas
you’ve combined in a compound sentence are complete and are closely related and equally important.
FIVE WAYS TO FIX A RUN-ON SENTENCE
1.
Make two sentences.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain. Jim sold his
watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
2.
Use a comma and a coordinating
conjunction—and, but, or, yet, for, so,
or nor.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain, and Jim sold his
watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
3.
Use a semicolon.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain; Jim sold his
watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
4.
Use a semicolon and a conjunctive
adverb, such as therefore, instead,
meanwhile, also, or however.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain; however, Jim
sold his watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
5.
Change one of the complete thoughts
into a subordinate clause.
Della sold her hair to buy Jim a watch chain, while Jim sold
his watch to buy Della combs for her hair.
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Sentence Fragments
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9. Writing Complete Sentences
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Language Handbook
Your Turn
Revise each of the following run-on sentences and sentence fragments.
1. Doodle and his brother had an active fan-
3. Brother taught Doodle to walk, was
tasy world, they created stories and imaginary plans.
2. Doodle was afraid of being left behind, he
cried when his brother started to leave.
ashamed of Doodle.
4. Doodle didn’t think that he could walk after
much help and practice, he did.
5. He could walk perhaps could run.
10. Writing Effective Sentences
Sentence Combining
ORIGINAL
10a. Combine related sentences by taking a key
word (or by using another form of the word) from
one sentence and inserting it into another.
COMBINED
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
Edgar Allan Poe led a short life. His life
was tragic.
Edgar Allan Poe led a short, tragic life.
Edgar Allan Poe wrote strange stories.
He wrote stories of suspense.
Edgar Allan Poe wrote strange, suspenseful stories.
10b.
Combine related sentences by taking (or
creating) a phrase from one sentence and inserting it
into another.
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
A Fire in My Hands is a collection of
poems. The poems were written by
Gary Soto.
A Fire in My Hands is a collection of
poems by Gary Soto. [prepositional
phrase]
Romeo kills Tybalt. Tybalt is Juliet’s
cousin.
Romeo kills Tybalt, Juliet’s cousin.
[appositive phrase]
10c.
Combine related sentences by using a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, or nor) to
make a compound subject, a compound verb, or
both.
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
After lunch Doodle went to Horsehead
Landing. His brother went, too.
After lunch Doodle and his brother
went to Horsehead Landing. [compound
subject]
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Ernesto Galarza’s family immigrated to
the United States. They eventually settled
in Sacramento, California.
Ernesto Galarza’s family immigrated to
the United States and eventually settled
in Sacramento, California. [compound
verb]
10d.
Combine related sentences by creating a
compound sentence.
You can form a compound sentence by linking two or
more independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a semicolon and a
conjunctive adverb.
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
COMBINED
COMBINED
Buddy makes his friend a kite. She
makes him one, too.
Buddy makes his friend a kite, and she
makes him one, too. [comma and
coordinating conjunction]
Buddy makes his friend a kite; she
makes him one, too. [semicolon]
Buddy makes his friend a kite; meanwhile, she makes him one, too.
[semicolon and conjunctive adverb]
10e.
Combine related sentences by creating a
complex sentence.
You can form a complex sentence by joining one independent clause with one or more subordinate clauses.
ORIGINAL
COMBINED
ORIGINAL
Gwendolyn Brooks often writes about
Chicago. She won a Pulitzer Prize for
her poetry.
Gwendolyn Brooks, who won a Pulitzer
Prize for her poetry, often writes about
Chicago. [adjective clause]
Zaroff turned on the light. He saw
Rainsford.
When Zaroff turned on the light, he
saw Rainsford. [adverb clause]
structures. Then, decide which ones work best with the
other sentences in a particular paragraph.
ORIGINAL
The snake in “Poison” is just an illusion
on Harry’s part. Many readers think
this.
Many readers think that the snake in
“Poison” is just an illusion on Harry’s
part. [noun clause]
10h.
COMBINED
Here are three tips for avoiding wordiness.
(1) Don’t use more words than you need to use.
(2) Don’t use difficult words where simple ones
will do.
(3) Don’t repeat yourself unless it’s absolutely
necessary.
WORDY
10f.
Use the same grammatical form (parallel
structure) to express equal ideas.
NOT PARALLEL
PARALLEL
NOT PARALLEL
PARALLEL
Buddy and she liked baking fruitcakes
and to fly kites. [gerund phrase paired
with infinitive phrase]
Buddy and she liked baking fruitcakes
and flying kites. [two gerund phrases]
Harry received help from not only
Timber but also from Ganderbai.
[noun paired with prepositional
phrase]
Harry received help not only from
Timber but also from Ganderbai.
[two prepositional phrases]
10g.
Avoid using stringy sentences—sentences that
have too many independent clauses strung together
with coordinating conjunctions like and or but.
The fire alarm rang, and everyone started to file
out of school, but then our principal came down
the hall, and he said that the bell was a mistake,
and we went back to our classes.
There are two ways to revise a stringy sentence.
(1) Break the sentence into two or more sentences.
The fire alarm rang, and everyone started to file
out of school. Then our principal came down the
hall to say that the bell was a mistake. We went
back to our classes.
(2) Turn some of the independent clauses into subordinate clauses or into phrases.
When the fire alarm rang, everyone started to file
out of school. Then our principal came down the
hall. He said that the bell was a mistake, and we
went back to our classes.
COMPUTER NOTE Whenever you revise your writing
on a computer, you can use functions such as “Copy,”
“Paste,” “Cut,” and “Move” to experiment with your
sentences. Try a variety of sentence beginnings and
REVISED
10i.
Fortunato is a wine connoisseur who
has much knowledge of and great appreciation for fine wines.
Fortunato is a connoisseur of fine wines.
Use a variety of sentence beginnings.
The basic structure of an English sentence is a subject
followed by a verb. The following examples show how
you can revise sentences to avoid beginning with the
subject every time. Notice that a comma follows the
introductory word, phrase, or clause in each revision.
BASIC
REVISED
BASIC
REVISED
BASIC
REVISED
Della excitedly opened her present.
Excitedly, Della opened her present.
[adverb first]
You must study to make good grades.
To make good grades, you must study.
[infinitive phrase first]
Romeo fell in love with Juliet as soon as
he saw her.
As soon as he saw her, Romeo fell in
love with Juliet. [adverb clause first]
Your Turn
Combine each of these pairs of related
sentences into one sentence.
1. Mrs. Johnson’s husband moved to
Oklahoma. He studied religion.
2. The cotton gin would not hire her. Neither
would the lumber mill.
3. She didn’t want to become a servant. She
saw another possibility.
4. The cotton gin and lumber workers walked
to her stand. They bought lunch.
5. In time, syrup and canned goods were
sold at the store. Mrs. Johnson had a good
business.
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IMPROVING SENTENCE STYLE
Avoid using unnecessary words.
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COMBINED
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11. CAPITALIZATION
11a.
Capitalize the first word in every sentence.
The two boys discussed their plans.
Look at this!
Language Handbook
(1) Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.
Maria asked, “Have you written your report yet?”
(2) Traditionally, the first word of a line of poetry is
capitalized.
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
—Robert Frost, “The Road Not Taken”
NOTE Some writers do not follow these practices.
When you are quoting, use capital letters exactly as
they are used in the source for the quotation.
11b.
Capitalize the first word both in the salutation
and in the closing of a letter.
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Ann,
Dear Sir:
Sincerely,
Yours truly,
11c.
Capitalize the pronoun I and the interjection O.
EXAMPLES
Mom says that I can go this weekend.
“O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?”
11d.
(1) Capitalize the names of persons and animals.
PERSONS
Sandra Cisneros Langston Hughes
ANIMALS
Old Yeller
Brer Rabbit
Abbreviations such as Ms., Mr., Dr., and Gen. should
always be capitalized.
Mr. James Thurber
Capitalize the abbreviations Jr. and Sr. after a name,
and set them off with commas.
Gen. Daniel James, Jr., was the first African
American four-star general in the U.S. Air Force.
(2) Capitalize geographical names.
Type of Name
Common
Nouns
Proper
Nouns
Proper
Adjectives
poet
Homer
Homeric simile
planet
Mars
Martian landscape
In proper nouns that are more than one word, do not
capitalize articles (a, an, the), prepositions of fewer than
five letters, coordinating conjunctions, or to in an infinitive unless they are the first word.
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
National Campers and Hikers Association
“Writing a Paragraph to Inform”
Examples
Towns and Cities
San Francisco
Counties,
Townships, and
Parishes
Hayes Township Kane County
Union Parish
Manhattan
States and
Territories
Florida
Guam
Countries
Canada
United States
of America
Continents
Africa
North America
Islands
Long Island
Isle of Palms
Mountains
Rocky Mountains
Mount McKinley
Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.
A common noun is a general name for a person, a
place, a thing, or an idea. A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. A proper adjective
is formed from a proper noun.
Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune
North Carolina
Northwest Territory
Other Land Forms Cape Hatteras
and Features
Kalahari Desert
Niagara Falls
Mammoth
Cave
Bodies of Water
Pacific Ocean
Cross Creek
Gulf of Mexico
Blue Springs
Parks
Yellowstone National Park
Cleburne State Recreation Area
Regions
the North
New England
the Midwest
the Great
Plains
Roads, Streets,
and Highways
Route 66
Pennsylvania
Turnpike
Thirty-fourth
Street
Gibbs Drive
NOTE Words such as north, west, and southeast are not
capitalized when they indicate direction.
north of town traveling southeast
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St. Charles
Twenty-one people came to dinner.
NOTE Words like city, river, street, and park are capitalized only when they are part of a name.
across the river
across the Pecos River
Type of Name
Examples
Ships and Trains
Mayflower Silver Meteor
Aircraft and
Spacecraft
Spirit of St. Louis Lockheed
Pioneer 10
C-5A Galaxy
Hubble Space Telescope
Washington Monument
Statue of Liberty
Vietnam Veterans Memorial
Pulitzer Prize
Congressional Medal of Honor
Stanley Cup
Key Club Achievement Award
Type of Name
Examples
Monuments and
Memorials
Organizations
United Nations
National Basketball Association
Awards
Teams
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Minnesota Twins
Business Firms
Quaker Oats Company
Aluminum Company of
America
Institutions
United States Naval Academy
Bethune-Cookman College
Buildings and
Other Structures
Apollo Theater Taj Mahal
Golden Gate Bridge
Government
Bodies
Federal Bureau of Investigation
House of Representatives
NOTE Capitalize words such as democratic or republican only when they refer to a specific political party.
The new leaders promised democratic reforms.
The Democratic candidate for mayor held a rally.
(4) Capitalize the names of historical events and periods, special events, holidays, and calendar items.
Type of
Name
Examples
Historical
Events and
Periods
French Revolution Middle Ages
Boston Tea Party Mesozoic Era
Special
Events
Interscholastic Debate Tournament
Kansas State Fair
Holidays and Labor Day Saturday December
Calendar
Fourth of July National Book Week
Items
NOTE Do not capitalize the name of a season unless
it is being personified or used in the name of a special
event.
Planets, Stars, and Mercury Dog Star Ursa Major
Constellations
Venus Big Dipper Rigel
NOTE The word earth is not capitalized unless it is used
along with the names of other heavenly bodies that are
capitalized. The words sun and moon are not capitalized.
The moon is a satellite of the earth.
Venus is closer to Earth than Mars is.
(6) Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, and
peoples.
Greek Hispanic Cherokee
(7) Capitalize the brand names of products but not
the common nouns that follow the name.
Ford truck
Teflon pan
11e.
Do not capitalize the names of school subjects,
except for languages or course names followed by a
number.
algebra
11f.
English
Biology I
Capitalize titles.
(1) Capitalize the title of a person when it comes
before the person’s name.
President Bush
Senator Kennedy
Usually, do not capitalize a title that is used alone or
following a person’s name, especially if the title is preceded by a or the.
Cleopatra became the queen of Egypt in 51 b.c.
When a title is used alone in direct address, it is usually
capitalized.
I think, Senator, that the issue is critical.
I’m on the committee for the Winter Carnival.
Soon Autumn will paint the leaves in bright colors.
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(3) Capitalize the names of organizations, teams,
business firms, institutions, buildings and other
structures, and government bodies.
(5) Capitalize the names of ships, trains, aircraft,
spacecraft, monuments, awards, planets, and
other particular places, things, or events.
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NOTE In a hyphenated number, the second word is not
capitalized.
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Language Handbook
(2) Capitalize words showing family relationship
when used alone or with a person’s name but not
when preceded by a possessive.
Aunt Clara
my mother Harold’s grandmother
(3) Capitalize the first and last words and all important words in titles.
Type of Title
Examples
Books
The Pearl
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
Periodicals
The Atlantic Monthly
Field and Stream
Poems
“The Road Not Taken”
“The Girl Who Loved the Sky”
Stories
“The Cask of Amontillado”
“The Most Dangerous Game”
Essays and
Speeches
“The Death of a Tree”
“Work and What It’s Worth”
Plays
NOTE Unimportant words in a title are articles (a, an,
the), prepositions of fewer than five letters (such as for
and from), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
so, nor, or, yet, for). NOTE When a, an, or the are written
before a title, they are capitalized only if they are part
of the official title. The official title of a book is found
on the title page. The official title of a newspaper or
periodical is found on the masthead, which is usually
on the editorial page.
The Autobiography of Malcolm X
the Austin American-Statesman
A Tale of Two Cities
(4) Capitalize the names related to religions.
Type of Name
Examples
Religions and
Followers
Judaism
Taoism
Quaker
Muslim
Holy Days and
Celebrations
Passover
Ramadan
Good Friday
Lent
The Miracle Worker
The Phantom of the Opera
Holy Writings
Bible
Koran
Upanishads
Torah
Historical
Documents
Declaration of Independence
Emancipation Proclamation
Specific Deities
Allah
Movies
Dances with Wolves
Stand and Deliver
Radio and
Television
Programs
All Things Considered
Star Trek: The Next Generation
Nova
Works of Art
American Gothic
The Thinker
Musical
Compositions
“The Tennessee Waltz”
“The Flight of the Bumblebee”
Cartoons
Calvin and Hobbes
The Neighborhood
Brahma Zeus
Your Turn
Rewrite this letter to correct the errors in capitalization.
dear mr. Hargrove,
Thank you for sending me a copy of moby-dick. i have always enjoyed books
about the sea. Last week i read a novel about captain horatio hornblower. As you know,
I live in the midwest and have never seen an ocean. I think that it must be exciting to
sail on the atlantic ocean, which is known for its violent storms. I am looking forward
to reading about the adventures of new england sailors on a great whaling ship.
sincerely,
Tom Wayne
1298 Resource Center
Abbreviations
END MARKS
12e.
An abbreviation is usually followed by a
period.
Sentences
12a. A statement (or declarative sentence) is
followed by a period.
Dorothy M. Johnson wrote “A Man Called Horse.”
12b.
A question (or interrogative sentence) is
followed by a question mark.
Did Penelope recognize Odysseus?
NOTE Be sure to distinguish between a declarative
sentence that contains an indirect question and an
interrogative sentence, which asks a direct question.
INDIRECT QUESTION
DIRECT QUESTION
He asked what was worrying her.
What is worrying her?
A direct question may have the same word order as a
declarative sentence. Since it is a question, however, it
is followed by a question mark.
A cat can see color? The plane was late?
12c.
An exclamation is followed by an exclamation
point.
Wow! What a great play The Miracle Worker is!
12d.
A command or request (or imperative
sentence) is followed by either a period or an
exclamation point.
A request or a mild command is followed by a period. A
strong command is followed by an exclamation point.
Please be quiet. [request]
Turn off your radio. [mild command]
Be quiet! [strong command]
Sometimes a command or request is stated in the form
of a question. Because of its purpose, however, the
sentence is really an imperative sentence and should
end with a period or an exclamation point.
Could you please send me twenty-five copies.
Will you stop that!
Types of
Abbreviations
Examples
Personal Names
A. E. Housman
Eugenia W. Collier
Organizations and
Companies
Assn.
Corp.
Titles Used with
Names
Mr.
Mrs.
P.M.
Co.
Inc.
Jr.
Ltd.
Dr.
Times of Day
A.M.
Years
B.C. (written after the date)
A.D. (written before the date)
Addresses
Ave.
States
Calif. Mass. Tex.
N. Dak.
St.
Blvd.
Pkwy.
NOTE Two-letter state abbreviations without periods
are used only when the ZIP CODE is included.
Cincinnati, OH 45233
NOTE In most cases, an abbreviation is capitalized
only if the words it stands for are capitalized. If you are
unsure whether to capitalize an abbreviation or to use
periods with it, check a recent dictionary.
If a statement ends with an abbreviation, do not use an
additional period as an end mark. However, do add a
question mark or an exclamation point if the sentence
should have one.
Mrs. Tavares will be arriving at 3 p.m.
Can you go to meet her at 3 p.m.?
Abbreviations for government agencies and international organizations and some other frequently used
abbreviations are written without periods. Abbreviations for most units of measurement are commonly
written without periods, especially in science books.
CD, DVD, FM, IRS, TV, UFO
cm, kg, lb, ml
NOTE Use a period with the abbreviation for inch (in.)
so that it will not be confused with the word in.
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Language Handbook
End marks—periods, question marks, and exclamation
points—are used to indicate the purpose of a sentence.
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12. Punctuation
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Language Handbook
COMMAS
12f.
General Zaroff was confident he would kill
Rainsford, but the hunt did not go as he had
planned.
Use commas to separate items in a series.
Homer wrote about Troy, Achilles, and Odysseus.
We can meet before school, at lunch, or after school.
You may omit the comma before and, but, or, or nor
if the clauses are very short and there is no chance of
misunderstanding.
(1) Some words—such as bread and butter, rod and
reel, and law and order—are used in pairs and
may be considered one item in a series.
12i. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and
nonessential participial phrases.
My favorite breakfast is milk, biscuits and gravy,
and fruit.
A nonessential (or nonrestrictive) clause or participial
phrase adds information that is not needed to understand the main idea in the sentence.
(2) Independent clauses in a series are generally separated by semicolons. Short independent clauses,
however, may be separated by commas.
NONESSENTIAL
The sky darkened, branches swayed, the cold deepened, and snow fell.
CLAUSE
12g.
Use commas to separate two or more
adjectives preceding a noun.
Omitting the adjective clause in this example would
not change the main idea of the sentence.
Montresor leads Fortunato to the dark, cold vault
below the palazzo.
An essential (or restrictive) clause or phrase provides
information that is needed to understand the sentence,
and commas are not used.
When the last adjective in a series is thought of as part
of the noun, the comma before the adjective is omitted.
ESSENTIAL
The Loisels bought an expensive diamond necklace.
PHRASE
12h.
Use commas before and, but, or, nor, for, so,
and yet when they join independent clauses.
12j.
Langston Hughes, who was a
key figure in the Harlem Renaissance,
often used the rhythms of jazz in his
poetry.
Actors missing more than two
rehearsals will be replaced.
The participial phrase tells which actors. Omitting it
would affect the meaning of the sentence.
Use commas after certain introductory elements.
Introductory Element
Example
A word such as next, yes, or no
Yes, I’ve read “Salvador Late or Early.”
An interjection, such as ah, well, oops, why
Ah, there’s nothing like lemonade on a hot day!
A participial phrase
Having passed Penelope’s last test, Odysseus reclaims
his home and his kingdom.
The last of two or more prepositional phrases
Of all of his novels, Charles Dickens liked David
Copperfield best.
An adverb clause
Until he meets Juliet, Romeo is madly in love with
Rosaline.
12k.
Use commas to set off elements that interrupt a sentence.
Element That Interrupts
Example
Appositive or appositive phrase
The storm, the worst this winter, raged for days.
Words used in direct address
Linda, please read the part of Juliet.
Parenthetical expressions (side remarks)
He was not angry and, on the contrary, was actually
glad that you pointed out the error.
A contrasting expression introduced by not or yet
It is the spirit of the giver, not the cost of the gift.
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The TV special is about Graham Greene the British
writer, not Graham Greene the Canadian actor.
12l.
Use commas in certain conventional situations.
NOTE Do not use a comma to separate a two-letter
state abbreviation and a ZIP Code.
EXAMPLE
Our new address is 25 Peralta Road, Oakland, CA
94611.
Example
To separate items in dates and address
My family moved to Oakland, California, on Wednesday,
December 5, 1993.
After the salutation of a friendly letter and the
closing of any letter
Dear Ms. Chen, Dear Amy,
Yours truly, Sincerely yours,
To set off such abbreviations as Jr., Sr., or M.D.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., made that speech.
SEMICOLONS
COLONS
12m.
12q.
Use a semicolon between independent
clauses if they are not joined by and, but, or, nor, for,
so, or yet.
I enjoyed reading The Miracle Worker; it tells what
Helen Keller’s youth was like.
12n.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses
joined by a conjunctive adverb—such as however,
therefore, and furthermore—or a transitional
expression, such as for instance, in fact, and that is.
Sherlock Holmes is a fictional character; however,
it’s easy to think that he actually did exist.
My parents are strict; for example, I can watch TV
only on weekends.
Notice in the two examples above that a comma
always follows a conjunctive adverb or a transitional
expression that joins independent clauses.
12o. Use a semicolon (rather than a comma) before
a coordinating conjunction to join independent
clauses that contain commas.
Doodle’s mother, father, and brother went back
inside the house; but Doodle remained outside
to bury the scarlet ibis.
Use a colon to mean “note what follows.”
(1) In some cases a colon is used before a list of
items, especially after the expressions the following and as follows.
The reading list includes the following titles: “The
Gift,” “The Sniper,” and “The Necklace.”
Do not use a colon before a list that follows a verb or a
preposition
INCORRECT
CORRECT
INCORRECT
CORRECT
The list of literary terms includes: conflict, climax, and resolution.
The list of literary terms includes conflict, climax, and resolution.
In the past five years, my family has lived
in: Texas, Oregon, and Ohio.
In the past five years, my family has lived
in Texas, Oregon, and Ohio.
(2) Use a colon before a long, formal statement or a
long quotation.
O. Henry had this to say about Della and Jim: “But
in a last word to the wise of these days, let it be
said that of all who give gifts, these two were the
wisest.”
12p.
Use a semicolon between items in a series if
the items contain commas.
I have postcards from Paris, France; Rome, Italy;
Lisbon, Portugal; and London, England.
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Language Handbook
Conventional Situation
RESOURCE CENTER
NOTE An appositive that tells which one(s) of two or
more is a restrictive appositive and should not be set
off by commas.
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Language Handbook
12r.
Use a colon in certain conventional situations.
Conventional
Situation
Example
Between the hour and
the minute
9:30 A.M.
After the salutation of a
business letter
Dear Ms. Gomez:
Dear Sir or Madam:
To Whom It May Concern:
Between chapter and
verse in referring to
passages from the Bible
Esther 3:5
Exodus 1:6–14
Colossians 3:18–23
Between a title and a
subtitle
“Shakespeare and His
Theater: A Perfect Match”
Your Turn
Correct the punctuation errors in these sentences.
Langston Hughes’s “Luck” my favorite poem is
brief but powerful.
8:00 P.M.
My sister an avid reader is partial to the poems
of Emily Dickinson.
Mary please give me that copy of the book.
Dickinson a complex person wrote poems that
can be hard to understand
Her poems are complex and layered with meanings not simple and straightforward
13. Punctuation
ITALICS
When writing or typing, indicate italics by underlining.
If your composition were to be printed, the typesetter
would set the underlined words in italics. The Color
Purple would be set as The Color Purple.
COMPUTER NOTE If you use a computer, you can set
words in italics yourself. Most word-processing software and printers can produce italic type.
13a.
Use underlining (italics) for titles of major
works and objects.
Type of Title
Examples
Books
Black Boy
Plays
The Miracle Worker
Films
Jurassic Park
Periodicals
National Geographic
Works of Art
Mona Lisa
Recordings
Two Worlds, One Heart
Long Musical
Works
The Magic Flute
Rhapsody in Blue
Television Series
The Simpsons
Trains and Ships
Orient Express U.S.S. Nimitz
Aircraft and
Spacecraft
Spirit of St. Louis
Apollo 13
We subscribe to The World Street Journal and the
Austin American-Statesman.
13b.
Use underlining (italics) for letters and words
referred to as such and for foreign words not yet a
part of English vocabulary.
The word excellent has two l’s.
The 3 on that license plate looks like an 8.
The corrido is a fast-paced ballad.
QUOTATION MARKS
Odyssey
NOTE The articles a, an, and the before a title are italicized only when they are part of the official title. The
1302 Resource Center
official title of a book appears on the title page. The
official title of a newspaper or periodical appears on
the masthead, usually found on the editorial page.
13c.
Use quotation marks to enclose a direct
quotation—a person’s exact words.
She asked, “How much does the necklace cost?”
Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations.
DIRECT
QUOTATION
INDIRECT
QUOTATION
She asked, “How much does the
necklace cost?”
She asked how much the necklace
cost.
An interrupting expression is not a part of a quotation
and should not be inside quotation marks.
“Let’s go,” Ellen urged, “it’s starts to rain.”
Use one set of quotation marks for two or more sentences by the same speaker quoted together.
Brennan said, “I’m making a fruitcake. Do you like
fruitcake?”
A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.
Mrs. Perez asked, “Who is Mercutio?
NOTE If a quotation is a fragment of the original quotation, it should begin with a lowercase letter.
To Romeo, Juliet is “a winged messenger of heaven.”
13e.
If the second part of a quotation is a new sentence, a
period follows the interrupting expression, and the second part begins with a capital letter.
“I requested an interview,” the reporter said. “She
told me she was too busy.”
13f.
When used with quotation marks, other marks
of punctuation are placed according to the following
rules.
Rule
Example
Commas and periods go inside closing
quotation marks.
“I haven’t seen the film,” said Jane, “but people say it’s excellent.”
Semicolons and colons go outside closing
quotation marks.
Find examples of the following figures of speech in “I Wandered
Lonely as a Cloud”: simile, personification, and alliteration.
A question mark or exclamation point
goes inside closing quotation marks if the
quotation is a question or exclamation;
otherwise, it goes outside.
“Did you read this book?” he asked. “I love it!” she exclaimed.
Who said “parting is such sweet sorrow”? It’s not an insult to be
called a “bookworm”!
13g.
When you write dialogue (a conversation),
begin a new paragraph every time the speaker
changes.
“Come quickly!” Ann shouted, breathlessly.
“What’s happened? What’s wrong?” Colby asked,
ready to give whatever help was needed.
13h.
When a quoted passage consists of more
than one paragraph, put quotation marks at the
beginning of each paragraph and at the end of only
the last paragraph.
“At nine o’clock this morning,” read the news story,
“someone entered the Millford Bank by the back
door, broke into the vault, and escaped with sixteen bars of gold.
“No arrests have yet been made, but state and local
police are confident the case will be solved within
a few days.
“FBI agents are expected later today.”
13i.
Use single quotation marks to enclose a
quotation within a quotation.
“Do you agree with O. Henry that Della and Jim
‘were the wisest’?” asked Greg.
13j. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of smaller
works and parts of works.
Type of Title
Examples
Articles
“Computers in the Classroom”
Short Stories
“Thank You, M’am”
Essays
“How to Name a Dog”
Poems
“The Raven”
Songs
“Lean on Me”
TV Episodes
“Farewell, Friends”
Chapters and
Other Parts
of Books and
Periodicals
“Life in the First Settlements”
“The Talk of the Town”
“Laughter, the Best Medicine”
NOTE Neither italics nor quotation marks are used for
the titles of major religious texts or for the titles of legal
or historical documents.
RELIGIOUS TEXTS
New Testament
Koran
Rig-Veda
LEGAL AND HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS
Declaration of Independence
EXCEPTION
Names of court cases are usually italicized.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
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Language Handbook
When a quoted sentence is divided into two
parts by an interrupting expression, the second part
begins with a lowercase letter.
“I wish,” she said, “that we went to the same school.”
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13d.
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Language Handbook
Your Turn
Revise the following dialogue by adding quotation marks and paragraph breaks,
where necessary. In addition, underline words to indicate any necessary italics.
[1] You know what really bothers me about a lot of stories? said Kyle. [2] What?
inquired Erin. [3] I can never figure out if a story is fiction or if it really happened, he said. [4] Yeah, she nodded, I know what you mean. That reminds me
of the story A Man Called Horse. Did it really happen or not? [5] I don’t know,
he answered When I saw the movie, I thought it did, but now I’m not so sure.
And what about that book Twenty Days to Sunrise, Erin asked. Do you think it
is based on a true story?
14. PUNCTUATION
possession, only the last word is possessive.
APOSTROPHES
Possessive Case
The possessive case of a noun or pronoun shows ownership or relationship
OWNERSHIP
RELATIONSHIP
Mme. Forestier’s necklace
Buddy’s friend
14a.
To form the possessive case of a singular noun,
add an apostrophe and an s.
Miss Lottie’s marigolds a bus’s wheel
NOTE For a proper name ending in s, add only an
apostrophe if adding ‘s would make the name awkward to pronounce.
West Indies’ island
Mrs. Saunders’ class
14b.
To form the possessive case of a plural noun
ending in s, add only the apostrophe. For a plural
noun that does not end in s, add an apostrophe and
an s.
birds’ feathers Capulets’ party
children’s shoes
14c.
Possessive personal pronouns—my, mine, your,
yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, and theirs—do
not require an apostrophe.
This is our plant.
This plant is ours.
14d.
Indefinite pronouns, such as everybody and
neither, in the possessive case require an apostrophe
and an s.
nobody’s wish
14e.
another’s viewpoint
In compound words, names of groups or
businesses, and word groups that show joint
1304 Resource Center
brother-in-law’s gift
United Fund’s drive
City Garage’s tow trucks
Della and Jim’s home
14f.
When two or more persons possess something
individually, each of their names is possessive in
form.
EXAMPLE
Poe’s and Dahl’s stories
Contractions
14g.
Use an apostrophe to show where letters,
words, or numerals have been omitted in a
contraction.
let’s [let us] you’re [you are] ’02 [2002]
Ordinarily, the word not is shortened to -n’t and added
to a verb with no change in the verb’s spelling.
are not
aren’t
has not hasn’t
EXCEPTIONS
will not
won’t
cannot can’t
Do not confuse contractions with possessive pronouns.
Contractions
Pronouns
Who’s [Who is] at bat?
Whose bat is that?
It’s [It is] roaring.
Listen to its roar.
You’re [You are] late.
Your friend is late.
There’s [There is] a kite.
That kite is theirs.
They’re [They are] here.
Their bus is here.
14h.
Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plurals
of all lowercase letters, some capital letters, and
some words used as words.
Grandma always tells me to mind my p’s and q’s.
Those U’s look like V’s
His hi’s are always cheerful.
14i.
Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a
a well-written book
a world-famous skier
Do not use a hyphen if one of the modifiers is an adverb that ends in -ly.
a bitterly cold day
NOTE Some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, whether they precede or follow the nouns they
modify.
an up-to-date dictionary
a style that is up-to-date
line.
“The Most Dangerous Game” is a very suspenseful story.”
When you divide a word at the end of a line, keep in
mind the following rules.
(1) Do not divide one-syllable words.
(2) Divide a word only between syllables.
fi-an-cé
wor-thy
(3) Words with double consonants may usually be
divided between those two consonants.
rib-bon
man-ners
EXCEPTION
Words that end in double consonants followed by a
suffix are divided before the suffix.
fall-ing
govern-ment
(4) Usually a word with a prefix or a suffix may be
divided between the prefix or suffix and the base
word (or root).
(5) Divide a hyphenated word only at a hyphen.
man-of-war
daughter-in-law
(6) Do not divide a word so that one letter stands
alone.
NOTE If you need to divide a word and are not sure
about its syllables, look it up in a recent dictionary.
14j.
Use a hyphen with compound numbers from
twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as
adjectives.
twenty-four chairs
one-half cup
14k.
Use a hyphen with the suffix -elect and with
any prefix before a proper noun or proper adjective.
If you’re not sure if a compound adjective should be
hyphenated, check a recent dictionary.
DASHES
14m.
Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in
thought or speech or an unfinished statement or
question.
Judy—Ms. Lane, I mean—will be your new coach.
14n.
Use a dash to mean namely, that is, in other
words, and similar expressions.
Dr. Ganderbai considered using an anesthetic—
ether or chloroform. [namely]
William Sydney Porter—O. Henry—is my favorite
writer [that is]
NOTE When you use a typewriter or computer, you
can indicate a dash by using two hyphens. Leave no
space before, between, or after the hyphens. Most software programs will automatically convert two hyphens
into a dash. When you write by hand, use an unbroken
line about as long as two hyphens.
PARENTHESES
14o.
Use parentheses to enclose material that is not
of major importance in a sentence.
Richard Wright (1908–1960) wrote Black Boy.
Capitalize and use end punctuation for parenthetical
matter that stands alone as a sentence. Do not capitalize and use end punctuation for parenthetical matter
contained within a sentence.
Complete the form. (Please print or type.)
The protagonist (not named by the author) is a
sniper.
president-elect pre-Revolutionary
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Language Handbook
HYPHENS
Hyphenate a compound adjective that
precedes the noun it modifies.
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14l.
PLURALS
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Language Handbook
Your Turn
Add apostrophes wherever they are needed in these sentences.
1. As on your report card are great, but Bs are
good, too.
2. Helens computer was on the fritz.
3. Business letters formats are usually easy to follow.
4. The 10s in this chart indicate the highest scores.
5. Dont you think the instructions are clear?
15. Spelling
Spelling
Many English words are made up of roots and affixes (prefixes and suffixes). The
root of a word is the part that carries the word’s core meaning. A prefix is a word
part added to the beginning of a word or root to create a new word. A suffix is
a word part added to the end of a word or root to create a new word. Learning
how to spell and combine commonly used word parts can help you spell thousands of words.
Commonly Used Roots
Commonly Used Prefixes
ROOTS
MEANINGS
EXAMPLES
PREFIXES MEANINGS
EXAMPLES
–aud–,
–audit–
hear
audible,
auditorium
anti–
against,
opposing
antipathy, antithesis
–chron–
time
chronological,
synchronize
bi–
two
bimonthly, bisect
de–
away, off, down
defect, desert,
decline
–cycl–
circle, wheel
cyclone, bicycle
–dem–
people
democracy,
epidemic
dis–
away, off,
opposing
dismount, dissent
–gen–
birth, kind,
origin
generate, generic,
generous
hyper–
excessive, over
hyperactive,
hypertension
–graph–
write, writing
autograph,
geography
inter–
between, among intercede,
international
–log–,
–logue–
study, word
logic, mythology,
dialogue
mis–
badly, not,
wrongly
misfire, misspell
–phil–
like, love
philanthropic,
philosophy
over–
above, excessive
oversee, overdo
post–
after, following
postpone, postscript
–phon–
sound
phonograph,
euphony
re–
back, backward,
again
revoke, reflect,
reforest
–port–
carry, bear
export, important
traffic, transport
mind
psychology,
psychosomatic
tra–,
trans–
across, beyond
–psych–
un–
not, reverse of
untrue, unfold
–verse–,
–vert–
turn
reverse, convert
–vid–, –vis–
see
television, evident
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–able
able, likely
capable, changeable
–cy
state, condition
accuracy, normalcy
–er, –or
doer
baker, director
15e.
When adding the suffix –ness or –ly, do not
change the spelling of the original word.
fair + ness = fairness
sure + ly = surely
EXCEPTIONS
full of, marked by thankful, masterful
–ion
action, result,
state
union, fusion,
dominion
–ish
suggesting, like
smallish, childish
–ist
doer, believer
artist, capitalist
–ly
like, characteristic friendly, cowardly
of
softness, shortness
For many words ending in y, change the y to i before
adding –ness or –ly:
empty—emptiness
easy—easily
However, most one-syllable words ending in y
follow rule 15e.
dry + ness = dryness
sly + ly = slyly
15f.
Drop the final silent e before a suffix beginning
with a vowel.
–ness
quality, state
–ous
marked by, given religious, furious
to
hope + ing = hoping
strange + est = strangest
–tion
action, condition selection, relation
EXCEPTIONS
–tude
quality, state
fortitude, multitude
SPELLING RULES
ie and ei
15a.
Write ie when the sound is long e, except
after c.
achieve chief ceiling receive
15b.
leisure
neither seize
protein
Write ei when the sound is not long e.
foreign forfeit height
15g.
Keep the final silent e before a suffix beginning
with a consonant.
nine + ty = ninety
entire + ly = entirely
EXCEPTIONS
EXCEPTIONS
either
Keep the final silent e
• in words ending in ce or ge before a suffix that
begins with a or o: knowledgeable, outrageous
• in dye and in singe, before –ing; dyeing, singeing
• in mile before –age: mileage
heir reign
EXCEPTIONS
ancient conscience
friend mischief view
–cede, –ceed, and –sede
15c.
The only English word ending in –sede is
supersede. The only words ending in –ceed are
exceed, proceed, and succeed. Most other words with
this sound end in –cede.
intercede recede precede secede
Adding Prefixes
15d.
When adding a prefix, do not change the
spelling of the original word.
im + mortal = immortal mis + step = misstep
re + elect = reelect
over + run = overrun
nine + th = ninth
judge + ment = judgment
awe + ful = awful
argue + ment = argument
15h.
For words ending in y preceded by a
consonant, change the y to i before any suffix that
does not begin with i.
fifty + eth = fiftieth
mystery + ous = mysterious
15i. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel,
simply add the suffix.
joy + ful = joyful
boy + hood = boyhood
EXCEPTIONS
day + ly = daily
say + ed = said
pay + ed = paid
lay + ed = laid
15j. Double the final consonant before a suffix that
begins with a vowel if the word both (1) has only one
syllable or has the accent on the last syllable and (2)
ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel.
drop + ing = dropping occur + ence =occurrence
strum + ed = strummed thin + er = thinner
Language Handbook 1307
Language Handbook
–ful
RESOURCE CENTER
Adding Suffixes
Commonly Used Suffixes
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Forming Plurals of Nouns
15k.
To form the plurals of most nouns, add –s.
boats
15l.
houses
nickels Lincolns
To form the plurals of other nouns, follow these
(7) The plurals of a few nouns are formed in irregular
ways.
children feet
men
teeth
mice
(8) For a few nouns, the singular and the plural forms
are the same.
deer Japanese Navajo sheep trout series
rules.
(1) For nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh, add –es.
glasses
beaches
boxes
Bushes
waltzes
Iceboxes
(2) For nouns ending in y after a consonant, change
the y to i and add –es.
armies
babies
skies
mysteries
EXCEPTION
(3) For nouns ending in y after a vowel, add –s.
keys
Momadays
(4) For some nouns ending in f or fe, add –s. For others, change the f or fe to v and add –es.
beliefs
calves
blackberries businesspeople
(10) For a compound noun that is hyphenated or written as separate words, form the plural of the noun
that is modified.
sisters-in-law
For proper nouns, add –s: Hardys
joys
(9) For a compound noun written as one word, form
the plural of only the last word of the compound.
roofs
wives
safes
leaves
giraffes
shelves
EXCEPTION
runners-up
music boxes
(11) For some nouns borrowed from other languages,
the plurals are formed as in the original languages.
crisis—crises
phenomenon—phenomena
A few nouns borrowed from other languages have two
plural forms.
appendix—appendices or appendixes
formula—formulas or formulae
For proper nouns, add -s: Radcliffs, Rolfes
(5) For nouns ending in o after a vowel, add –s.
radios
patios
stereos Marios
(6) For nouns ending in o after a consonant, add –es.
echoes
heroes vetoes
tomatoes
EXCEPTIONS
tacos
pianos
cellos
Sotos
COMPUTER NOTE The spell-checking software on
many computers can help you proofread your writing.
However, even the best spell-checking program is not
foolproof. Most do not identify words that are spelled
correctly but are used incorrectly, such as affect for effect. Always double-check your work to make sure your
spelling is error free.
Your Turn
Create new words by adding prefixes and suffixes to the following words. You may have to add extra letters for some words.
Prefixes
un–
dis–
re–
mis–
Suffixes
–ing
–ful
–er
–ion
–ly
–ness
pull, amuse, respect, use, sincere, rude, sudden, teach, nerve
1308 Resource Center
at Do not use at after where.
accept, except Accept is a verb that means “receive.”
Except may be a verb or a preposition. As a verb, except
means “leave out.” As a preposition, except means
“excluding.”
being as, being that Use since or because instead of
these expressions.
We accept your apology.
Present company excepted. [verb]
Everyone except me has read the book.
[preposition]
advice, advise Advice is a noun meaning “suggestion
about what to do.” Advise is a verb meaning “offer a suggestion; recommend.”
He gave me some excellent advice.
She advised me to finish high school.
affect, effect Affect is a verb meaning “influence.” As a
verb, effect means “accomplish.” As a noun, effect means
“result (of an action).”
What he said did not affect my decision.
The new mayor has effected many changes. [verb]
What effect will it have on the environment? [noun]
ain’t Avoid using this word in speaking and in all writing other than dialogue; it is nonstandard English.
all together, altogether All together means “everyone or everything in the same place.” Altogether is an
adverb meaning “entirely.”
When we were all together, we voted.
He was altogether wrong.
a lot Do not write the expression a lot as one word.
Edgar Allan Poe also wrote a lot [not alot] of poetry.
anyways, anywheres Use these words (and others like
them, such as everywheres, somewheres, and nowheres)
without the final s.
I have to baby-sit tonight anyway.
The Loisels could not find the necklace anywhere.
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
Where was Romeo at?
Where was Romeo?
bad, badly Bad is an adjective. Badly is an adverb. Only
bad should follow a linking verb, such as feel, look,
sound, taste, or smell, or forms of be.
The fruitcake doesn’t taste bad.
She felt bad about leaving.
Because [not Being as] President Clinton admired
Maya Angelou’s writing, he invited her to write a
poem for his inauguration.
beside, besides Beside is a preposition that means “by
the side of” or “next to.” As a preposition, besides means
“in addition to” or “other than.” As an adverb, besides
means “moreover.”
His rifle lay beside him. [preposition]
I don’t want to go; besides, it’s snowing. [adverb]
between, among Use between when you are referring
to two things at a time, even though they may be part
of a group consisting of more than two.
The feud was between the two families.
The woman couldn’t decide which of the three cars
to buy, because there wasn’t much difference
between them. [Although there are three cars,
each is being compared to the others separately.]
Use among when referring to a group rather than to
separate individuals.
We had only ten dollars among the four of us.
bust, busted Avoid using these words as verbs. Instead
use a form of burst or break.
The balloon burst [not busted] loudly.
The firefighters broke [not busted] a window.
consul, council, counsel Consul is a noun meaning
“representative of a foreign country.” Council is a noun
meaning “group called together to accomplish a job.”
As a noun, counsel means “advice.” As a verb, it means
“give advice.”
The French consul outlined his government’s plan.
The city council will debate the issue.
I’m grateful for your counsel. [noun]
Did the doctor counsel her to get more rest? [verb]
Language Handbook 1309
Language Handbook
The Glossary of Usage is an alphabetical list of words,
expressions, and special terms with definitions, explanations, and examples. Some examples have usage
labels. Standard or formal usages are appropriate in serious writing and speaking, such as compositions and
speeches. Informal words and expressions are standard
English usages appropriate in conversation and in
informal writing. Nonstandard usages do not follow the
guidelines of standard English.
RESOURCE CENTER
16. Glossary of Usage
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
discover, invent Discover means “be the first to find
or learn about something that already exists.” Invent
means “be the first to do or make something.”
Marguerite Perey discovered the element francium.
The zipper was invented in 1893.
double negative A double negative is two negative
words when one is enough. Avoid double negatives.
Common Negative Words
barely
never
no one
not (–n’t)
hardly
no
nowhere
nothing
neither
nobody
none
scarcely
double subject Do not use an unnecessary pronoun—
he, she, it, they—after the subject.
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
Miss Lottie she likes her garden.
Miss Lottie likes her garden.
etc. Etc. is the abbreviation of et cetera, meaning “and
other things.” Do not use and with etc.
My sister collects stickers, bottle caps, string, etc.
[not and etc.]
fewer, less Fewer tells “how many”; it is used with plural nouns. Less tells “how much”; it is used with singular
nouns.
There were fewer mosquitoes this summer.
Reading the Odyssey took less time I thought.
good, well Good is an adjective. Well may be used as
an adjective or an adverb. Never use good to modify a
verb; instead, use well as an adverb meaning” capably”
or “satisfactorily.”
Sandra Cisneros writes well [not good].
As an adjective, well means “healthy” or “satisfactory” in
appearance or condition.
Lying in his bed, Harry did not look well.
He assured me that all was well.
NOTE Feel good and feel well mean different things.
Feel good means “feel happy or pleased.” Feel well
means “feel healthy.”
The news made her feel good.
I didn’t feel well, so I went home.
hisself, theirselves Do not use these words for himself
and themselves.
imply, infer Imply means “suggest indirectly.” Infer
means “interpret” or “draw a conclusion.”
1310 Resource Center
Doug implied that he will vote for me.
From Doug’s remark, I inferred that I had his vote.
its, it’s Its is the possessive form of it. It’s is the contraction of it is or it has.
The bird stopped its singing.
It’s [it is] an easy problem.
It’s [it has] been raining since noon.
kind of, sort of In formal situations, avoid using these
terms to mean somewhat or rather.
INFORMAL
FORMAL
Zaroff was kind of surprised to see that
Rainsford was still alive.
Zaroff was rather surprised to see that
Rainsford was still alive.
kind of a, sort of a Avoid using a after kind of and sort
of in formal situations.
INFORMAL
FORMAL
What kind of a snake was it?
What kind of snake was it?
kind(s), sort(s), type(s) Use this or that with the singular form of each of these nouns. Use these or those with
the plural form.
I like this kind of tea better than those other kinds.
learn, teach Learn means “acquire knowledge.” Teach
means “instruct” or “show how.”
Doodle learns to walk.
His brother teaches him to walk.
leave, let Leave means “go away” or “depart from.” Let
means “allow.” Avoid using leave for let.
Let [not Leave] her speak if she wants.
lie, lay The verb lie means “rest” or “stay, recline, or remain in a certain position.” Lie never takes an object. Its
principal parts are lie, lying, lay, lain. The verb lay means
“put in a place.” Its principal parts are lay, laying, laid,
laid. Lay usually takes an object.
Is there really a snake lying on Harry’s stomach?
He laid his books on the table.
like, as In formal English, use like to introduce a prepositional phrase, and use as to introduce a subordinate
clause.
Does Juliet look like Rosaline? [Like introduces the
phrase like Rosaline.]
Juliet does as Friar Laurence suggests. [As introduces the clause as Friar Laurence suggests.]
like, as if In formal situations, use the compound conjunction as if or as though instead of like.
Juliet looks as though [not like] she is alive.
People are governed by moral standards.
[adjective]
The moral of the story is: “Don’t give up.”
[noun]
The employees’ morale is high.
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
If I had of known it was your birthday,
I would of sent you a card.
If I had known it was your birthday, I
would have sent you a card.
Also, do not use of after other prepositions such as
inside, off, or outside.
The sniper’s enemy fell off [not off of] the roof.
He hid inside [not inside of] the shack.
ought Unlike other verbs, ought is not used with had.
Doodle’s brother ought [not had ought] to be more
patient; he ought not [not hadn’t ought] to push
Doodle so hard.
peace, piece Peace means “calmness; absence of war
or strife.” Piece means “part of something.”
After the long war, peace was welcome.
May I borrow a piece of paper?
principal, principle As a noun, principal means “the
head of a school.” As an adjective, it means “main or
most important.” Principle is a noun meaning “a rule of
conduct” or “a general truth.”
Ted had a long talk with the principal. [noun]
Winning is not our principal goal. [adjective]
My friends have high principles.
I don’t know the principles of physics.
Everyone rose when the judge entered. [no
object]
The witness raised her right hand. [object]
sit, set The verb sit means “rest in a seated position.”
Sit almost never takes an object. Its principal parts are
sit, sitting, sat, sat. The verb set means “put in a place.”
Set usually takes an object. Its principal parts are set,
setting, set, set.
The campers were sitting around the fire. [no
object]
Ganderbai set the bag on a chair. [object]
some, somewhat In formal situations, do not use
some to mean “to some extent” or “slightly.” Instead, use
somewhat.
INFORMAL
FORMAL
My spelling has improved some.
My spelling has improved somewhat.
than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons.
Then is an adverb meaning “at that time” or “next.”
This box is heavier than that one.
The sniper knew then who his enemy was.
First, I read Romeo and Juliet; then, I saw the film.
their, there, they’re Their is a possessive form of they.
As an adverb, there means “at that place.” There is also
used to begin a sentence. They’re is the contraction of
they are.
Their daughter, Juliet, was in love with a Montague.
Harry Pope lay there quietly.
There is a conflict in the Odyssey.
They’re throwing pebbles at Miss Lottie’s flowers.
Your Turn
Correct the incorrect usage in the paragraph below.
Dog owners should train there pets to behave proper in public.
Dogs that steals food or digs up gardens are kinda annoyiong.
People should learn there pets to come when called. They
should be sure that they’re animals do not jump on people and
get there clothes dirty. People had ought to train their dogs to
be good citizens.
Language Handbook 1311
Language Handbook
of Of is a preposition. Do not use of in place of have after verbs such as could, should, would, ought (to), might,
and must. Also, do not use had of for had.
rise, raise The verb rise means “go up” or “get up.” Rise
almost never takes an object. Its principal parts are rise,
rising, rose, risen. The verb raise means “cause to rise” or
“lift up.” Raise usually takes an object. Its principal parts
are raise, raising, raised, raised.
RESOURCE CENTER
moral, morale As an adjective, moral means “good;
virtuous.” As a noun, it means “lesson.” Morale is a noun
meaning “spirit; mental condition.”
Glossary
The glossary that follows is an alphabetical list of words
found in the selections in this book. Use this glossary
just as you would use a dictionary—to find out the
meaning of unfamiliar words. (Some technical, foreign,
and more obscure words in this book are not listed
here but instead are defined for you in the footnotes
that accompany many of the selections.)
Many words in the English language have more
than one meaning. This glossary gives the meanings
that apply to the words as they are used in the selections in this book. Words closely related in form and
meaning are usually listed together in one entry (for
instance, cower and cowered), and the definition is
given for the first form.
The following abbreviations are used:
adj.
adjective
adv.
adverb
n.
noun
v.
verb
Each word’s pronunciation is given in parentheses.
For more information about the words in this glossary
or for information about words not listed here, consult
a dictionary.
A
abandon (uh BAN duhn) v.: leave behind.
abundance (uh BUHN duhns) n.: full supply; plenty.
acclaimed (uh KLAYMD) v.: greeted with strong
approval; applauded.
admonitions (ad muh NIHSH uhnz) n.: scoldings;
warnings.
adulation (aj uh LAY shuhn) n.: intense or excessive
admiration and praise.
adversary (AD vuhr sehr ee) n.: enemy; opponent.
adversity (ad VUR suh tee) n.: hardship; great
misfortune.
affluent (AF lu ehnt) adj.: wealthy.
aghast (uh GAST) adj.: horrified; greatly dismayed.
agile (AJ uhl) adj.: moving with ease.
agitation (aj uh TAY shuhn) n.: state of being troubled
or worried; excitement.
alignment (uh LYN muhnt) n.: arranged in a straight
line; condition of having the parts of something
coordinated or in the proper relationship.
aloof (uh LOOF) adj.: unfriendly; at a distance.
annihilate (uh NY uh layt) v.: destroy; wipe out.
1312 Resource Center
anonymity (an uh NIHM uh tee) n.: namelessness; lack
of individuality.
anticipate (an TIHS uh payt) v.: expect; to look forward
to.
appease (uh PEEZ) v.: make calm or quiet; satisfy.
apprehensive (ap rih HEHN sihv) adj.: feeling alarm;
afraid, anxious, or worried.
arbitrary (AHR buh trehr ee) adj.: based on one’s
preferences; capricious.
ardent (AHR duhnt) adj.: passionate; extremely
enthusiastic.
armored (AHR muhrd) adj.: covered with defensive or
protective covering, as on animals or plants.
articulate (ahr TIHK yuh layt) v.: clearly express.
artless (AHRT lihs) adj.: simple; innocent.
aspired (uh SPYRD) v.: wanted to achieve something;
sought.
austere (aw STIHR) adj.: sober; solemn.
B
barren (BAR uhn) adj.: empty; deserted.
blithe (blyth) adj.: cheerful; happy.
bounds (bowndz) v.: leaps or springs forward.
brandished (BRAN dihsht) v.: waved in a threatening
manner.
C
candor (KAN duhr) n.: honesty; frankness.
canopy (KAN uh pee) n.: in a forest, the leafy layer
formed by the tops of trees.
caprice (kuh PREES) n.: sudden idea or change of
mind, often made with little reason.
caress (kuh REHS) v.: touch gently in an affectionate
manner.
ceremonial (sehr uh MOH nee uhl) adj.: having to do
with a rite or ceremony.
charisma (kuh RIHZ muh) n.: personal charm.
chronic (KRAHN ihk) adj.: constant; frequently
occurring.
client (KLY uhnt) n.: person or group for which a
professional person or service works.
collaborate (kuh LAB uh rayt) v.: work together.
collective (kuh LEHK tihv) adj.: of or as a group.
compassion (kuhm PASH uhn) n.: sympathy; pity.
compelling (kuhm PEHL ihng) adj.: interesting;
engaging.
comply (kuhm PLY) v.: act in agreement with
decompression (dee kom PRESH uhn) adj.: here,
something that expands a compressed file.
deflect (dih FLEHKT) v.: turn aside.
deliberate (dih LIHB uhr iht) adj.: done with careful
thought or method in mind.
delirium (dih LIHR ee uhm) n.: extreme mental
disturbance, often accompanied by
hallucinations (seeing things that are not there).
demure (dih MYUR) adj.: seeming more modest and
proper than one really is.
desolate (DEHS uh liht) adj.: deserted; lonely;
not lived in; gloomy; producing a feeling of
loneliness and sadness.
desperados (dehs puh RAH dohz) n.: reckless
criminals.
differentiate (dih fuhr EHN shee ayt) v.: create a
difference between; distinguish.
dilapidated (duh LAP uh day tihd) adj.: shabby; falling
apart.
diligent (DIHL uh gehnt) adj.: hardworking.
diminish (duh MIHN ihsh) v.: lessen; reduce.
din (dihn) n.: loud, continuous noise.
disarming (dihs AHR mihng) adj.: removing suspicion
or fear; charming.
disconsolate (dihs KAHN suh liht) adj.: causing
sadness or depression; very unhappy.
discreet (dihs KREET) adj.: careful; showing good
E
eerie (IHR ee) adj.: causing fear; strange.
elation (ih LAY shuhn) n.: great joy.
elect (ih LEHKT) v.: choose as a course of action.
emigrated (EHM uh gray tihd) v.: moved to another
country.
eminence (EHM uh nuhns) n.: rank of distinction;
fame.
en route (ahn ROOT) adv.: along the way.
enabled (ehn AY buhld) v.: make able; provide with
means, opportunity, power, or authority.
encompass (ehn KUHM puhs) v.: include; contain.
endure (ehn DUR) v.: put up with something difficult;
suffer.
enduring (ehn DUR ihng) adj.: strong and lasting.
enlisted (ehn LIHS tihd) v.: secured the services of.
enterprising (EHN tuhr pry zihng) adj.: energetic;
creative.
enveloped (ehn VEHL uhpt) v.: wrapped around;
surrounded.
eradicate (ih RAD uh kayt) v.: eliminate completely;
get rid of.
evolved (ee VAHLVD) v.: developed or changed
gradually.
exasperated (ehg ZAS puh ray tuhd) adj.: irritated and
angry.
exasperation (ehg zas puh RAY shuhn) n.: state of
great annoyance.
exorbitant (ehg ZAWR buh tuhnt) adj.: much greater
than is reasonable.
expansive (ehk SPAN sihv) adj.: covering many things;
spreading out; broad.
expedient (ehk SPEE dee uhnt) adj.: very helpful in
the pursuit of a goal or desire; advantageous.
expendable (ehk SPEHN duh buhl) adj.: not worth
saving; unnecessary.
exuberance (ehg ZOO buhr uhns) n.: overflowing joy
or enthusiasm.
exuberant (ehg ZOO buhr uhnt) adj.: joyful; highspirited.
Glossary 1313
Glossary
D
judgment.
disdainful (dihs DAYN fuhl) adj.: scornful; regarding
someone as beneath oneself.
disposition (dihs puh ZIHSH uhn) n.: usual frame of
mind; temperament.
disputed (dihs PYOOT ihd) v. used as adj.: subject of
an argument.
distracted (dih STRAKT ihd) adj.: not able to
concentrate; unfocused.
domestic (duh MES tihk) adj.: not wild; tame.
RESOURCE CENTER
something; obey.
conceivable (kuhn SEE vuh buhl) adj.: capable of
being imagined or understood.
condolences (kuhn DOH luhns ihz) n.: expressions of
sympathy.
confronted (kuhn FRUHNT ihd) v.: came face to face
with someone.
consoled (kuhn SOHLD) v.: comforted; calmed;
cheered up.
conspicuous (kuhn SPIHK yoo uhs) adj.: remarkable;
notable.
constrain (kuhn STRAYN) v.: confine; restrict.
contrition (kuhn TRIHSH uhn) n.: deep feelings of
regret and repentance.
corroded (kuh ROH dihd) v. used as adj.: slowly worn
away or decayed, especially by rust or chemicals.
coveted (KUHV iht ihd) v. used as adj.: longed-for.
cowered (KOW uhrd) v.: drew back in fear; cringed.
cowering (KOW uhr ihng) v.: drawing back, crouching,
or trembling in fear.
critical (KRIHT ih kal) adj.: essential; important.
cross (kraws) adj.: angry.
RESOURCE CENTER
Glossary
F
facilitator (fuh SIHL uh tay tuhr) n.: person who
assists.
flawlessly (FLAW lehs lee) adv.: without error;
perfectly.
forging (FOHRJ ihng) v.: making; forming.
formidable (FAWR muh duh buhl) adj.: awe-inspiring
by reason of excellence; strikingly impressive.
forward (FAWR wuhrd) v.: send on to a new
destination or address.
frail (frayl) adj.: thin and weak; delicate.
futile (FYOO tuhl) adj.: useless; hopeless; in vain.
G
gleam (gleem) n.: shining; glow; flash of light.
glee (glee) n.: great delight; merriment.
glowered (GLOW urhd) v.: glared; stared angrily.
grisly (GRIHZ lee) adj.: horrible; terrifying; gruesome.
gurgle (GUR guhl) v.: to flow or run with a bubbling
sound.
H
haunches (HAWN chuhz) n.: the hindquarters of an
animal; the part of the body around the hips.
hindrances (HIHN druhns ihs) n.: obstacles; things
that restrain or prevent an activity.
hovered (HUHV uhrd) v.: stayed suspended over
something.
I
idealize (y DEE uh lyz) v.: think of someone or
something as perfect; ignore any flaws.
image (IHM ihj) n.: visual illustration; graphic.
imminent (IHM uh nuhnt) adj.: near; about to happen.
impaled (ihm PAYLD) v. used as adj.: pierced with
something pointed.
impending (ihm PEHN dihng) adj.: about to happen;
looming.
implore (ihm PLOHR) v.: beg.
impose (ihm POHZ) v.: (used with upon) take
advantage of.
imposing (ihm POH zihng) adj.: large and impressive
looking.
impoverished (ihm POV uhr ihsht) v. used as adj.:
poor; poverty-stricken.
impression (ihm PREHSH uhn) n.: idea; notion.
imprudent (ihm PROO duhnt) adj.: unwise; foolish.
impunity (ihm PYOO nuh tee) n.: freedom from
punishment or harm.
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inadvertent (ihn uhd VUR tuhnt) adj.: unintentional,
accidental; not done on purpose.
inaugurating (ihn AW gyuh ray tihng) v.: formally
beginning.
inception (ihn SEHP shuhn) n.: start of something;
beginning.
inciting (ihn SY tihng) v. used as n.: provoking; stirring
up.
incomprehensible (ihn kom prih HEHN suh buhl) adj.:
not able to be understood.
inconsolable (ihn kuhn SOHL uh buhl) adj.: unable to
be comforted; brokenhearted.
incredulous (ihn KREJ uh luhs) adj.: doubting; here,
prompting disbelief.
indifferently (ihn DIHF uhr uhnt lee) adv.: in an
uncaring way.
indignation (ihn dihg NAY shuhn) n.: anger at
something unworthy, unjust, unfair, or mean.
indispensable (ihn dih SPEHN suh buhl) adj.:
absolutely necessary; essential.
indulged (ihn DUHLJD) v.: gave way to one’s desires.
indulgent (ihn DUHL juhnt) adj.: giving in to someone
else’s wishes.
infallibility (ihn fal uh BIHL uh tee) n.: inability to
make a mistake.
infamous (IHN fuh muhs) adj.: having a bad
reputation; notorious.
infatuated (ihn FACH u ay tihd) adj.: carried away by
shallow or foolish love.
ingeniously (ihn JEE nyuhs lee) adv.: in a clever way;
brilliantly.
ingenuity (ihn juh NOO uh tee) n.: cleverness.
inhabit (ihn HAB iht) v.: live in.
innovative (IHN uh vay tihv) adj.: new and original;
groundbreaking.
inoffensive (ihn uh FEHN sihv) adj.: harmless; not
objectionable in any way.
insensible (ihn SEHN suh buhl) adj.: not fully
conscious or aware.
insistently (ihn SIHST uhnt lee) adv.: in a demanding
manner; persistently.
intact (ihn TAKT) adj.: with no missing parts; whole.
intent (ihn TEHNT) n.: purpose; goal.
intermission (ihn tuhr MIHSH uhn) n.: a pause
between periods of activity.
internalized (ihn TUR nuh lyzd) v.: adopted as one’s
own.
invariably (ihn VAIR ee uh blee) adv.: without
exception.
iridescent (ihr uh DEHS uhnt) adj.: rainbowlike;
displaying a shifting range of colors.
J
judicious (joo DIHSH uhs) adj.: showing good
judgment; wise.
justifying (JUHS tuh fy ihng) v.: proving that
something is correct or valid.
kin (kihn) n.: family members; relatives.
L
lavished (LAV ihsht) v.: gave generously.
legitimate (luh JIHT uh miht) adj.: complying with the
law.
literally (LIHT uhr uh lee) adv.: taking words at their
exact meaning.
loathsome (LOHTH suhm) adj.: hateful; disgusting.
lurched (lurcht) v.: swayed suddenly.
lurked (luhrkt) v.: lay in wait, ready to attack.
M
malevolent (muh LEHV uh luhnt) adj.: evil; harmful.
malicious (muh LIHSH uhs) adj.: showing a desire to
harm another; spiteful.
malignant (muh LIHG nuhnt) adj.: evil; cruel.
mar (mahr) v.: damage; spoil.
marauders (muh RAW duhrz) n.: people who roam in
search of loot, or goods to steal; raiders.
martyrs (MAHR tuhrz) n.: people who choose to die
rather than give up their beliefs.
matured (muh CHURD) v.: learned more about life;
developed more fully.
meager (MEE guhr) adj.: thin; small; inadequate.
menacing (MEHN ihs ihng) v. used as adj.:
threatening.
mentorship (MEHN tuhr shihp) n.: advice or lessons
from a mentor, or wise teacher.
meticulously (meh TIHK yuh luhs lee) adv.: carefully;
with great attention to detail.
missives (MIHS ihvz) n.: written messages, such as
letters.
monotony (muh NOT uh nee) n.: lack of variety.
mortal (MAWR tuhl) adj.: here, very intense; severe.
mourning (MAWR nihng) adj.: indicating sorrow.
N
neutral (NOO truhl) adj.: not taking sides.
noncommittal (non kuh MIHT uhl) adj.: not agreeing
or disagreeing.
O
obstinate (AHB stuh nuht) adj.: stubborn.
ominous (AHM ih nuhs) adj.: unfavorable.
options (AHP shuhnz) n.: choices.
P
pacifist (PAS uh fihst) n.: person who believes that
conflicts should be resolved by peaceful means
and not by war or violence.
pauper (PAW puhr) n.: very poor person.
pensive (PEHN sihv) adj.: thoughtful in a serious
manner; reflective.
perennial (puh REHN ee uhl) adj.: year-round;
continual.
perish (PEHR ihsh) v.: be destroyed; die.
permit (puhr MIHT) v.: allow.
perseverance (pur suh VIHR uhns ) n.: sticking to a
purpose, never giving up.
placid (PLAS ihd) adj.: quiet; still and peaceful.
pliant (PLY uhnt) adj.: easily bendable.
plummeted (PLUHM ih tihd) v.: plunged or dropped.
precipice (PREHS uh pihs) n.: rock face that projects
out, such as a cliff ; the brink of a dangerous or
disastrous situation.
priority (pry AWR uh tee) n.: something deemed of
utmost importance.
profusion (pruh FYOO zhuhn) n.: large supply;
abundance.
provisions (pruh VIHZH uhnz) n.: supply or stock,
especially of food.
prudence (PROO duhns) n.: caution; good judgment.
R
radical (RAD uh kuhl) adj.: extreme; thorough.
rampaging (RAM pay jihng) v. used as adj.: rushing
widely about.
rancid (RAN sihd) adj.: having a disgusting smell or
taste.
rationalizations (rash uh nuh luh ZAY shuhnz) n.:
excuses made for behavior.
receding (rih SEED ihng) v. used as adj.: moving into
the distance.
reconciliation (rehk uhn sihl ee AY shuhn) n.: friendly
end to a quarrel.
reigned (raynd) v.: ruled.
reiterated (ree IHT uh rayt uhd) v.: repeated.
resiliency (rih ZIHL ee uhn see) n.: ability to spring
back.
resolve (rih ZOLV) n.: determination; fixed purpose.
Glossary 1315
Glossary
K
nuzzled (NUHZ uhld) v.: rubbed gently with the nose.
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isolated (Y suh layt ihd) v. used as adj.: alone;
separated.
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resort (rih ZAWRT) v.: turn to something when in
need.
retribution (reh truh BYOO shuhn) n.: punishment for
a wrong; justice; revenge.
revoke (rih VOHK) v.: cancel; withdraw.
robust (roh BUHST) adj.: sturdy; healthy and strong.
rouse (rowz) v.: wake up.
Glossary
S
sacred (SAY krihd) adj.: here, set aside for or dedicated
to one person or use.
salvation (sal VAY shuhn) n.: person or thing that
protects others from harm.
scan (skan) v.: copy text or graphics from paper into a
computer file.
scavenging (SKAV uhnj ihng) v.: searching through
rubbish to find things that can be used or sold.
scrutiny (SKROO tuh nee) n.: close inspection.
sensibilities (sehn suh BIHL uh teez) n.: ability to
respond emotionally.
shard (shahrd) n.: a small bit or broken piece of
something.
shriveled (SHRIHV uhld) v. used as adj.: shrunken and
wrinkled, often as a result of being dried out.
solace (SAHL ihs) n.: comfort; easing of grief.
solitude (SAHL uh tood) n.: being alone; isolation.
spare (spair) v.: give up the use or possession of; part
with.
sparse (spahrs) adj.: growing or spaced wide apart;
small in quantity and thinly spread.
splayed (splayd) v. used as adj.: spread out.
spontaneous (spon TAY nee uhs) adj.: arising
naturally; unplanned.
sprawled (sprawld) v.: lying down with limbs spread
out awkwardly.
sprightly (SPRYT lee) adj.: lively; full of spirit.
stark (stahrk) adj.: complete; absolute.
suffice (suh FYS) v.: to be enough; be adequate.
sulked (suhlkt) v.: showed resentment and ill-humor.
sullenly (SUHL uhn lee) adv.: in a resentful,
disagreeable, and unsociable manner.
surmounted (suhr MOWN tihd) v.: overcame.
susceptible (suh SEHP tuh buhl) adj.: easily affected or
influenced.
sustain (suh STAYN) v.: support; nourish.
sustainable (suh STAY nuh buhl) adj.: able to be
maintained.
synchronizing (SIHNG kruh ny zihng) v.: causing to
occur at the same time or rate; coordinating.
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T
tenuous (TEHN yoo uhs) adj.: slight; flimsy.
tolling (TOHL ihng) v.: ringing slowly at regular
intervals.
tramp (tramp) n.: person who goes about on foot,
sometimes doing odd jobs or begging for a
living.
transforming (trans FAWRM ihng) v.: changing from
one thing into another.
transient (TRAN shuhnt) adj.: quickly passing; fleeting.
transmitted (trans MIHT ihd) v.: passed on.
trepidation (trehp uh DAY shuhn) n.: fear; nervous
dread.
tumult (TOO muhlt) n.: commotion; uproar;
confusion.
turmoil (TUR moyl) n.: confusion; disturbance.
twilight (TWY lyt) n.: soft light just after sunset; period
between sunset and night.
U
unalterable (uhn AWL tuhr uh buhl) adj.: not able to
be changed.
unconventional (uhn kuhn VEHN shun nuhl) adj.: not
conforming to customary, formal, or accepted
practices.
unmitigated (uhn MIHT uh gay tihd) adj.: absolute;
not lessened in any way.
unrelenting (uhn rih LEHN tihng) adj.: not letting up
or weakening.
V
vendors (VEHN duhrz) n.: sellers.
vigilance (VIHJ uh luhns) n.: state of being alert;
watchfulness.
vigilant (VIHJ uh luhnt) adj.: watchful.
vile (vyl) adj.: disgusting; offensive.
vital (VY tuhl) adj.: very important.
vivacious (vy VAY shuhs) adj.: spirited; full of life.
vulnerable (VUHL nuhr uh buhl) adj.: defenseless;
likely to give in to a force or desire.
W
writhing (RYTH ihng) v. used as adj.: twisting or
turning, as in pain.
Z
zeal (zeel) n.: great enthusiasm or devotion to an ideal
or goal.
Spanish Glossary
A
B
abandonar v. dejar atrás.
absoluto adj. total.
abundancia sust. gran cantidad.
acariciar v. tocar suavemente en demostración de
afecto.
acatar v. actuar de acuerdo con algo; obedecer.
acechar v. esperar, preparado para atacar.
aclamar v. recibir con gran aprobación; aplaudir.
adinerado adj. rico.
adulación sust. admiración y alabanzas excesivas o
intensas.
adversario sust. enemigo; oponente.
adversidad sust. dificultad; desgracia grande.
agazaparse v. agacharse para ocultarse o protegerse
de algo.
ágil adj. que se mueve con facilidad.
aislado adj. solo; separado.
alineación sust. disposición en línea recta; estado
de coordinación o relación apropiada entre las
partes de algo.
amenazante adj. que indica que algo malo o
desagradable va a suceder.
amenazante adj. que indica que algo malo o
desagradable va a suceder.
amonestación sust. reprimenda; advertencia.
anca sust. cada una de las partes traseras de un
animal.
aniquilar v. destruir; eliminar por completo.
anonimato sust. condición de no tener nombre; falta
de individualidad.
anticipar v. esperar, ansiar.
apaciguar v. calmar o tranquilizar.
aprensivo adj. que se siente en peligro; temeroso,
ansioso o preocupado.
aprovecharse v. sacar beneficio de algo o alguien.
arbitrario adj. basado en las propias preferencias;
caprichoso.
ardiente adj. apasionado.
arrasar v. avanzar destrozando lo que se encuentra al
paso.
articular v. expresar claramente.
asistente sust. persona que ayuda.
aspirar v. querer lograr algo.
austero adj. sobrio; sencillo.
autorizar v. permitir.
barullo sust. ruido fuerte, continuo y confuso.
bastar v. ser suficiente; ser adecuado.
blandir v. agitar de manera amenazante.
blindado adj. cubierto con un material protector.
brincar v. dar saltos hacia adelante.
C
camino a loc. adv. en el trayecto a un lugar.
candor sust. honestidad, franqueza.
capricho sust. idea o apetencia repentina, en general
sin pensar demasiado en ella.
carácter sust. estado de ánimo habitual de una
persona; temperamento.
carisma sust. encanto personal.
cautivador adj. que elimina la sospecha o el miedo;
encantador.
ceremonial adj. relativo a un rito o una ceremonia.
cliente sust. persona que usa los servicios de un
profesional o una empresa.
codiciar adj. desear.
colaborar v. trabajar juntos.
colectivo adj. relativo a un grupo.
comerciante sust. vendedor.
compasión sust. lástima; piedad.
completo adj. absoluto; total.
concebible adj. capaz de ser imaginado o entendido.
confrontar v. hacer frente a alguien.
consentir v. permitir los gustos y deseos.
consolar v. tranquilizar, aliviar.
contorsionarse v. retorcerse, por ejemplo de dolor.
contrición sust. sentimiento profundo de culpa y
arrepentimiento.
conveniente adj. que sirve de ayuda para alcanzar un
objetivo o un deseo; ventajoso.
convincente adj. interesante; que atrae.
corroerse v. desgastarse o degradarse, especialmente
a causa del óxido o de productos químicos.
crepúsculo sust. luz débil que permanece después de
la puesta del Sol.
crítico adj. esencial; de gran importancia.
crónico adj. constante; que ocurre con frecuencia.
cúpula sust. en un bosque, la capa de hojas que
forman las copas de los árboles.
Spanish Glossary 1317
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Spanish Glossary
D
delirio sust. alteración mental extrema, a menudo
acompañada de alucinaciones (ver cosas que no
son reales).
descompresión sust. aquí, proceso de expandir un
archivo comprimido.
desconsolado adj. triste y deprimido; muy infeliz.
desdeñoso adj. despectivo; que menosprecia o
considera inferiores a los demás.
desolado adj. desierto; solitario; que no está
habitado; que provoca un sentimiento de
soledad y tristeza.
desorden sust. confusión; agitación.
despatarrarse v. acostarse o sentarse con las piernas
extendidas de manera poco elegante.
despertar v. interrumpir a alguien el sueño.
desplomarse v. caer en picado.
despreocupadamente adv. sin interés, de manera
indiferente.
desviar v. apartar, alejar.
detestable adj. odioso; desagradable.
diferenciar v. establecer una diferencia entre dos o
más cosas para distinguirlas.
diligente adj. trabajador.
discreto adj. cuidadoso; que tiene buen criterio.
disminuir v. reducir; hacer más pequeño.
distante adj. poco amigable; alejado.
distraído adj. incapaz de concentrarse; descentrado.
doméstico adj. que no es salvaje; domesticado.
E
efímero adj. que pasa rápidamente; fugaz.
emigrar v. mudarse a otro país.
eminencia sust. rango de distinción; fama.
empobrecer v. llegar a un estado de pobreza.
emprendedor adj. que tiene iniciativa; creativo.
encapricharse v. dejarse llevar por un amor
superficial o poco sensato.
enfadado adj. enojado.
enfurruñarse v. mostrar resentimiento y mal humor.
englobar v. abarcar; contener.
enlutado adj. con signos exteriores de pena y duelo
por la muerte de una persona.
envolver v. cubrir totalmente un objeto.
erradicar v. eliminar completamente; deshacerse de
algo.
escanear v. hacer que un texto o un gráfico pase del
papel a un archivo en la computadora.
escaso adj. disperso, diseminado; en poca cantidad.
escrutinio sust. examen riguroso y minucioso.
espeluznante adj. horrible; aterrador.
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espontáneo adj. que surge naturalmente; que no está
planeado.
estorbo sust. obtáculo; cosas que frenan o impiden
una actividad.
estremecedor adj. que causa miedo; inquietante.
estropear v. dañar; arruinar.
euforia sust. estado de gran alegría.
euforia sust. alegría o entusiasmo desbordante.
evasivo adj. que no da su opinión, que no se
compromete.
evolucionar v. desarrollarse o cambiar gradualmente.
exasperación sust. gran irritación.
exasperante adj. que causa irritación y enojo.
exiguo adj. insuficiente; escaso.
exorbitante adj. mucho más de lo que es razonable.
expansivo adj. que abarca muchas cosas; que se
esparce o propaga; amplio.
exultante adj. lleno de alegría; entusiasmado.
F
fervor sust. entusiasmo o devoción hacia un ideal o
un objetivo.
forajido sust. delincuente que huye de la justicia.
forjar v. fabricar; formar.
formidable adj. que inspira respeto y temor por su
excelencia; impresionante.
frágil adj. débil; delicado.
fragmento sust. un trozo de algo roto, en especial de
cerámica o vidrio.
fulgor sust. luz brillante y resplandeciente.
fulminar v. mirar intensamente con enojo.
fútil adj. inútil; sin importancia.
G
gorgotear v. fluir un líquido haciendo ruido.
H
habitar v. vivir en un lugar.
hocicar v. frotar suavemente con la nariz.
horrorizado adj. aterrorizado; muy consternado.
hoscamente adv. con resentimiento, de una manera
desagradable e insociable.
hurgar v. revolver entre cosas para buscar algo, por
ejemplo, entre la basura para encontrar cosas
que se pueden usar o vender.
I
idealizar v. pensar que alguien o algo es perfecto;
ignorar los defectos.
imagen sust. ilustración; gráfico.
impecablemente adv. sin errores; perfectamente.
júbilo sust. gran alegría; regocijo.
justificación sust. excusa para un comportamiento.
justificar v. demostrar que algo es correcto o válido.
legítimo adj. conforme a la ley.
literalmente adv. según el significado exacto de las
palabras.
M
madurar v. aprender más sobre la vida; desarrollarse
por completo.
maleable adj. que se dobla fácilmente.
maleantes sust. personas que merodean en busca de
un botín o bienes para robar.
malicioso adj. que muestra deseos de hacer daño a
otros; ruin.
maligno adj. malo; cruel; malvado; dañino.
marchitarse v. encogerse y arrugarse, a menudo
como resultado del resecamiento.
mártir sust. persona que prefiere morir antes que
renunciar a sus creencias.
meditabundo adj. que está pensando seriamente;
reflexivo.
meticulosamente adv. cuidadosamente; prestando
mucha atención a los detalles.
misivas sust. mensajes escritos.
monotonía sust. falta de variedad.
mortal adj. aquí, muy intenso; grave.
N
neutral adj. que no toma partido.
notorio adj. llamativo; evidente.
O
obstinado adj. testarudo.
opción sust. posibilidad de elección.
optar v. elegir una forma de actuar.
P
pacifista sust. persona que cree que los conflictos
deben resolverse mediante soluciones pacíficas y
no con guerras y violencia.
parientes sust. miembros de la familia; familiares.
pausado adj. lento; metódico.
pena sust. castigo por un delito cometido.
perdurable adj. fuerte y duradero.
perecer v. ser destruido; morir.
perenne adj. que dura todo el año; continuo.
perforar v. agujerear con un objeto punzante.
perseverancia sust. constancia en mantener un
objetivo y no rendirse.
Spanish Glossary 1319
Spanish Glossary
J
L
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implacable adj. que no disminuye ni se debilita.
implorar v. rogar.
imponente adj. grande y de aspecto impresionante.
impresión sust. idea; noción.
imprudente adj. insensato; alocado.
impunidad sust. falta de castigo.
inalterable adj. que no se puede cambiar.
inaugurar v. comenzar formalmente.
incitar v. promover, estimular a hacer algo.
incomprensible adj. que no se puede entender.
inconsciente adj. que no se da cuenta de algo.
inconsolable adj. que no se puede tranquilizar;
destrozado.
incrédulo adj. que duda; que no cree con facilidad.
indigente sust. persona muy pobre.
indignación sust. enojo ante una injusticia, una
maldad o algo impropio.
indispensable adj. absolutamente necesario; esencial.
indulgente adj. que cede a los deseos de los demás.
infalibilidad sust. sin posibilidad de cometer un error.
infame adj. que tiene mala reputación.
ingenio sust. inteligencia.
ingeniosamente adv. de manera inteligente; de
modo brillante.
ingenuo adj. simple; inocente.
inicio sust. comienzo de algo.
inminente adj. que está a punto de suceder.
inminente adj. cercano; que está a punto de ocurrir.
innovador adj. nuevo y original; novedoso.
inofensivo adj. que no puede hacer daño.
inquietud sust. estado de agitación o preocupación.
insistentemente adv. de manera exigente;
persistentemente.
intacto adj. que no le faltan partes; entero.
intención sust. propósito; objetivo.
interiorizar adj. adoptar como propio.
intervalo sust. una pausa entre períodos de actividad.
invariablemente adv. sin cambios.
involuntario adj. sin intención, accidental; que no se
hace a propósito.
iridiscente adj. que muestra o refleja los colores del
arco iris; que brilla o produce destellos.
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Spanish Glossary
pésame sust. expresión de compasión.
plácido adj. calmado y tranquilo.
polémico adj. que es objeto de discusión.
posibilitar v. hacer que algo pueda suceder;
proporcionar los medios, la oportunidad, el
poder o la autoridad.
precipicio sust. parte vertical o que cuelga de un
grupo de rocas, como un acantilado; situación
peligrosa cercana.
prescindible adj. que no vale la pena guardar;
innecesario.
prescindir v. abstenerse de usar o poseer algo;
privarse de algo.
prioridad sust. algo que se considera de suma
importancia.
prodigar v. dar generosamente.
profusión sust. abundancia; gran cantidad.
provisiones sust. pl. suministros o reservas,
especialmente de comida.
prudencia sust. precaución; buen criterio.
R
radical adj. extremo.
rancio adj. que tiene olor o gusto desagradable.
recatado adj. que parece más modesto y más
correcto de lo que es en realidad.
reclutar v. conseguir los servicios de alguien.
reconciliación sust. fin amistoso de una pelea.
recular v. echarse atrás, especialmente por miedo.
recurrir v. acudir o apelar a algo en caso de necesidad.
reinar v. gobernar.
reiterar v. repetir.
remitir v. enviar a un destino nuevo o a otra dirección.
resolución sust. determinación; decisión.
restringir v. limitar.
retirarse v. alejarse.
revocar v. cancelar; retirar.
risueño adj. alegre; feliz.
robusto adj. macizo y sólido; saludable y fuerte.
rompedor adj. que no sigue las costumbres
aceptadas, formales o tradicionales.
ruinoso adj. en mal estado; destrozado.
S
sagrado adj. aquí, dedicado a una persona o
separado para un uso especial.
salvación sust. persona o cosa que protege a otros del
daño y el sufrimiento.
sensato adj. que tiene buen criterio; prudente.
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sensibilidad sust. capacidad para responder
emocionalmente.
sincronizar v. hacer que dos o más cosas ocurran al
mismo tiempo o al mismo ritmo; coordinar.
siniestro adj. desfavorable.
solaz sust. consuelo; alivio de la pena.
soledad sust. falta de compañía; aislamiento.
soportar v. tolerar algo difícil; padecer.
sostenible adj. que se puede mantener.
superar v. vencer.
susceptible adj. vulnerable; que las cosas le afectan
con facilidad.
suspender v. colgar por encima de algo.
sustentar v. mantener, alimentar.
T
tambalearse v. moverse a un lado y al otro, como a
punto de caerse.
tañer v. tocar un instrumento despacio a intervalos
regulares.
temor sust. miedo.
tenderse adj. estirarse.
tenue adj. ligero; de poca intensidad.
transformar v. cambiar una cosa o estado a otro.
transmitir v. pasar.
tumulto sust. confusión; alboroto; agitación.
tutoría sust. conjunto de lecciones o consejos de un
mentor o un maestro sabio.
V
vagabundo sust. persona que va a pie y a veces hace
trabajos pequeños o mendiga para vivir.
vigilancia sust. estado de alerta; estado de atención.
vigilante adj. alerta.
vil adj. desagradable; ofensivo.
vital adj. muy importante.
vivaz adj. con energía; lleno de vida; alegre.
vulnerable adj. que no se puede defender; que tiende
a ceder ante una fuerza o un deseo.
Y
yermo adj. vacío; desierto.
Academic Vocabulary Glossary
English/Spanish
The Academic Vocabulary Glossary in this section is
an alphabetical list of the Academic Vocabulary words
found in this textbook.Use this glossary just as you
would use a dictionary—to find out the meanings of
words used in your literature class to talk about and
write about literary and informational texts and to talk
about and write about concepts and topics in your
other academic classes.
For each word, the glossary includes the pronunciation, part of speech, and meaning. A Spanish version
of the glossary immediately follows the English version.
For more information about the words in the Academic
Vocabulary Glossary, please consult a dictionary.
English
A
appeal (uh PEEL) v. attract; interest.
associate (uh SOH shee ayt) v. mentally make a link;
connect in thought.
attitude (AT uh tood) n. way of thinking, acting, or
feeling; outlook.
C
coherent (KOH hehr ehnt) adj. clear, logical,
connected, understandable.
complex (KAHM plehks) adj. having more than one
part or aspect; complicated.
consequences (KAHN she kwehn sehz) n. results,
outcomes.
convention (kuhn VEHN shuhn) n. standard
technique.
convey (kuhn VAY) v. suggest; communicate.
counter (KOWN tuhr) v. oppose or take issue with.
D
destiny (DEHS tuh nee) n. unavoidable future; fate.
distinct (dihs TIHNGKT) adj. obviously different;
unique.
E
effect (uh FEHKT) n. result.
elaborate (ih LAB uh rayt) v. go into greater detail
about something.
embody (ehm BAHD ee) v. give form to something
abstract.
enhance (ehn HANS) v. make greater; improve.
establish (ehs TAB lihsh) v. set up; create.
evoke (ih VOHK) v. bring a memory or feeling to mind.
excerpt (EHK surpt) n. passage; part of a longer work.
express (ehk SPREHS) v. put into words; show feeling
or emotion.
F
function (FUHNGK shun) n. typical action of
something.
I
imply (ihm PLY) v. suggest; hint at.
impression (ihm PREHSH uhn) n. overall effect.
incident (IHN suh duhnt) n. something that took
place; event.
influence (IHN floo uhns) v. persuade or affect
someone.
insight (IHN syt) n. clear understanding.
interpretation (ihn tur pruh TAY shuhn) n. portrayal
that conveys a particular understanding of a
work.
L
literal (LIHT uhr uhl) adj. based on the ordinary
meaning of the actual words.
M
mutual (MYOO chu uhl) adj. done, said, or felt by each
toward the other.
N
nuances (NOO ahns ihz) n. shades of difference in
meaning or feeling.
O
observation (ahb zuhr VAY shuhn) n. statement based
on what one sees.
outcome (OWT kuhm) n. result; ending.
P
portray (pawr TRAY), portrayed (pawr TRAYD) v.
describe with words or other means; show.
production (pruh DUHK shuhn) n. presentation of a
play; performance.
Academic Vocabulary Glossary 1321
RESOURCE CENTER
Academic Vocabulary Glossary
S
significant (sihg NIHF uh kuhnt) adj. important.
specify (spehs ih FY) n. state in detail.
support (suh POHRT) v. back up; strengthen by giving
evidence.
V
valid (VAL ihd) adj. supported by facts; true.
verify (VEHR uh fy) v. prove something to be true.
Spanish
A
actitud sust. modo de pensar, actuar o sentir;
perspectiva.
ambiguo adj. que no está definido de manera clara;
que puede tener dos resultados distintos.
asociar v. establecer mentalmente una relación.
C
cautivar v. atraer; interesar.
coherente adj. claro; comprensible.
complejo adj. que se compone de varios elementos;
complicado.
consecuencias sust. resultados, efectos.
convención sust. técnica estándar.
D
desarrollar v. explicar algo en detalle.
destino sust. futuro inevitable.
distinto adj. diferente; único.
E
insinuar v. sugerir; dar a entender.
interpretación sust. forma de expresar algo para que
se entienda un siginificado específico de una
palabra.
L
literal adj. según el significado habitual de las
palabras.
M
matices sust. gradaciones en los significados o
sentimientos.
O
observación sust. afirmación basada en lo que uno
ve.
P
pasaje sust. fragmento; parte de un texto más largo.
perspicacia sust. entendimiento claro.
plasmar v. dar forma a algo abstracto.
producción sust. presentación de una obra;
desempeño.
R
realzar v. mejorar.
rebatir v. oponerse con argumentos a algo.
recíproco adj. que se hace, dice o siente de manera
mutua entre dos o más personas.
representar v. describir; mostrar.
respaldar v. apoyar con pruebas.
resultado sust. efecto; desenlace.
efecto sust. resultado.
especificar v. exponer en detalle.
establecer v. crear.
evocar v. traer a la memoria un recuerdo o un
sentimiento.
expresar v. poner en palabras; demostrar un
sentimiento o una emoción.
S
F
válido adj. respaldado por hechos; verdadero.
verificar v. demostrar que algo es verdadero.
función sust. acción que realiza algo o alguien
normalmente.
I
impresión sust. efecto o sensación general que causa
algo o alguien.
incidente sust. algo que ocurre; suceso.
influir v. producir un efecto sobre alguien.
inminente adj. cercano; que está a punto de ocurrir.
1322 Resource Center
significativo adj. importante.
T
transmitir v. sugerir; comunicar.
V
Roger Ebert’s review of 4 Little Girls by Spike Lee from Chicago
Sun Times, October 24, 1997. Copyright © 1997 by Roger Ebert.
Reproduced by permission of Andrews McMeel Publishing.
House, Inc., and in hardcover by Alfred A. Knopf in 1994. All
rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Susan Bergholz
Literary Services, New York.
“Advice for a Stegosaurus” by Jessica Goodheart from The Best
American Poetry (originally appeared in The Antioch Review,
vol. 63, no. 4). Copyright © 2005 by The Antioch Review, Inc.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher’s editors.
“Tiburón” from Trumpets from the Islands of Their Evictions
by Martín Espada. Copyright © 1987 by Bilingual Review
Press. Reproduced by permission of Bilingual Press/Editorial
Bilingüe, Hispanic Research Center, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ.
“Legal Alien” and “Extranjera legal” from Chants by Pat Mora.
Copyright © 1984 by Pat Mora. Published by Arte Público
Press–University of Houston, Houston, TX, 1985, 2000.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“The Gift” from Rose: Poems by Li-Young Lee. Copyright © 1986
by Li-Young Lee. Reproduced by permission of BOA Editions,
Ltd.
“In the Family” by María Elena Llano, translated by Beatriz Teleki
from Short Stories by Latin American Women: The Magic and
the Real, edited by Celia Correas de Zapata. Copyright © 1990
by Arte Público Press, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell. Copyright ©
1924 by Richard Connell; copyright renewed © 1952 by Louise
Fox Connell. Reproduced by permission of Brandt & Hochman
Literary Agents, Inc. Any electronic copying or distribution of
this text is expressly forbidden.
“Poe’s Death Is Rewritten as Case of Rabies, Not Telltale Alcohol”
from The New York Times, September 15, 1996. Copyright © 1996
by The Associated Press. All rights reserved. Reproduced by
permission of the copyright holder.
“Ballad of Birmingham” from Cities Burning by Dudley Randall.
Copyright © 1968 by Broadside Press. Reproduced by
permission of the publisher.
Slightly adapted from “Spielberg Collection Is Found to Contain
Stolen Rockwell Art” as it appears in The New York Times, March
4, 2007. Copyright © 2007 by The Associated Press. Reproduced
by permission of the publisher.
“The Courage That My Mother Had” from Collected Poems by
Edna St. Vincent Millay. Copyright © 1954, 1982 by Norma Millay
Ellis. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Elizabeth
Barnett, Literary Executor.
From “The Great Escape” from BBC Web site, March 23,
2004, accessed May 2, 2006, at http://www.bbc.co.uk/print/
shropshire/history/2004/03/great_escape_01.shtml. Copyright
© 2004 BBC World Service. Reproduced by permission of BBC
Worldwide Limited.
“Rabies Death Theory” by R. Michael Benitez from The New York
Times, Editorial Desk, September 30, 1996. Copyright © 1996 by
R. Michael Benitez. Reproduced by permission of the author.
“Liberty” by Julia Alvarez. Copyright © 1996 by Julia Alvarez.
First published in Writer’s Harvest 2, edited by Ethan Canin,
published by Harcourt Brace and Company, 1996. All rights
reserved. Reproduced by permission of Susan Bergholz
Literary Services, New York.
From “Mexico Next Right” from Caramelo by Sandra Cisneros.
Copyright © 2002 by Sandra Cisneros. Published by Alfred A.
Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc., 2002. Reproduced by
permission of Susan Bergholz Literary Services, New York.
“Geraldo No Last Name” from The House on Mango Street
by Sandra Cisneros. Copyright © 1984 by Sandra Cisneros.
Published by Vintage Books, a division of Random House, Inc.,
and in hardcover by Alfred A. Knopf in 1994. All rights reserved.
Reproduced by permission of Susan Bergholz Literary Services,
New York.
“Papa Who Wakes Up Tired in the Dark” from The House on
Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros. Copyright © 1984 by Sandra
Cisneros. Published by Vintage Books, a division of Random
Adapted from “Day 4” from Appalachian Trail Journal by Edward
Burgess. Copyright © 1999 by Edward Burgess. Reproduced by
permission of the author.
From “Teaching Chess, and Life” by Carlos Capellan from The
New York Times, September 3, 2000. Copyright © 2000 by Carlos
Capellan. Reproduced by permission of the author.
“Paris and Queen Helen” from The Siege and Fall of Troy by
Robert Graves. Text copyright © 1962 by International Authors
N.V. Reproduced by permission of Carcanet Press Limited and
electronic format by permission of A. P. Watt, Ltd.
Slightly adapted from “The Secret Latina” by Veronica Chambers
from Becoming American: Persona/Essays by First Generation
Immigrant Women. Copyright © 2000 by Veronica Chambers.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
From “A Warm, Clear Day in Dallas” from World Leaders Past &
Present: John F. Kennedy by Marta Randall. Copyright © 1988
by Chelsea House Publishers, a subsidiary of Haights Cross
Communications. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“Essay” by Judith Ortiz Cofer. Copyright © 2007 by Judith Ortiz
Cofer. Reproduced by permission of the author.
Slightly adapted from “Marigolds” by Eugenia W. Collier from
Negro Digest, November 1969. Copyright © 1969 by Eugenia W.
Collier. Reproduced by permission of the author.
“The Golden Kite, the Silver Wind” by Ray Bradbury from Epoch,
Winter 1953. Copyright © 1953 by Epoch Associates; copyright
renewed © 1981 by Ray Bradbury. Reproduced by permission of
Don Congdon Associates, Inc.
“A Sound of Thunder” by Ray Bradbury from Collier’s, June 28,
1952. Copyright © 1952 by the Crowell-Collier Publishing Co.;
copyright renewed © 1980 by Ray Bradbury. Reproduced by
permission of Don Congdon Associates, Inc.
“Country Scene” from Spring Essence, The Poetry of Hô Xuân
Hu’o’ng, edited and translated by John Balaban. Copyright ©
2000 by John Balaban. Reproduced by permission of Copper
Acknowledgments 1323
Acknowledgments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For permission to reprint copyrighted material, grateful acknowledgment is made to the following sources:
Acknowledgments
Canyon Press.
“On the Abolition of the Threat of War” from Ideas and Opinions
by Albert Einstein. Copyright © 1954 and renewed © 1982 by
Crown Publishers, Inc., a division of Random House, Inc.,
www.randomhouse.com. Reproduced by permission of the
publisher.
“The Open Boat Journey: The First Ten Days” from Shipwreck
at the Bottom of the World: The Extraordinary True Story of
Shackleton and the Endurance by Jennifer Armstrong. Copyright
© 1998 by Jennifer M. Armstrong. Reproduced by permission
of Crown Publishers, a division of Random House, Inc., www.
randomhouse.com.
“Prologue: How to Eat a Guava” from When I Was Puerto Rican by
Esmeralda Santiago. Copyright © 1993 by Esmeralda Santiago.
Reproduced by permission of Da Capo Press, a member of
Perseus Books, L.L.C.
“Harrison Bergeron” from Welcome to the Monkey House by
Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. Copyright © 1961 by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.
Reproduced by permission of Dell Publishing, a division of
Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com and CD-ROM
format by permission of Donald C. Farber, Attorney for Kurt
Vonnegut, Jr.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 11: A Gathering of Shades” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 12: Sea Perils and Defeat” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 16: Father and Son” from The Odyssey by Homer,
translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963 by
Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.C.
Fitzgerald on behalf of the Fitzgerald children. Reproduced by
permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 17: The Beggar at the Manor” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
“The Road Block” (“Get out of my road”) by Miura Chora from
An Introduction to Haiku by Harold G. Henderson. Copyright
© 1958 by Harold G. Henderson. Reproduced by permission
of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc., www.
randomhouse.com.
From “Book 21: The Test of the Bow” from The Odyssey by Homer,
translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963 by
Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R. C.
Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced by
permission of Benedict R.C. Fitzgerald.
“The Girl Who Loved the Sky” from At the Helm of Twilight by
Anita Endrezze. Copyright © 1988 by Anita Endrezze. Published
by Broken Moon Press, 1992. Reproduced by permission of the
author.
From “Book 22: Death in the Great Hall” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
Slightly adapted from pp. 33–45 (from “The Bicycle and the
Sweet Shop,” “The Great Mouse Plot,” and “Mr. Coombes”) from
Boy: Tales of Childhood by Roald Dahl. Copyright © 1984 by
Roald Dahl. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, LLC.
“To Da-Duh, In Memoriam” from Reena and Other Stories
by Paule Marshall. Copyright © 1983 by Paule Marshall.
Reproduced by permission of The Feminist Press at The City
University of New York, www.feministpress.org.
From “Book 1: A Goddess Intervenes” [retitled “Tell the Story”]
from The Odyssey by Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald.
Copyright © 1961, 1963 by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright
renewed © 1989 by Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the
Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced by permission of Benedict
R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 5: Sweet Nymph and Open Sea” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 9: New Coasts and Poseidon’s Son” from The Odyssey
by Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961,
1963 by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by
Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald children.
Reproduced by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
From “Book 10: The Grace of the Witch” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
1324 Acknowledgments
From “Book 23: The Trunk of the Olive Tree” from The Odyssey by
Homer, translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Copyright © 1961, 1963
by Robert Fitzgerald; copyright renewed © 1989 by Benedict R.
C. Fitzgerald, on behalf of the Fitzgerald Children. Reproduced
by permission of Benedict R. C. Fitzgerald.
Slightly adapted from “Kaavya Syndrome” by Joshua Foer from
Slate.com, accessed on May 22, 2006 at http://www.slate.com/
toolbar.aspx?action=print&id=2140685. Copyright © 2006 by
Joshua Foer. Reproduced by permission of the author.
From Chapter 1 from And Words Can Hurt Forever: How to Protect
Adolescents from Bullying, Harassment, and Emotional Violence
by James Garbarino, Ph.D. and Ellen deLara, Ph.D. Copyright ©
2002 by Dr. James Garbarino and Dr. Ellen deLara. Reproduced
by permission of The Free Press, a division of Simon &
Schuster, Inc.
“Letter to Juliet” by Charlotte Schein from The Juliet Club.
Copyright © 1994 by Club de Giulietta. Reproduced by
permission of the publisher.
“Fifteen” from The Way It Is: New & Selected Poems by William
Stafford. Copyright © 1966, 1998 by the Estate of William
Stafford. Reproduced by permission of Graywolf Press.
From Children and the Death of a President: Multi-Disciplinary
Studies, edited by Martha Wolfenstein and Gilbert Kliman.
Copyright © 1965 by Gilbert Kliman and Martha Wolfenstein.
Reproduced by permission of GRM Associates, Inc.,
representing the Ann Elmo Agency.
Rostand, translated by Brian Hooker. Copyright 1951 by
Doris Hooker. Reproduced by permission of Henry Holt and
Company, LLC.
“Women” from Revolutionary Petunias & Other Poems by Alice
Walker. Copyright © 1970 and renewed © 1998 by Alice Walker.
Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc. and electronic
format by permission of The Wendy Weil Agency, Inc. This
material may not be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
“Once by the Pacific” from The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited
by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1936, 1951, © 1956
by Robert Frost; copyright © 1964 by Lesley Frost Ballantine;
copyright 1923, 1928, © 1969 by Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“The Happy Man’s Shirt” from Italian Folktales, Selected and
Retold by Italo Calvino, translated by George Martin. Copyright
© 1956 by Giulio Einaudi editore, s.p.a.; translation copyright ©
1980 by Harcourt, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt,
Inc. and electronic format by The Wylie Agency, Inc.
Excerpt (retitled “Poe’s Final Days”) from Edgar A. Poe: Mournful
and Never-Ending Remembrance by Kenneth Silverman.
Copyright © 1991 by Kenneth Silverman. Reproduced by
permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
“Initiation” from Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams by Sylvia
Plath. Copyright © 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1960,
1961, 1962, 1963 by Sylvia Plath. Copyright © 1977, 1979 by
Ted Hughes. Reproduced by permission of HarperCollins
Publishers, Inc.
“Possum Crossing” from Quilting the Black-Eyed Pea by Nikki
Giovanni. Copyright © 2002 by Nikki Giovanni. All rights
reserved. Reproduced by permission of HarperCollins
Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1 from Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art by Scott
McCloud. Copyright © 1993 by Scott McCloud. Reproduced by
permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
“Fame is a fickle food” from The Poems of Emily Dickinson, edited
by Thomas H. Johnson, J1659. Copyright © 1951, 1955, 1979,
1983 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Published
by The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
MA. Reproduced by permission of Harvard University Press
and the Trustees of Amherst College.
Essay by Joyce Carol Oates. Copyright © 2007 by Joyce
Carol Oates. Reproduced by permission of John Hawkins &
Associates, Inc.
From “Einstein’s interview with George Sylvester Viereck” from
Einstein on Peace, edited by Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden.
Copyright © 1960 by Otto Nathan. Reproduced by permission
of The Albert Einstein Archives, The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Israel.
“Letter to President Roosevelt” from Dr. Einstein’s Warning to
President Roosevelt by Albert Einstein. Copyright © 1939 by
Albert Einstein. Reproduced by permission of The Albert
Einstein Archives, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
“Einstein’s remarks to Eleanor Roosevelt, February 13, 1950”
(retitled “The Arms Race”) from Einstein on Peace, edited by Otto
Nathan and Heinz Norden. Copyright © 1960 by Otto Nathan.
Reproduced by permission of The Albert Einstein Archives, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
“Thank You, M’am” from Short Stories by Langston Hughes.
Copyright © 1996 by Ramona Bass and Arnold Rampersad. All
rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Hill and Wang, a
division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC.
From pages 158-165 from Cyrano de Bergerac by Edmond
From “Graphic Novels 101: FAQ” by Robin Brenner from The Horn
Book Magazine, March/April 2006. Copyright © 2006 by The
Horn Book, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“The Fenris Wolf” from Legends of the North by Olivia E. Coolidge.
Copyright © 1951 and renewed © 1979 by Olivia E. Coolidge. All
rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin
Company.
“The Scarlet Ibis” by James R. Hurst from The Atlantic Monthly,
July 1960. Copyright © 1960 by James R. Hurst. Reproduced by
permission of the author.
From “Internment History” by Satsuki Ina from Children of the
Camps: Internment History. Copyright © 1999 by Satsuki Ina,
Ph.D. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the
author.
Essay by Ian Johnston. Copyright © 2007 by Ian Johnston.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
“The Wife’s Story” from The Compass Rose: Short Stories by Ursula
K. LeGuin. Copyright © 1982 by Ursula K. Le Guin. Reproduced
by permission of Virginia Kidd Literary Agency.
“Mother to Son” from The Collected Poems of Langston
Hughes. Copyright © 1994 by The Estate of Langston Hughes.
Reproduced by permisison of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of
Random House, Inc. and electronic format by permission of
Harold Ober Associates Incorporated.
“Internment” from Hilo Rains by Juliet S. Kono. Copyright © 1988
by Juliet S. Kono. Reproduced by permission of the author.
“Disguises” by Jean Fong Kwok from Story, 1997. Copyright ©
1997 by Jean Fong Kwok. Reproduced by permission of the
author.
Essay by Andrew Lam. Copyright © 2007 by Andrew Lam.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
Graphic panel from Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi. Copyright ©
2003 by L’Association, Paris, France. Reproduced by permission
of the publisher.
Slightly adapted from “On Writing Persepolis” (from “Why I Wrote
Persepolis,” “Writing a Graphic Novel is Like Making a Movie,”
and “What I Wanted to Say”) by Marjane Satrapi from Pantheon
Graphic Novels. Reproduced by permission of L’Association,
Paris, France.
“In the Current” from The Boys of My Youth by Jo Ann Beard.
Copyright © 1997 by Jo Ann Beard. Reproduced by permission
of Little, Brown and Company.
“in Just-” from Complete Poems: 1904–1962 by E. E. Cummings,
edited by George J. Firmage. Copyright 1923, 1951, © 1991 by
the Trustees for the E. E. Cummings Trust; copyright © 1976 by
George James Firmage. Reproduced by permission of Liveright
Publishing Corporation.
“Those Winter Sundays” from Collected Poems of Robert Hayden,
edited by Frederick Glaysher. Copyright © 1966 by Robert
Acknowledgments 1325
Acknowledgments
“The Frog Prince” from Three Children’s Tales by David Mamet.
Copyright © 1982, 1983, 1986 by David Mamet. Reproduced by
permission of Grove/Atlantic, Inc.
Acknowledgments
Hayden. Reproduced by permission of Liveright Publishing
Corporation.
Copyright © 1992 by Simon J. Ortiz. Reproduced by permission
of the author.
“Sanctuary” from Museum of Absences by Luis H. Francia.
Copyright © 2004 by Luis H. Francia. Reproduced by permission
of Meritage Press, San Francisco, CA.
From Barefoot in the Park by Neil Simon. Copyright © 1964,
2002 by Paramount Pictures. All rights reserved. Reproduced by
permission of Paramount Pictures.
“Cinderella’s Stepsisters” by Toni Morrison from Ms. Magazine,
September, 1979. Copyright © 1979 by Toni Morrison.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
“The Sniper” from Spring Sowing by Liam O’Flaherty. Copyright
© 1924 by The Estate of Liam O’Flaherty. Reproduced by
permission of The Peters Fraser & Dunlop Group Limited
(www.pfd.co.uk) on behalf of The Estate of Liam O’Flaherty.
“Did Animals Sense Tsunami Was Coming?” by Maryann Mott
from National Geographic News. Copyright © 2005 by National
Geographic Society. Reproduced by permission of the
publisher.
From “Being Prey” by Val Plumwood from UTNE Reader, July/
August 2000. Copyright © 2000 by Val Plumwood. Reproduced
by permission of the author.
“Delphic Oracle’s Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors”
by John Roach from National Geographic News. Copyright
© 2001 by National Geographic Society. Reproduced by
permission of the publisher.
“If Only Poe Had Succeeded When He Said Nevermore to Drink”
by Burton R. Pollin from The New York Times, Editorial Desk,
September 23, 1996. Copyright © 1996 by Burton R. Pollin.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
Slightly adapted from “Coping With Cliques” (reviewed by D’Arcy
Lyness, August, 2005) from KidsHealth. Copyright © 1995-2007
by The Nemours Foundation. Reproduced by permission of
KidsHealth and The Nemours Foundation, one of the largest
resources online for medically reviewed health information
written for parents, kids, and teens, www.KidsHealth.org or
www.TeensHealth.org.
“Woman Work” from And Still I Rise by Maya Angelou. Copyright
© 1978 by Maya Angelou. Reproduced by permission of
Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
From “In America: Romeo and Juliet in Bosnia” by Bob Herbert
from The New York Times, May 8, 1994. Copyright © 1994 by The
New York Times Company. Reproduced by permission of the
publisher.
From “Peter and Rosa” from Winter’s Tales by Isak Dinesen.
Copyright 1942 by Random House, Inc.; copyright renewed ©
1970 by Johan Philip Thomas Ingerslev, c/o The Rungstedlund
Foundation. Reproduced by permission of Random House, Inc.,
www.randomhouse.com.
From “Look Who’s in the Kitchen Dishing Out Advice” by Sarah
Lyall from The New York Times, April 23, 2005. Copyright © 2005
by The New York Times Company. Reproduced by permission
of the publisher.
From “Publisher to Recall Harvard Student’s Novel” by Motoko
Rich and Dinitia Smith from The New York Times, April 28,
2006. Copyright © 2006 by The New York Times Company.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“Glorious Food? English Schoolchildren Think Not” by Sarah Lyall
from The New York Times, October 18, 2006. Copyright © 2006 by
The New York Times Company. Reproduced by permission of
the publisher.
Excerpt (retitled “Brother”) from I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
by Maya Angelou. Copyright © 1969 and renewed © 1997 by
Maya Angelou. Reproduced by permission of Random House,
Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
“New Directions” from Wouldn’t Take Nothing For My Journey
Now by Maya Angelou. Copyright © 1993 by Maya Angelou.
Reproduced by permission of Random House, Inc., www.
randomhouse.com.
From I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou.
Copyright © 1969 and renewed 1997 by Maya Angelou.
Reproduced by permission of Random House, Inc., www.
randomhouse.com.
“Caged Bird” from Shaker, Why Don’t You Sing? by Maya Angelou.
Copyright © 1983 by Maya Angelou. Reproduced by permission
of Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
From “’Dear Juliet’: Seeking Succor From a Veteran of Love”
by Dinita Smith from The New York Times, March 27, 2006.
Copyright © 2006 by The New York Times Company.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
A Christmas Memory by Truman Capote. Copyright © 1956 by
Truman Capote. Reproduced by permission of Random House,
Inc. and electronic format by permission of The Truman Capote
Literary Trust, Alan U. Schwartz, Trustee.
“I Got It: Mentoring Isn’t For the Mentor” by Jane Armstrong
from Newsweek Magazine, June 5, 2000. Copyright © 2005 by
Newsweek, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“The Car” from Ultra-Marine by Raymond Carver. Copyright
© 1986 by Raymond Carver. Reproduced by permission of
Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
“Alcyone and Ceyx” from Metamorphoses: A Play by Mary
Zimmerman. Copyright © 2002 by Mary Zimmerman.
Reproduced by permission of Northwestern University Press.
From “The Boy Left Behind” from Enrique’s Journey by Sonia
Nazario. Copyright © 2006 by Sonia Nazario. Reproduced by
permission of Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
“Daily” from Hugging the Jukebox by Naomi Shihab Nye.
Copyright © 1982 by Naomi Shihab Nye. Reproduced by
permission of the author.
“Homeless” from Living Out Loud by Anna Quindlen. Copyright ©
1988 by Anna Quindlen. Reproduced by permission of Random
House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com.
“Ambush” from The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien.
Copyright © 1990 by Tim O’Brien. Reproduced by permission of
the author.
“Strawberries” retold by Gayle Ross from Homespun: Tales
from America’s Favorite Storytellers, edited by Jimmy Neil
Smith. Copyright © 1988 by Gayle Ross. Published by Crown
Publishers, 1988. Reproduced by permission of the author.
“My Father’s Song” by Simon J. Ortiz. Originally published
in Woven Stone, 1992, University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.
1326 Acknowledgments
From Foreword by Pierre Salinger from Where Were You When
From “Travis’s Dilemma” by Charlie LeDuff, Patricia Smith, and
David Leonhardt from The New York Times Upfront, vol. 139, no.
6, November 27, 2006. Copyright © 2006 by Scholastic, Inc.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“Lost at Sea: The Story of Ceyx and Alcyone” from Favorite Greek
Myths by Mary Pope Osborne. Copyright © 1989 by Mary Pope
Osborne. Reproduced by permission of Scholastic Inc.
“Old Man at the Bridge” from The Short Stories of Ernest
Hemingway. Copyright 1938 by Ernest Hemingway; copyright
renewed © 1966 by Mary Hemingway. Reproduced by
permission of Scribner, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Adult
Publishing Group.
Excerpt (retitled “The History Behind the Ballad”) from Parting
the Waters: America in the King Years, 1956-63 by Taylor Branch.
Copyright © 1988 by Taylor Branch. Reproduced by permission
of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group.
Slightly adapted from “StoryCorps Do It Yourself Interview” from
StoryCorps. Copyright © by Sound Portraits Productions, Inc.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Slightly adapted from “About StoryCorps” from StoryCorps.
Copyright © by Sound Portraits Productions, Inc. Reproduced
by permission of the publisher.
“The Grandfather” from A Summer Life by Gary Soto (Dell
1991). Copyright © 1990 by University Press of New England.
Reproduced by permission of University Press of New England
and electronic format by permission of Gary Soto.
“First Lesson” from Relations: New and Selected Poems by Philip
Booth. Copyright © 1957 by Philip Booth. Reproduced by
permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group
(USA) Inc.
From “Juliet of Verona Gets a Lot of Letters from the Lovelorn” by
Lisa Bannon from The Wall Street Journal, November 10, 1992.
Copyright © 1992 by Dow Jones & Company, Inc. All rights
reserved worldwide. Reproduced by permission of The Wall
Street Journal.
“Essay” by Anna Deavere Smith. Copyright © 2007 by Anna
Deavere Smith. Reproduced by permission of Anna Deavere
Smith and the Watkins/Loomis Agency.
From “A ‘Staggering Genius’ Talks About Writing, Fame, and
...Trout An Interview With Dave Eggers” from Writing Magazine,
vol. 27, no. 4, January 2005. Copyright © 2005 by Weekly Reader
Corporation. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of
Weekly Reader Corporation.
Slightly adapted from “Kaavya Viswanathan: Unconscious
Copycat or Plagiarist?” by Sandhya Nankani from WORD: Official
Blog of Read and Writing magazines, Friday, April 28, 2006.
Reproduced by permission of Weekly Reader Corporation.
“The Next Green Revolution” by Alex Nikolai Steffen from Wired
Magazine, May 2006. Copyright © 2006 by Alex Nikolai Steffen.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
“A Blessing” from Collected Poems by James Wright. Copyright
© 1963, 1971 by James Wright. Reproduced by permission of
Wesleyan University Press, www.wesleyan.edu/wespress.
“Where I Find My Heroes” by Oliver Stone from McCall’s
Magazine, November 1992. Copyright © 1992 by Oliver Stone.
Reproduced by permission of the author.
“Jackie Robinson” by Henry Aaron from American Legends: From
the Time 100. Copyright © 2001 by Time, Inc. Reproduced by
permission of the publisher.
From “Tending Sir Ernest’s Legacy: An Interview with Alexandra
Shackleton” by Kelly Tyler from NOVA Online Web site, 2002,
accessed May 27, 2007 at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
shackleton/1914/alexandra.html. Copyright © 2002 by WGBH
Educational Foundation. Reproduced by permission of the
publisher. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shackleton/1914/
alexandra.html.
“A morning glory” by Chiyo from Zen Art for Meditation by
Stewart W. Holmes and Chimoyo Horioka. Copyright © 1973 by
Tuttle Publishing, a member of the Periplus Publishing Group.
All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
From “John Fitzgerald Kennedy” by Eric Sevareid from The
World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 11, pp. 266-268. Copyright © 2001
by World Book, Inc., www.worldbook.com. Reproduced by
permission of the publisher.
“The old pond” by Matsuo Bashō from Zen Art for Meditation by
Stewart W. Holmes and Chimoyo Horioka. Copyright © 1973 by
Tuttle Publishing, a member of the Periplus Publishing Group.
All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“A dragonfly!” by Kobayashi Issa from Zen Art for Meditation by
Stewart W. Holmes and Chimoyo Horioka. Copyright © 1973 by
Tuttle Publishing, a member of the Periplus Publishing Group.
All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
“Airport” by Pauline Kaldas from Dinarzad’s Children, edited
by Pauline Kaldas and Khaled Mattawa. Copyright © 2004 by
University of Arkansas Press, c/o The Permissions Company.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Slight adaptation of “American History” from The Latin Deli: Prose
and Poetry by Judith Ortiz Cofer. Copyright © 1993 by Judith
Ortiz Cofer. Reproduced by permission of The University of
Georgia Press.
“Starfish” from Emplumada by Lorna Dee Cervantes. Copyright
© 1981 by Lorna Dee Cervantes. Reproduced by permission of
University of Pittsburgh Press.
Acknowledgments 1327
Acknowledgments
President Kennedy Was Shot? Memories and Tributes to a Slain
President as Told to Dear Abby. Foreword copyright © 1993 by
Pierre Salinger. Reproduced by permission of the author.
Picture Credits
PICTURE CREDITS
The illustrations and photographs on the Contents pages are picked up from pages in the textbook.
Credits for those can be found either on the textbook page on which they appear or in the listing below.
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AMARASINGHE; (r), ©KAMAL KISHORE/Reuters/CORBIS; 110;
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TK; 121 (tl), Cover image from Kindred (25th Anniversary
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image from Hitch by Jeanette Ingold. Copyright ©2005 by
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(tl), TK; (bl), Cover image from Black Boy, 60th Anniversary
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1328 Picture Credits
by Richard Wright; Copyright renewed ©1973 by Ellen Wright.
Reproduced by permission of HarperCollins Publishers; (br),
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by Isaac Asimov. Copyright ©1950, 1977 by the Estate of Isaac
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Bantam Dell, a division of Random House, Inc., www.
randomhouse.com; (tr), Cover image from The Young Landlords
by Walter Dean Myers. Copyright ©1989 by Walter Dean Myers.
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Street: A Multicultural Anthology of Stories, edited by Anne Mazer.
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Persea Books, Inc.; (br), Cover image from April and the Dragon
Lady by Lensey Namioka. Copyright ©1994 by Lensey Namioka.
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234 (bl), ©Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; (br), ©Trevor
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©SuperStock; 273, Miguel Angel Muñoz/AGE fotostock; 274,
©Tim Davis/CORBIS; 276, ©Prints & Photographic Division,
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CORBIS; 278, ©Prints & Photographs Division, Library of
Congress, LC-USZ62-62322; 279 (tr), Debra P. Hershkowitz; 281,
Debra P. Hershkowitz; 281, Courtesy of the Edgar Allan Poe
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Images.com; (inset), North Wind Picture Archives; 287, ©Jim
Zuckerman/Alamy; 288, ©Steve Allen/Alamy; 291, Copyright
Scala/Art Resource, NY; 298, Photography by Chris Semtner,
Courtesy of Edgar Allan Poe Museum, Richmond, Virginia; 300,
Rebekah F. Owens, Westminister Preservation Trust, Inc.; 303, R.
Kubner/RobertStock.com; 316 (tl), TK; (bl), TK; (br), Cover image
from Graphic Classics: Edgar Allan Poe (Volume One, Third
Edition, 2006). Copyright ©2006 by Eureka Productions.
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from A Separate Peace by John Knowles. Copyright ©1959 and
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Legend by Laura Hillenbrand. Copyright ©2001 by Laura
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fotostock/SuperStock; 333, ©age fotostock/SuperStock; 334,
©James Randklev/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images; 336,
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©Marcell/CORBIS; 532, (inset), ©Frank and Frances Carpenter
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©Mark Boulton/Alamy; 553, Thomas Nilsen/Photo Researchers,
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Danube” 2002 by Megan Kelso [top], “Billy Dogma in Fear, My
Dear” 2007 by Dean Haspiel [bottom]; “What’s the Difference?”
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Picture Credits 1329
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(bl), TK; (br), TK; 521 (tl), TK; (tr), Cover image from Let It Shine:
Stories of Black Women Freedom Fighters, illustrations by Stephen
Alcorn. Text copyright ©2000 by Andrea Davis Pinkney.
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SCHMELLING; 720, Volker Steger/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 722 (t),
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IMAGES/TOM GANNAM; 732 (tl), TK;(bl), TK; (tr), TK; (br), TK; 733
(tr), Cover image from I Am the Darker Brother, edited by Arnold
Adoff. Copyright ©1997 by Aladdin Paperbacks, an imprint of
Simon & Schuster Children’s Publishing Division. Reproduced
by permission of Simon & Schuster.; (bl), Cover image from Boris
by Cynthia Rylant. Copyright ©2005 by Cynthia Rylant.
Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc.; (br), Cover image
from Extra Innings: Baseball Poems, Compiled by Lee Bennett
Hopkins. Compilation Copyright ©1993 by Lee Bennett Hopkins.
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Burnett/ArenaPAL © ArenaPal/Topfoto/The Image Works; 751, J.
A. Kraulis/Masterfile; 756 (l), ©Sara Krulwich/The New York
Times/Redux; (c), ©Sara Krulwich/The New York Times/Redux; (r),
©Sara Krulwich/The New York Times/Redux; 757, ©Sara
Krulwich/The New York Times/Redux; 760, HACHETTE/CAMERA
1/FILMS A2/DD PROD/UGC/THE KOBAL COLLECTION; 762,
©Orion Classics/courtesy Everett Collection; 765, ©Orion
Classics/courtesy Everett Collection; 766, ©Orion Classics/
courtesy Everett Collection; 771, ©Content Mine International/
Alamy; 772 (inset), ©Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image
Works; (bkgd), ©Hemis/Alamy; 774 (b), blickwinkel/Alamy;
(t)©Alley Cat Productions/Brand X/Corbis; 776 (l), ©AP IMAGES/
FRANCESCO PROIETTI; (r), ©Stock Montage/Index Stock 777,
©Alley Cat Productions/Brand X/Corbis; 778, Theater in the
Open, Newburyport, Massachusetts; 780, Theater in the Open,
Newburyport, Massachusetts; 790, Theater in the Open,
Newburyport, Massachusetts; 793, ©Alley Cat Productions/
Brand X/Corbis; 796, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/
Foreground: Claire Jullien as Juliet and Graham Abbey as
1330 Picture Credits
Romeo. Background: Patrick Galligan as Paris and Julia Donovan
as Lady Capulet. Photo by Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford
Shakespeare Festival Archives; 797, ©Time Life Pictures/Getty
Images; 799, ©Roger de la Harpe/Corbis; 800, ©Adam Woolfitt/
CORBIS; 802, ©Dana White/PhotoEdit; 806, TM & Copyright
©20th Century Fox Film Corp. All rights reserved./Everett
Collection; (border); 810, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/
Tim Campbell as Abram and Aaron Franks as Gregory with
members of the Festival Company. Photo by Terry Manzo/
Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 820,
2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Caleb Marshall as
Benvolio and Graham Abbey as Romeo. Photo by Terry Manzo/
Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 832,
2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Claire Jullien as Juliet.
Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare
Festival Archives; 835, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/
Graham Abbey as Romeo. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of
the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 838, 2002
Production of Romeo and Juliet/Foreground: Claire Jullien as
Juliet and Graham Abbey as Romeo. Background: Scott
Wentworth as Capulet, Patrick Galligan as Paris, Julia Donovan
as Lady Capulet, Courtenay J. Stevens as Peter and Nicolas Van
Burek as Tybalt. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of the
Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 842, ©ArenaPal/
Topham/The Image Works; (border); 847, 2002 Production of
Romeo and Juliet/Graham Abbey as Romeo and Claire Jullien as
Juliet. Photo by Terry Manz/Courtesy of the Stratford
Shakespeare Festival Archives; 854, 2002 Production of Romeo
and Juliet/Graham Abbey as Romeo and Keith Dinicol as Friar
Laurence. Photo by Terry/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare
Festival Archives; 865, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/
Claire Jullien as Juliet and Lally Cadeau as Juliet’s Nurse. Photo
by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare
Festival Archives; 868, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/
Graham Abbey as Romeo, Keith Dinicol as Friar Laurence and
Claire Jullien as Juliet. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of the
Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 872, ©Tristram Kenton/
Lebrecht Music; (border); 876, 2002 Production of Romeo and
Juliet/Foreground: Wayne Best as Mercutio and Nicolas Van
Burek as Tybalt. Background: Caleb Marshall as Benvolio and
Graham Abbey as Romeo. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of
the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 887, 2002
Production of Romeo and Juliet/Claire Jullien as Juliet. Photo by
Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival
Archives; 897, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Graham
Abbey as Romeo and Claire Jullien as Juliet. Photo by Terry
Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives;
903, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Julia Donovan as
Lady Capulet. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of the
Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 908, ©Michal Daniel,
2004; (border); 912, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Claire
Jullien as Juliet and Keith Dinicol as Friar Laurence. Photo by
Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival
Archives; 917, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Claire
Jullien as Juliet, Julia Donovan as Lady Capulet and Lally Cadeau
as Juliet’s Nurse. Photo by Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford
Shakespeare Festival Archives; 921, ©20th Century Fox/courtesy
Everett Collection; 930, Everett Collection; (border); 944, 2002
Production of Romeo and Juliet/Centre Stage: Graham Abbey as
Romeo and Claire Jullien as Juliet. From left to right: Keith
Dinicol as Friar Laurence, Patrick Galligan as Paris, David Kirby as
Friar John, Caleb Marshall as Benvolio with members of the
Company. Photo by Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford
Pictures/Getty Images; 1022 (bkgd), ©JUPITERIMAGES/Brand X/
Alamy; 1038 (r), ©Yiorgos Depollas/SuperStock; 1051, ©AP
IMAGES/PETROS KARADJIAS; 1110 (l), Courtesy of Houghton
Mifflin Company; (r), Digital Stock; 1116, ©Arcaid/Alamy; 1118
(t), Ulf Andersen/Getty Images; (b), ©William Regensburger;
1120, ©Thomas Shjarback/Alamy; 1123, Los Angeles Times
Photo by Don Bartletti; 1127, Los Angeles Times Photo by Don
Bartletti; 1130, Los Angeles Times Photo by Don Bartletti; 1132,
Los Angeles Times Photo by Don Bartletti; 1133, Los Angeles
Times Photo by Don Bartletti; 1136, Royal Geographical Society;
1138, ©Bettmann/CORBIS; 1141, ©Joseph Sohm; Visions of
America/CORBIS; 1142, ©Underwood & Underwood/CORBIS;
1145, Helen Atkinson; 1146, Frank Hurley/Royal Geographical
Society; 1148, Frank Hurley/Royal Geographical Society; 1150,
Frank Hurley/Royal Geographical Society; 1160 (tl), TK; (bl),
Cover image from Mythology by Edith Hamilton. Copyright 1942
by Edith Hamilton; Copyright renewed ©1969 by Dorian
Fielding Reid and Doris Fielding Reid. Reproduced by
permission of Little, Brown and Company, Inc.; (br), TK; (tr)
Cover image from Ithaka by Adäle Geras. Copyright ©2005 by
Adäle Geras. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc.; 1161
(tl), Cover image from Cupid by Julius Lester. Copyright ©2006
by Julius Lester. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc.;
(tr), Cover image from Inside the Walls of Troy by Clemence
McLaren. Copyright ©1996 by Clemence McLaren. Reproduced
by permission of Simon & Schuster.; (bl), Cover image from
Dune by Frank Herbert. Copyright ©1965 by Frank Herbert.
Reproduced by permission of G. P. Putnam’s Sons, a division
of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.; (br), TK; 1180 (inset), HRW Photo;
1180 (bkgd), ©Supapixx/Alamy; 1182–83, Masterfile Royalty
Free (RF); 1183, Masterfile Royalty Free (RF); 1186 (l), ©CORBIS;
(c), ©CORBIS; (r), ©CORBIS; 1187, ©CORBIS; 1194, ©Roger
Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 1200, ©David Young-Wolff/Alamy; 1206,
©Formcourt (Form Advertising)/Alamy; 1214, Photographer’s
Choice/Getty Images; 1216, ©Digital Vision/Alamy; 1217,
©Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit.
Picture Credits 1331
Picture Credits
Shakespeare Festival Archives; 954 (t), ©AP IMAGES/JESSICA
HILL; (b), ©Scott Gries/ImageDirect/Getty Images; 955, Usher,
D./Peter Arnold, Inc.; 972, ©Rupert Sagar-Musgrave/Alamy; 975,
Courtesy of Club di Giulietta; 977 (t), Courtesy of Club di
Giulietta; (b), ©Hemis/Alamy; (inset), ©Hemis/Alamy; 977
(border); 990 (tl), TK; (tr), TK; (bl), TK; (br), Cover image from
Favorite Stories for Performance. Copyright ©by Holt, Rinehart
and Winston. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. 991
(tl), TK; (bl), TK; (bl), TK; (tr), Cover image from Wanda Hickey’s
Night of Golden Memories and Other Disasters by Jean Shepherd.
Copyright ©1971 by Jean Shepherd. Reproduced by permission
of Random House, Inc., www.randomhouse.com. 786–87,
Theater in the Open, Newburyport, Massachusetts; 826–27,
2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Members of the Festival
Company as Masquers. Photo by Michael Cooper/Courtesy of
the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives; 880–81, 2002
Production of Romeo and Juliet/Foreground: Julia Donovan as
Lady Capulet, Nicolas Van Burek as Tybalt, Wayne Best as
Mercutio and Wyatt Best as Mercutio’s Page. Background left to
right: Adrienne Gould as Citizen, Martha Farrell as Citizen,
Patrick Galligan as Paris, Sarah Dodd as Lady Montague, John
Dolan as Montague, Philip Griffith Pace as Citizen, Raymond
O’Neill as Escalus the Prince of Verona, Phillip Hughes as
Balthasar and Courtenay J. Stevens as Peter. Photo by Terry
Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Archives;
926–27, 2002 Production of Romeo and Juliet/Julia Donovan as
Lady Capulet, Claire Jullien as Juliet and Scott Wentworth as
Capulet. Photo by Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford
Shakespeare Festival Archives; 938–39, 2002 Production of
Romeo and Juliet/Graham Abbey as Romeo and Claire Jullien as
Juliet. Photo by Terry Manzo/Courtesy of the Stratford
Shakespeare Festival Archives; Mosaic Pattern, Musee du
Bardo, Tunis, Tunisia, Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library
International; Iceberg Background, ©PhotoLink; 1008 (inset),
Courtesy of Ian Johnston; 1008 (bkgd), ©Perry Mastrovito/
Corbis; 1008 (bl), TK; 1008, TK; 1022 (inset), Time & Life
Index of Skills
INDEX OF SKILLS
The Index of Skills is divided into the following categories:
Literary Skills, page 1332
Informational Text Skills, page 1336
Reading Skills, page 1337
LITERARY SKILLS
Actions of characters, 125
Allegory, 321, 373, 377, 378, 380,
381, 408
Alliteration, 393, 619, 624, 694,
696, 697, 698, 729
Allusion, 537
Alter ego, 1029
Ambiguity, 321, 393
Analogy, 541, 545
Analysis, literary
character, 133, 141, 159, 171,
189, 196
drama, 794, 840, 870, 906, 928,
949, 970
epics and myths, 1013, 1075,
1102, 1112
form and style, 455, 465, 471,
485, 495, 500
narrator and voice, 241, 255, 267,
275, 284, 293
persuasion, 539, 545, 555, 562,
576
plot and setting, 37, 53, 63, 75, 96
poetry, 627, 633, 637, 641, 645,
651, 656, 663, 668, 673, 678,
682, 688, 693, 698, 704, 708,
718
symbolism and irony, 345, 359,
369, 381, 391, 393
theme, 1132
Analyzing responses, 551, 552, 555
Analyzing Visuals
characters in photographs,
126–127
drama in photographs, 756–757
epics and myths, 1014–1015
form and style in art, 436–437
graphic art, 526–527
poetry in art, 620–621
point of view and tone in art,
222–223
public information in art,
1182–1183
setting and mood in art, 6–7
symbolism and irony in art,
322–323
Anapest, 619
1332 Index of Skills
Vocabulary Skills, page 1338
(Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics)
Writing Skills, page 1339
Skills; and Read On, page 1340
Standardized Test Practice; Language
Antagonist, 124
Appeals
to emotion, 525, 531, 535
to logic, 525, 535, 590
Appearance of characters, 125
Approximate rhyme, 618
Archaic language, 803
Archetypes, 259, 261, 266, 777, 779,
786, 794
in myths, 1107, 1109, 1110, 1112
Argument, 524–525
and allusion, 537
and analogy, 541, 545
counterargument, 539
emotional appeals, 525, 531,
535, 590
form of, 563
intent, 541, 545
logical appeals, 525, 535, 590
logical fallacies, 579
pro and con, 525, 579
structure, 524
and support, 549, 551, 552, 555,
579
tone, 524, 530, 541, 544, 545,
586, 590
See also Persuasion.
Art, visual
characters in photographs,
126–127
details in, 326–327
form in, 436–437
graphic, 526–527
poetry in, 620–621
point of view and tone in,
222–223
public information in,
1182–1183
setting and mood in, 6–7, 449
style in, 436–437
symbolism and irony in,
322–323
Aside, 752, 769, 809, 870, 900, 935
Assonance, 393, 690, 696, 697, 698
Atmosphere, dramatic, 935
Author’s argument, 524–525
Author’s purpose, 524, 555, 557,
559, 562
Author’s techniques, 363, 367
Autobiographical narrative, 96, 434,
475, 487, 512
Ballad, 616, 711
Biographical approach, 277, 281, 283,
284, 293, 487, 491, 494, 499
Biographical context, 147, 148
Biography, 434
Blank verse, 802, 855
Catalog poem, 616, 646, 649, 650,
651
Character, 124, 208
across genres, 191, 196
action and appearance of, 125
alter ego, 1029
analyzing, 126–129, 133, 141, 408
in art, 127, 137
and details, 193, 195
and dialogue, 125, 131, 135,
138, 140, 141, 241
in drama, 983
dynamic/static, 124, 485, 906
epic, 1012
foil, 754, 825, 829, 1012, 1075
across genres, 191, 196
interactions, 145, 149, 156, 157,
159
main, 210
motivation, 124, 128, 145
mythic, 1013, 1020, 1021, 1150
and other characters’ feelings,
125
in photographs, 126–127, 158
in poetry, 194, 682
private thoughts of, 125
protagonist/antagonist, 124
round/flat, 124, 161, 166, 168,
170, 171
subordinate/minor, 161
Characterization, 125, 210, 455
and details, 130
and dialogue, 125, 135, 141, 241
direct/indirect, 125, 175, 177,
181, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189,
255, 495
in drama, 840, 928
Chronological order, 41
Climax, 4, 14, 37
of play, 752, 804, 943, 949
Comedy, 755, 775, 781, 783, 788,
characterization in, 840, 928, 983
comedy, 755, 775, 781, 783, 788,
792, 793, 794, 866, 906, 983
conflict in, 752, 754, 775, 838, 911
dialogue in, 752, 760, 767, 775,
862, 869, 888, 890, 910, 953
and myth, 953
in photographs, 756–757
plot and dramatic structure in,
752, 754–755, 773, 804, 838,
870, 878, 911, 943, 947, 948
scene design, 983
script, 752
stage directions, 753, 762, 775,
808, 811, 813, 828, 833, 843,
846, 874, 877, 882, 943
stage set, 753, 760
staging, 753–754, 773, 804, 809,
817, 819, 821, 822, 823, 824,
825, 828, 829, 834, 837, 838,
839, 849, 851, 855, 858, 860,
861, 866, 875, 884, 886, 890,
892, 895, 898, 899, 900, 901,
902, 904, 905, 910, 911, 916,
917, 919, 920, 922, 923, 931,
932, 935, 936, 937, 940, 941,
942, 943, 945, 948
theme in, 794, 949
tragedy, 754–755, 804, 831, 840,
870, 878, 888, 890, 906, 928,
940, 949, 983
verse in, 855
Dramatic irony, 321, 718, 755, 870,
920, 928
Dynamic character, 124, 485, 906
Emotional appeals, 525, 531, 535,
590
End-stopped line in poetry, 803
English sonnet, 638
Epics, 1012–1017, 1023
characteristics of, 1012
conflict in, 1012, 1035, 1042,
1045, 1048, 1051, 1055, 1057,
1060, 1065, 1069, 1074, 1075,
1084, 1088, 1094, 1097
heroes of, 1012, 1035, 1042,
1045, 1048, 1051, 1055, 1057,
1060, 1065, 1069, 1074, 1075,
1084, 1088, 1094, 1097
Epic simile, 1031, 1077, 1083, 1090,
1095, 1102
Evidence, 525, 590
Exposition, 4, 63, 557, 754, 804, 807,
812, 856
Expository essay, 434
Extended metaphor, 664, 666, 667,
668
External conflict, 4, 53, 391
Fallacies, logical, 579
FAQ, 563
Feelings of character, 125
Figurative language, 459, 617
Figures of speech, 617, 1150
and mood, 674, 676, 677, 678
personification, 459, 617, 625,
651, 656, 669, 671, 672, 673,
674, 688, 950
in Shakespearean drama, 846, 950
and style, 435, 459, 462, 465
See also Metaphor; Simile.
First-person narrator, 220, 226, 257,
260, 262, 264, 265, 267
Flashback, 4–5, 41, 43, 45, 53, 171
Flat character, 124, 161, 168, 170,
171
Flaw, tragic, 754
Foil, character, 754, 825, 829, 1012,
1075
Foot, poetic, 618
Foreshadowing, 5, 17, 20, 22, 33, 36,
96, 114, 840, 870, 1075
Forms of nonfiction. See Nonfiction,
forms of.
Free verse, 616, 694
Graphic art, 526–527
Graphic essay, 563
Haiku, 616, 634, 636, 637
Hero
epic, 1012, 1035, 1042, 1045,
1048, 1051, 1055, 1057, 1060,
1065, 1069, 1074, 1075, 1084,
1088, 1094, 1097
mythic, 1020
tragic, 754
Historical accounts across genres,
711, 715, 716, 717, 718
Historical context, 69, 70, 163, 168,
170, 171, 1037, 1039, 1046,
1049, 1062, 1075, 1081, 1102
Homeric simile, 1031, 1077
Iamb, 618, 638, 802
Iambic pentameter, 638
Imagery, 267, 383, 438
and mood, 435
in myth, 1112
in poetry, 616, 629, 631, 632,
633, 652, 654, 663, 698, 729
and style, 467, 469, 470, 471
and theme, 652, 654, 656
Implied metaphor, 617, 659, 662,
663, 682, 693, 704, 729
Indirect characterization, 125, 175,
177, 181, 183, 184, 185, 188,
189, 255, 495
Inherited symbol, 320
Intent, 541, 545
Index of Skills 1333
Index of Skills
792, 793, 794, 866, 906, 983
Comparing
characters across genres, 196
comics and text, 576
details, 1115, 1117, 1118, 1119,
1120, 1122, 1126, 1127, 1129,
1130, 1132
historical accounts across genres,
711, 715, 716, 717, 718
narratives across genres, 953, 956,
957, 959, 960, 961, 969, 970
plot and setting across genres,
77, 96
synthesizing sources by, 297, 302
themes and topics across genres,
1115, 1119, 1121, 1123, 1124,
1127, 1132
Complications, 755, 840, 935
Conflict, 4, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 210
in drama, 752, 754, 775, 838, 911
in epics, 1012, 1035, 1042, 1045,
1048, 1051, 1055, 1057, 1060,
1065, 1069, 1074, 1075, 1084,
1088, 1094, 1097
external, 4, 53, 391, 1012
internal, 4, 11, 53, 114, 369, 391,
1012, 1075
in myth, 1020, 1150
Consonance, 694
Constructed Response, 210, 408,
513, 983, 1150
Contrast, 159
Costumes, stage, 754, 768
Counterargument, 539
Couplet, 638, 802, 855
Credibility, 351, 356, 359, 525, 590
Cross-curricular links, 29, 49, 139,
181, 253, 274, 343, 379, 451,
463, 538, 561, 859, 921, 1041,
1044, 1049, 1067, 1092, 1098,
1111
Dactyl, 619
Dialogue
aside, 752, 769, 809, 870, 900,
935
and character, 125, 131, 135,
138, 140, 141, 241
monologue, 752, 763, 829, 846,
849, 946, 949
of a play, 752, 760, 767, 775, 862,
869, 888, 890, 910, 953
soliloquy, 752, 845, 846, 853,
864, 883, 918, 941, 949, 983
Diction, 435, 441, 513, 539, 651
Direct characterization, 125, 255
Direct metaphor, 617, 659
Drama, 752–759, 980
character in, 983
Index of Skills
Interactions of characters, 145, 149,
156, 157, 159
Internal conflict, 4, 11, 53, 114, 369,
391, 1012, 1075
Internal rhyme, 618
Invented symbol, 320
Irony, 321, 352, 356
in art, 322–323
dramatic, 321, 718, 755, 870,
920, 928
situational, 321, 349, 358, 361,
364, 368, 369, 1102
and symbols, 349, 359, 406, 408
and theme, 383
types of, 321
verbal, 321, 393
Italian sonnet, 638
Lighting, stage, 753–754
Literary analysis. See Analysis,
literary.
Literary criticism, 495, 500
biographical approach, 277, 281,
283, 284, 293, 487, 491, 494,
499
Literary Focus
character, 122–123
dramatic structure and
technique, 752–753
epics and myths, 1012–1013
form and style, 434–435
language of poetry, 616–619
narrative and voice, 220–221
persuasion, 524–525
plot and setting, 4–5
symbolism and irony, 320–321
tragedy and comedy, 754–755
Literary Perspectives, 349, 475, 549,
1035
analyzing responses, 551, 552,
555
archetypes, 259, 261, 266, 777,
779, 786, 794
author’s techniques, 363, 367
biographical context, 147, 148
credibility, 351, 356, 359, 525, 590
historical context, 70, 165, 168,
170, 171, 1037, 1039, 1046,
1049, 1062, 1075, 1081, 1102
philosophical content, 475, 477,
480, 481, 485
Literary Skills Review, 112–114,
208–210, 308–309, 406–407,
512–513, 588–590, 726–727,
980–983, 1148–1150
Logical appeals, 525, 535, 590
Logical fallacies, 579
Lyric poem, 616, 642, 644, 645
Main character, 210
1334 Index of Skills
Meet the Writer, 14, 18, 42, 56, 58,
68, 78, 133, 136, 146, 162,
176, 192, 230, 234, 258, 270,
278–279, 332, 350, 362, 374,
384, 442, 446, 460, 468, 476,
488–489, 532, 536, 542, 550,
558, 564, 626, 630, 635, 639,
643, 647, 653, 660, 665, 670,
675, 680, 686, 690, 695, 700,
706, 712, 772, 776, 954, 1022,
1036, 1106, 1108, 1116
Memoir, 434
Metamorphosis, 656, 794
Metaphor, 617, 624, 651, 674, 708,
729, 950
direct metaphor, 617, 659
extended, 664, 666, 667, 668
implied, 617, 659, 662, 663, 682,
693, 704, 729
and style, 459
Meter, 618, 685, 687, 688, 699. See
also Dactyl; Iamb.
Minor character, 161
Monologue, 752, 763, 829, 846, 849,
946, 949
Mood, 5, 67, 71, 74, 114, 159, 513
in art, 6–7
and details, 189
and figurative language, 674,
676, 677, 678
and imagery, 435
in poetry, 641, 645, 656
and setting, 10, 75, 159, 267, 656
and style, 435, 442
Moral lesson, 1150
Motivation, 124, 128, 145, 210, 359
Myths, 953, 1012–1017, 1023,
1029, 1148
and archetypes, 1107, 1109,
1110, 1112
characters of, 1013, 1020, 1021,
1150
conflict in, 1020, 1150
heroes of, 1020
imagery and simile in, 1112
purposes of, 1013
Narration, 557
across genres, 953, 956, 957,
959, 960, 961, 969, 970
Narrator, 220–225, 231, 309
first-person, 220, 226, 257, 260,
262, 264, 265, 267
in myth, 953
omniscient, 220, 233, 235, 238,
241
third-person limited, 220–221,
245, 247, 248, 255
unreliable, 220, 285, 286, 289,
290, 292, 293
and voice, 227, 308, 369
Nonfiction, forms of, 434
autobiographical narrative, 96,
434, 475, 487, 512
biography, 434
expository essay, 434
memoir, 434
Octave, 638
Omniscient narrator, 220, 233, 235,
238, 241
Omniscient point of view, 220
Onomatopoeia, 619
Oral tradition, 1012, 1077, 1150
Paradox, 369
Parallelism, 699, 705, 707, 708
Pentameter, 638
Persona, 705
Personal essay, 434
Personification, 459, 617, 625, 651,
656, 669, 671, 672, 673, 674,
688, 950
Persuasion, 525, 533, 557, 589, 590
and form, 563, 565, 566, 567,
568, 570, 572, 573, 576
in graphic art, 526–527
See also Argument.
Petrarchan sonnet, 638
Philosophical content, 475, 477,
480, 481, 485
Photographs
characters in, 126–127, 158
drama in, 756–757
as film stills, 394
mood in, 164, 169, 186–187
setting in, 154–155
Play, 752
See also Drama.
Plot, 4–5, 11, 84, 88, 92, 95, 112
across genres, 77, 89, 96
climax, 4, 14, 37
complications in, 755, 840, 935
conflict, 4, 53, 55
exposition, 4, 63, 557, 754, 804,
807, 812, 856
of a play, 752, 754–755
resolution, 4, 14, 75, 947, 948
rising action, 4, 804, 843, 852,
853, 863, 870, 883, 895, 916
tragic, 754–755
turning point, 754–755, 765, 804,
867, 878, 906, 914, 919
See also Flashback;
Foreshadowing; Suspense.
Poetry, 616–623, 728
in art, 620–621
catalog, 616, 646, 649, 650, 651
character in, 194, 682
internal/end, 689
scheme, 618, 855
Rhymed couplet, 638, 855
Rhythm, 618–619, 685, 687, 688,
701, 702
and parallelism, 699, 704
Rising action, 4, 804, 843, 852, 853,
863, 870, 883, 895, 916
Round character, 124, 161, 166, 171
Run-on line, in poetry, 629, 803
Scanning poetry, 618, 685
Scene design, 983
Script, 752
Sensory details, 616
Sestet, 638
Set, stage, 753, 760
Setting, 5, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 67,
79, 82, 84, 88, 90, 92, 95, 112,
114, 141, 267, 465
across genres, 77, 89, 96
in art, 6–7
historical, 381
and mood, 10, 75, 159, 267, 656
in photographs, 154–155
in poetry, 656
Shakespearean sonnet, 638
Simile, 617, 669, 671, 672, 673, 674,
729, 950
epic, 1077, 1083, 1090, 1095,
1102
in myths, 1112
and style, 459
Situational irony, 321, 349, 358,
361, 364, 368, 369, 1102
Soliloquy, 752, 845, 846, 853, 864,
883, 918, 941, 949, 983
Sonnet, 616, 638, 640, 641, 855
Sound devices, 393
in poetry, 619, 624, 694, 698
Spondee, 619
Stage directions, 753, 762, 775, 808,
811, 813, 828, 833, 843, 846,
874, 877, 882, 943
Stage, proscenium, 801
Staging, elements of, 753–754, 773,
804, 809, 817, 819, 821, 822,
823, 824, 825, 828, 829, 834,
837, 838, 839, 849, 851, 855,
858, 860, 861, 866, 875, 884,
886, 890, 892, 895, 898, 899,
900, 901, 902, 904, 905, 910,
911, 916, 917, 919, 920, 922,
923, 931, 932, 935, 936, 937,
940, 941, 942, 943, 945, 948
Static character, 124, 485
Structure of argument, 524
Style, 435, 443, 513, 545, 576, 1132
and figurative language, 435,
459, 462, 465
and imagery, 467, 469, 470, 471
and mood, 435, 442
and tone, 435, 441, 445, 447,
448, 449, 451, 452, 454, 455,
475, 479, 481, 484, 485
Subheading, 562
Subordinate character, 161
Supporting details, 500
Support of argument, 549, 551, 552,
555, 579
Surprise ending, 369
Suspense, 5, 17, 23, 28, 33, 35, 275
in drama, 755
Symbols, 320, 326, 329, 333, 339,
344, 352, 354, 471
in art, 322–323
inherited, 320
invented, 320
and irony, 349, 359, 406, 408
in poetry, 668, 673
and repetition, 327
and sensory details, 324
and theme, 331, 337, 341, 345,
383
Theme, 89, 331, 383, 387, 388, 390,
391, 392, 408, 1115
across genres, 1115, 1119, 1121,
1123, 1124, 1127, 1132
and ambiguity, 393
in drama, 794, 949
in epic, 1029
and irony, 383
in poetry, 641, 652, 654, 656, 708
and symbols, 331, 337, 341, 345,
383
Third-person limited narrator, 220–
221, 245, 247, 248, 255
Tone, 221, 241, 269, 309, 513
and argument, 524, 530, 541,
544, 545, 586, 590
in art, 222–223
in poetry, 393, 637, 641, 645, 678,
729
and speaker, 679, 681, 682
and style, 435, 441, 445, 447,
448, 449, 451, 452, 454, 455,
475, 479, 481, 484, 485
Topic, 1115
across genres, 1115, 1119, 1121,
1123, 1124, 1127, 1132
Tragedy, 754–755, 804, 831, 840,
870, 878, 888, 906, 928, 940,
949, 983
Tragic flaw, 754
Trochee, 618
Turning point, 754–755, 765, 804,
867, 878, 906, 914, 919
Index of Skills 1335
Index of Skills
details in, 616
diction and syntax, 623
in drama, 802–803, 855
end-stopped line, 803
figurative language in, 617
forms of, 616
free verse, 616, 694
haiku, 616, 634, 636, 637
imagery in, 616, 629, 631, 632,
633, 652, 654, 656, 663, 698,
729
lyric, 616, 642, 644, 645
mood in, 641, 645, 656
punctuation of, 694
rhythm and rhyme, 618–619,
624, 625, 685, 687, 688, 689,
691, 692, 693, 699, 701, 702,
704, 855
run-on line, 629, 803
setting in, 656
sonnet, 616, 638, 640, 641, 855
sound devices in, 393, 619, 624,
694, 698, 729
speaker, 616, 670, 681, 682, 705,
707, 708, 729
symbols in, 668, 673
theme in, 641, 652, 654, 656, 708
tone in, 393, 637, 641, 645, 678,
729
See also Figures of speech.
Point of view, 220, 231
in art, 222–223
omniscient, 220
third-person limited, 220–221,
245, 247, 248, 255
See also Narrator.
Pro and con arguments, 525, 579
Proscenium stage, 801
Prologue, 807
Props, stage, 754
Protagonist, 124
Pun, 859, 867, 950
Purpose, author’s, 524, 555, 557,
559, 562, 590
QuickTalk, 66, 134, 244, 268, 330,
444, 458, 466, 474, 502, 540,
578, 774, 972, 1106, 1134,
1196, 1202, 1210
Realism, 436
Refrain, 495, 539, 633
Repetition
and oral tradition, 1077
in speeches, 541
Resolution, 4, 14, 75, 804, 947, 948
Responses, analyzing, 551, 552, 555
Rhetorical questions, 535
Rhyme, 618, 624, 625, 691, 692, 693
exact/approximate, 689
Index of Skills
Unreliable narrator, 220, 285, 286,
289, 290, 292, 293
Verbal irony, 321, 393
Visuals. See Analyzing Visuals.
Voice, 221, 227, 269, 271, 273, 274,
275, 308, 309, 345, 369
Word play, 705, 708, 860
INFORMATIONAL TEXT SKILLS
Application, 1181
Arguments, evaluating, 524, 525,
539, 541, 549, 579, 580, 581,
582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587,
591
Audience, 3, 123, 199, 201, 205, 211,
213, 397, 400
Author’s purpose, 3, 123, 397, 398,
404, 1154
Business letter, 1181, 1204
Charts, 1203
Comparing sources, 397, 400, 412,
971, 1135, 1154
Conclusions, drawing, 219, 297, 412
Connections, making, 397, 402, 412,
1135, 1137, 1138, 1140, 1142,
1143, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147,
1153
Constructed Response, 118, 213,
314, 412, 732, 987, 1154
Consumer documents, 1180,
1186–1188
Contracts, 1180, 1181, 1208
Details, supporting, 105, 106, 107,
109, 111, 115, 297
Documents, functional. See
Functional documents.
Diagrams, 1181, 1203
Drawing conclusions, 219, 297, 412
Email, 1181, 1205
Employee manual, 1181
Evaluating arguments, 524, 525,
539, 541, 549, 579, 580, 581,
582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587,
591
Evidence, 106, 117, 297, 299, 301,
303, 304, 305, 306
Fact, 106, 199, 557, 590, 594
Fallacies, logical, 579
5W-How? questions, 723, 724, 725,
726, 727, 1075, 1102
Functional documents, 433, 503,
506, 511, 514, 518, 1180–
1188
business letter, 1181, 1204
consumer, 1180, 1186–1188
features of, 1187, 1189
instruction manual, 1180, 1186
Internet sources, 1197, 1199,
1336 Index of Skills
1200, 1201
logic of, 1211, 1213, 1214, 1215
memorandum, 1181
public, 1180, 1182–1183
reports, 1181
résumé, 1181
structure and format of, 503, 505,
507, 509, 510
technical documents, 1181,
1191, 1192, 1193, 1195, 1214
user guide, 1181
warranties, 1180, 1186, 1188
workplace, 1181, 1203, 1205,
1206, 1208, 1209
Generalizations, 594
Graphics, 1203, 1209
Illustrations, 1203
Informational Skills Review,
115–117, 211–213, 310–314,
409–412, 514–518, 591–594,
728–730, 984–987, 1151–
1154, 1216–1218
Informational Text Focus
documents for life, 1180–1181
Instruction manual, 1180, 1186
Internet sources, 1197, 1199, 1200,
1201
Loaded words, 594
Logical fallacies, 579
Logical sequencing,1211
Main idea, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 111,
115, 117, 118, 199, 201, 202,
205, 206, 207, 211, 213, 297,
306, 727
and supporting details, 105, 106,
107, 109, 111, 115, 297
synthesizing sources, 3, 409, 412,
1154
Making connections, 397, 402, 412,
1135, 1137, 1138, 1140, 1142,
1143, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147,
1150, 1154
Memorandum, 1181
Numbered steps, 1181
Opinion, 199, 557, 590
Paraphrasing, 297, 300, 397, 398,
402, 403, 412
Primary sources, 199, 753, 973,
974, 976, 977, 978, 979, 984,
986–987
Pro and con arguments, 525, 579
Product information, 1180,
1186–1187
Public documents, 1180,
1182–1183
Purpose, 199, 202, 204, 205, 207,
211, 213
Quotations, 106
Reports, 1181
Research questions, 615, 723, 724,
725, 726, 727, 730–732
Résumé, 1181
Secondary sources, 753, 973, 974,
976, 977, 978, 979, 984,
986–987
Sequencing, logical, 1211
Sources. See Comparing sources;
Primary sources; Secondary
sources; Synthesizing sources.
Statistics, 106
Supporting details, 105, 106, 107,
109, 111, 115, 297
Synthesizing sources, 199, 207, 310,
314
audience, 3, 123, 199, 201, 205,
211, 213, 397, 400
author’s purpose, 3, 123, 397,
398, 404, 1154
compare and contrast, 397, 400,
412, 1135, 1154
drawing conclusions, 219, 297,
412
main idea and details, 3, 409,
412, 1154
making connections, 397, 402,
412, 1135, 1137, 1138, 1140,
1142, 1143, 1144, 1145, 1146,
1147, 1150, 1154
paraphrasing, 297, 300, 397, 398,
402, 403, 412
works by one author, 284, 318,
397, 404, 412
Technical documents, 1181, 1191,
1192, 1193, 1195, 1214
Text structures
subheading, 562
User guide, 1181
Warranties, 1180, 1186, 1188
Web site, 1206–1207, 1209
Workplace documents, 1181, 1203,
1205, 1206, 1208, 1209
Works Cited list, 1197
READING SKILLS
Analyzing causes and effects, 324,
327, 373, 378, 379, 381,
1016, 1018
in drama, 759, 766, 808, 809,
814, 848, 857, 869, 882, 887,
894, 895, 898, 904, 913, 921,
932, 934
in myths, 1107, 1110, 1111, 1112
Analyzing details. See Details,
analyzing.
Analyzing narrator’s perspective,
Details
analyzing, 55, 58, 60, 63, 328, 331,
335, 336, 338, 345, 364, 366,
652, 654, 656, 659, 661, 663,
674, 676, 677, 678, 679, 689,
693, 705, 707, 708, 953, 955,
956, 957, 958, 964, 965, 966
asking questions about, 227
and associations, 344
comparing, 1115, 1117, 1118,
1119, 1120, 1122, 1126, 1127,
1129, 1130, 1132
making connections from, 129, 340
sensory, 324
showing and telling, 361
and visualizing, 369
Drawing conclusions, 219, 297, 412,
528, 532, 539, 549, 553, 555,
565, 569, 571, 1017, 1022
and argument, 563, 576
about audience, 574
about evidence, 575
about narrator and point of view,
224, 229, 233, 236, 239, 241,
245, 247, 250, 252, 255, 285,
288, 290, 292, 293
about setting and conflict, 63
by synthesizing sources, 297, 412,
487, 500
See also Analyzing causes and
effects.
Example, 557
Fact, 199
Generalizations, making, 439, 467,
470, 471
Graphic organizers, 245, 1181
cause-and-effect chain, 373
sequence chart, 53
storyboard, 15
story map, 39
story time line, 8
Identifying causes and effects, 324,
327, 373, 378, 379, 381, 1016,
1018
Inferences, 210
about characters, 128, 130, 132,
135, 138, 140, 141, 150, 152,
153, 158, 159, 161, 165, 166,
171, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196
about drama, 758, 763, 769, 775,
804, 809, 810, 811, 821, 824,
829, 834, 839, 844, 848, 860,
862, 885, 904, 915, 924, 932
about motivation, 128, 131, 145,
159
Main idea, 490, 493, 497, 498, 499
in informational texts, 99, 100,
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
107, 109, 111, 115, 117, 118,
199, 201, 202, 205, 206, 207,
211, 213, 297, 306, 727
Making connections, 297, 397, 402,
494, 1135
to characters, 129, 175, 178, 180,
185, 189
from details, 129, 340
synthesizing sources, 412
Making generalizations, 439, 467,
470, 471
Making inferences. See Inferences.
Making predictions. See Predictions,
making.
Narrator’s perspective, analyzing,
225, 229, 257, 259, 263, 264,
267
Note-taking, 1184, 1187, 1197, 1198
Observations, 135
Opinion, 199
Paraphrasing, 397
drama, 759, 804, 813, 814, 815,
816, 817, 831, 837, 867, 893,
897, 918, 923, 924, 941
epics, 1035, 1051, 1066, 1072,
1073, 1080, 1084, 1090, 1093,
1100
form and style, 438, 445, 447, 453,
455
poetry, 664, 666, 667, 668, 699,
701, 703, 704, 846
Perspective
of characters, 257, 267
of narrator, 225, 229, 257, 259,
263, 264, 267
Poetry, reading. See Reading poetry.
Predictions, making, 8, 11, 17, 19, 20,
23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37,
353, 355, 356, 386
and reading actively, 325, 349, 359
Preview the Selection, 18, 42, 56, 68,
78, 136, 146, 162, 176, 192,
234, 246, 258, 270, 332, 350,
362, 374, 384, 446, 460, 468,
476, 536, 542, 550, 558, 564,
712, 776, 954, 1036, 1108, 1116
Purpose, author’s, 438, 459, 461, 464,
465
Questions. See Asking questions.
Reading actively, 325, 383, 391
making predictions, 325, 349, 359
rereading, 386, 393
Reading aloud
drama, 759, 760, 802–803, 810,
811, 814, 818, 831, 897, 904,
932, 941, 943
form and style, 438, 445, 450
Index of Skills 1337
Index of Skills
225, 229, 257, 259, 263, 264,
267
Anecdote, 557, 594
Asking questions, 8, 392, 528, 541,
543, 544, 545, 557, 559, 561,
562, 1035
about details, 227
5W-How? questions, 723, 724, 725,
726, 727, 1075, 1102
about functional documents,
1185, 1188, 1211, 1213, 1214
about narrator and point of view,
224
about plot, character, and setting,
269, 385, 389, 1040, 1047,
1050, 1062, 1070, 1082, 1086,
1091
and reading actively, 325
about voice, 272, 273, 274, 275
Author’s purpose, 438, 459, 461, 464,
465
Build Background, 10, 18, 42, 56, 58,
68, 79, 90, 100, 107, 115, 130,
136, 146, 162, 176, 193, 194,
195, 200, 205, 226, 234, 246,
258, 280, 281, 286, 298, 302,
304, 310, 326, 332, 350, 362,
374, 385, 398, 399, 440, 446,
460, 468, 476, 490, 496, 504,
506, 530, 536, 542, 550, 558,
564, 573, 580, 630, 635, 639,
643, 647, 653, 660, 670, 675,
680, 686, 706, 713, 714, 716,
726, 730, 760, 776, 955, 958,
974, 978, 1018, 1037, 1078,
1108, 1117, 1120, 1214
Cause and Effect, 324, 327, 373, 378,
379, 1016, 1018
See also Analyzing causes and
effects.
Comparing
details, 1115, 1117, 1118, 1119,
1120, 1122, 1126, 1127, 1129,
1130, 1132
narratives across genres, 953, 970
sources, 397, 400, 412, 971, 1135,
1154
works by one author, 277, 283,
284, 487, 495, 500
Conclusions. See Drawing conclusions.
Connections, making, 297, 397, 402,
494, 1135
to characters, 129, 175, 178, 180,
185, 189
from details, 129, 340
synthesizing sources, 412, 1137,
1138, 1140, 1142, 1143, 1144,
1145, 1146, 1147, 1148, 1153
Index of Skills
poetry, 622, 625, 646, 649, 650,
651, 685, 687, 688
Reading an epic, 1075, 1077, 1102
paraphrasing, 1035, 1051, 1066,
1072, 1073, 1080, 1084, 1090,
1093, 1100
summarizing, 1016, 1019, 1035,
1038, 1042, 1058, 1059, 1064,
1071, 1074, 1075, 1088, 1101
Reading drama, 775, 780, 782, 785,
789, 790, 792, 794, 840, 870,
906, 928, 949
analyzing causes and effects,
759, 766, 808, 809, 814, 848,
857, 869, 882, 887, 894, 895,
898, 904, 913, 921, 932, 934
paraphrasing, 804, 813, 814, 815,
816, 817, 831, 837, 867, 893,
897, 918, 923, 924, 941
Reading Focus
analyzing character, 128–129
analyzing drama, 758–759
analyzing epics and myths,
1016–1017
analyzing form and style, 438–
439
analyzing functional documents,
1184–1185
analyzing narrator and point of
view, 224–225
analyzing persuasion, 528–529
analyzing plot and setting, 8–9
analyzing poetry, 622–623
analyzing symbolism and irony,
324–325
Reading functional documents,
1184–1185
asking questions, 1184, 1188,
1211, 1213, 1214
skimming, 1184, 1186, 1191,
1192, 1194
taking notes, 1184, 1187, 1197,
1198
Reading poetry, 622–623, 631, 632,
633
comparing messages, 711, 713,
714, 717, 718
paraphrasing, 664, 666, 667, 668,
699, 701, 703, 704, 846
punctuation, 694, 696, 697, 698
run-on lines, 629
visualizing, 622, 624, 634, 636,
637, 638, 640, 641, 642, 644,
645, 669, 672, 673
Reading rate, adjusting, 1185, 1187,
1203, 1204, 1207
Read with a Purpose, 10, 14, 19, 43,
57, 59, 69, 79, 90, 100, 104,
1338 Index of Skills
107, 110, 130, 132, 137, 147,
163, 177, 193, 194, 195, 200,
204, 205, 206, 226, 230, 235,
247, 259, 271, 280, 281, 286,
298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305,
326, 327, 333, 351, 363, 375,
385, 398, 404, 440, 442, 447,
461, 469, 477, 490, 496, 504,
505, 506, 530, 532, 537, 543,
551, 559, 565, 573, 580, 586,
624, 631, 632, 636, 640, 644,
648, 650, 654, 661, 666, 671,
672, 676, 677, 681, 687, 691,
692, 696, 697, 701, 702, 707,
713, 714, 716, 724, 760, 772,
777, 807, 843, 873, 909, 931,
955, 974, 977, 978, 1018,
1022, 1037, 1078, 1109, 1117,
1146, 1186, 1192, 1194, 1198,
1200, 1204, 1207, 1212, 1214
Rereading, 386, 393
Scanning, 1184, 1191, 1194
Sensory details, 324
Sequence of events
analyzing, 77, 80, 83, 85, 86, 90,
92, 94, 96
identifying, 41, 45, 46, 47, 51, 53
tracing, 8, 12
Skimming, 1184, 1186, 1191, 1192
Story time line, 8
Style, 496
Summarizing, 528–529, 531, 537,
539
epics and myths, 1016, 1019,
1035, 1038, 1042, 1058, 1059,
1064, 1071, 1074, 1075, 1088,
1101
main idea and supporting
details, 535
Sympathy, 129
Taking notes, 1184, 1187, 1197, 1198
Text structures
subheading, 562
Time line, 8
Turning point, 89
Understanding cause and effect,
324, 327, 373, 378, 379, 381,
1016, 1018
Visualizing, 9, 69, 71, 72
details, 369
drama, 758, 764, 770, 775
form and style, 438, 440, 475,
478, 479, 480, 482, 485
mood, 75
poetry, 622, 624, 634, 636, 637,
638, 640, 641, 642, 644, 645,
669, 672, 673
setting, 67
VOCABULARY SKILLS
Academic Vocabulary, 519, 533
synonyms, 413, 595
talking and writing about drama,
773
talking and writing about epics
and myths, 1023
talking and writing about
functional documents, 1189
talking and writing about
nonfiction, 443
talking and writing about poetry,
627
talking and writing about short
stories, 15, 133, 231, 329
Affix, 1211
Analogy, 172, 242
Antonym, 38, 297, 541, 546, 795,
970
Archaic words, 803, 871
Associations, 373
Connotations, 285, 294, 373, 472,
623, 657, 659, 664, 669, 685,
775
Context clues, 242, 315, 519, 841
Denotations, 285, 294, 373, 472,
623, 657, 685, 775
Derivations, 503, 557, 841, 1113,
1197
See also Word origins; Word roots.
Dialect, 535
Diction, 370, 623
Dictionary, 795
Epithet, 1076
Etymology, 294, 953
See also Word origins; Word roots.
Figures of speech, 950
Greek names, 1103
Idiom, 456, 683
Inverted word order, 929
Jargon, 445, 456
Latin roots, 929
Metaphors, 950
Multiple-meaning words, 55, 64,
135, 142, 215, 269, 475, 487,
638, 642, 699, 709, 733, 988–
989, 1155, 1191
Names, 907, 1103
Norse words, 1113
Onomatopoeia, 467, 472
Oral fluency, 99, 277, 331, 346, 383
Personification, 950
Prefix, 17, 38, 546, 705
Pronunciation, 233, 1203
Puns, 950
Related words, 106, 175, 361, 1035,
1076, 1135
WRITING SKILLS
Analytical essay, 295, 347, 657, 971,
1104
Block method, 197, 395, 577, 719,
1133
Choices
analytical essay, 347, 657, 971,
1104
analyzing photographs, 395
analyzing popular culture, 295
annotations, 473
blogs, 243
checklist, 457
commercial, 657
comparison-contrast essay, 795
computer game, 1104
cover design, 347
critique, 795
dialogue, 371
director’s notes, 795
drama outline, 951, 971
editorial, 371, 547
exaggeration, 457
group discussion, 173, 951, 1133
imaginary character, 457
interviews, 173, 473, 1133
letter from character, 143
letter of advice, 395
letter of recommendation, 295
letter to author, 65, 501, 709
list of works and themes, 395
movie review, 951
new ending, 243
newscast, 683
oral report, 951
outline of argument, 547, 577
personal essay, 65, 1133
persuasive essay, 577
poems, 143, 473, 501, 657, 709
press release, 501
research, 347, 577, 683
responses, 295, 951
revisiting a story, 371
sequels, 39, 1104
sound effects, 709
speech, 547
staged reading, 971
story map, 39
surprise ending, 243
visualizing a poem, 683
word portrait, 143
Comparison-contrast essay, 97, 719,
795
block method, 197, 395, 577, 719,
1133
point-by-point method, 395, 577,
719, 1133
Conclusion, 501
Constructed Response, 297, 307, 397,
405, 503, 511, 727, 973, 979,
1135, 1147, 1191, 1197, 1201,
1203, 1209, 1211, 1215
Details, gathering, 97, 197
Drafting, 97, 395, 577, 719, 971, 1133
Editing, 97, 719
Essays
analytical, 295, 347, 657, 971, 1104
personal, 65, 1133
persuasive, 577
response, 501
See also Comparison-contrast essay.
Fact, 199
Gathering details, 97, 197
Introduction, 501
Inverted word order, 685, 688
Letters
of advice, 395
to author, 65, 501, 656, 709
from character, 143
persuasive, 555, 563
of recommendation, 295
Metaphors, 145, 159, 257
Opinion, 199
Parallel structure, 629
Personal essay, 65, 1133
Persuasive essay, 577
Point-by-point method, 395, 577,
719, 1133
Prewriting
comparison-contrast essay, 577,
719, 1133
comparison of short story and
autobiography, 97
narratives across genres, 971
Process, step-by-step, 511
Proofreading, 97, 395, 577, 971
QuickWrite, 16, 40, 54, 76, 98, 144,
160, 174, 190, 198, 232, 256,
276, 296, 348, 360, 372, 382,
396, 486, 534, 548, 556, 628,
658, 684, 710, 720, 796, 952,
1024, 1114, 1190
Repetition, 646, 651, 699
Response essay, 501
Revising, 97, 371, 395, 577, 719, 971,
1133
Sequence chart, 53
Similes, 145, 159, 257
Storyboard, 15
Story map, 39
Story time line, 8
Thesis statement, 501
Think as a Reader/Writer
active verbs, 1115, 1132
adjectives, 669, 673, 674, 679, 682
backstories, 41, 53
beginnings, 17
character sketch, 359, 1075, 1102
comic books, 563, 576
comparing sources, 953, 970,
1135, 1147
contractions, 191
descriptive words, 37, 55, 63, 275,
284
details and mood, 67, 75
details and visualizing, 77, 89, 97,
269
dialogue, 135, 141, 161, 245, 255,
331, 345, 775, 794
document structure and format,
503, 1189
drama, 773
emotive words, 277, 285, 293
epics and myths, 1023, 1107, 1112
evaluating sources, 973, 979
exaggeration, 475
facts and opinions, 199
figures of speech, 459, 678
film review, 711, 718
5W-How? questions, 723, 727
foreign words and phrases, 705,
708
historic setting, 171
imagery, 383, 391, 393, 487, 495,
501, 633, 638, 641, 642, 645,
652
letter to author, 656
Index of Skills 1339
Index of Skills
Roman names, 1103, 1105
Roots of words, 145, 191, 546, 929
Shakespearean language, 804, 841,
871, 929, 950
Similes, 346, 950
Slang, archaic, 871
Suffix, 629, 1115
Synonym, 64, 142, 413, 541, 546,
595, 657, 674, 694, 795, 970
Syntax, 623
Thesaurus, 64, 795
Vocabulary Skills Review, 119, 214–
215, 315, 413, 519, 595, 731,
988–989, 1155, 1219
Word choice, 370
Word endings, 549
Word families, 711, 723
Word map, 294
Word order, inverted, 929
Word origins, 41, 67, 77, 161, 172,
199, 245, 257, 349, 397, 459,
546, 635, 646, 689, 841, 907,
973, 1077, 1107, 1113
Word parts, 563, 579
Word roots, 145, 191, 546, 929
Index of Skills
metaphors and similes, 145, 159,
257, 267, 664, 668
narrative voice, 361, 369
parallel structure, 629
personal essay, 207, 471
persuasion, 533, 579, 587
persuasive letter, 555, 563
poetry, 627
point of view, 233, 241, 349
precise details, 175, 189
question-and-answer
statements, 557
repetition, 646, 651, 699
short sentences, 15
showing and telling, 445, 455
sound and rhythm in persuasion,
535
speech, 539, 541, 545
step-by-step instructions, 1191,
1195
summary, 804, 840, 870, 906,
928, 949
symbols, 373, 381
technical directions, 1211
time shifts, 694, 698
Web sites, 1203, 1209
word associations, 659, 663
word order, 685, 688
writing styles, 133, 231, 329, 443
Three-part structure, 197
Time line, 8
Timed writing, 39, 99, 105, 106, 111,
173, 199, 207, 395, 577, 579,
590, 594, 657, 709, 795, 971,
1133, 1104, 1195
Video script, 65
Word order, 685, 688
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
Informational Skills Review,
115–118, 211–213, 310–314,
409–412, 514–518, 591–594,
728–730, 984–987,
1151–1154, 1216–1218
Literary Skills Review, 112–114,
208–210, 308–309, 406–408,
512–513, 588–590, 726–727,
980–983, 1148–1150
Vocabulary Skills Review, 119,
214–215, 315, 413, 519, 595,
731, 988–989, 1155, 1219
LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR, USAGE,
AND MECHANICS) SKILLS
Active voice, 547
Adjectives, 143
Adverbs, 143
1340 Index of Skills
Apostrophe, 371
Coordinating conjunctions, 173
Dialogue, 347
Diction, 370
Double negatives, 1104
Future tense, 243
Modifiers, 143
Parallel structure, 473
Passive voice, 547
Past tense, 243
Possessive pronoun, 371
Present tense, 243
Pronunciation, 233
Pronouns, 65
ambiguous references, 65
antecedents, 65
contraction, 371
possessive, 371
Run-on sentences, 457
Verbs
active and passive voice, 547
powerful, 39
Verb tenses
future, 243
past, 243
present, 243
READ ON
America Street, 217
April and the Dragon Lady, 217
Animal Farm, 597
Apollo 13, 120
Before We Were Free, 121
Black Boy, 216
Chosen, The, 520
Circuit, The, 316
Cool Salsa, 733
Come Juneteenth, 415
Consumer Reports, 1233
Cupid, 1159
Discovery of Poetry, The, 732
Down the Rabbit Hole, 524
Dune, 1159
East, 414
Endurance, The, 525
Famous Stories for Performance, 990
Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the
All-American Meal, 596
Fire in My Hands, A, 733
Gifts, 120
Girl Sleuth, 317
Giver, The, 415
Graphic Classics, Volume 1: Edgar
Allan Poe, 316
Grayson, 525
Help Wanted, 121
Hitch, 216
Hobbit, The, 121
Inconvenient Truth, An, 596
In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens, 524
Inside the Walls of Troy, 1159
Invisible Cities, 597
I, Robot, 217
Ithaka, 1158
I Am the Darker Brother, 733
Kon-Tiki, 1158
Let It Shine: Stories of Black Women
Freedom Fighters, 525
Letters to a Young Artist, 991
Letters to Juliet, 991
Life of Pi, 216
Little Prince, The, 414
Long Walk to Freedom, 597
Ludie’s Life, 733
Member of the Wedding, The, 520
Merlin’s Tour of the Universe, 596
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A, 990
Miracle Worker, The, 990
Mythology, 1158
My World and Welcome to It, 414
Native Guard, 734
Northern Light, A, 414
Odd Girl Out, 317
Peak, 415
Pearl, The, 1158
Persepolis, 597
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, 525
Seabiscuit: An American Legend, 317
Separate Peace, A, 316
Sweet Summer, 596
Talking to the Sun, 732
To Kill a Mockingbird, 316
Treasury of Inuit Legends, 1159
Tree Grows in Brooklyn, A, 216
True Grit, 415
Wanda Hickey’s Night of Golden
Memories, 991
War of the Worlds, 991
West Side Story, 990
Where the Broken Heart Still Beats, 317
Woodsong, 120
You Come Too, 734
Young Landlords, The, 217
Aaron, Henry, 591
About StoryCorps, 504–505
Advice for a Stegosaurus, 692
Ain’t I a Woman?, 537
Airport, 385–390
Alcyone and Ceyx, from
Metamorphoses, 958–969
Alone, 283
Alvarez, Julia, 56, 57
Ambush, 208–209
American History, 163–170
And Words Can Hurt Forever, from,
312–313
Anderson, Robert, 798
Angelou, Maya, 488–489, 490, 496,
498
Appalachian Trail Journal, 1153
Arms Race, The, 403–404
Armstrong, Jane, 211
Armstrong, Jennifer, 1138
Art Crime Team, 722–723
Atwood, Margaret, 1067
Balaban, John, 644
Ballad of Birmingham, 714–715
Barefoot in the Park, from, 980–983
Bashõ, Matsuo, 635, 636
BBC Online, from, 100
Beard, Jo Ann, 512
Being Prey, 90–95
Bicycle and the Sweet-Shop, The,
477–484
Blessing, A, 654
Booth, Philip, 625, 626
Boy, from, 477–484
Boy Left Behind, The, 1120–1130
Bradbury, Ray, 78, 79, 374, 375
Branch, Taylor, 712, 713
Brenner, Robin, 564, 573
Burgess, Edward, 1154
Caged Bird, from, 494
Caline, 112–114
Calypso, 1041
Calvino, Italo, 406
Capellan, Carlos, 205
Capote, Truman, 176, 177
Car, The, 648–649
Caramelo, from, 1117–1119
Carver, Raymond, 647, 648
Cask of Amontillado, The, 286–292
Cervantes, Lorna Dee, 630, 631
Chambers, Veronica, 460, 461
Chiyo, 635, 636
Chopin, Kate, 112
Chora, Miura, 635, 636
Christmas Memory, A, 177–188
Cinderella’s Stepsisters, 543–544
Cisneros, Sandra, 192, 193, 308,
1116, 1117
Cofer, Judith Ortiz, 162, 163
Collection Is Found to Contain Stolen
Rockwell Art, 726
Collier, Eugenia W., 258, 259
Connell, Richard, 18, 19
Coolidge, Olivia, 1108, 1109
Coping with Cliques, 310–312
Country Scene, 644
Courage That My Mother Had, The,
691
Cub Pilot on the Mississippi, 447–454
Cummings, E. E., 630, 632
Cyrano de Bergerac, from, 760–771
Dahl, Roald, 476, 477
Daily, 650
“Dear Juliet”: Seeking Succor From a
Veteran of Love, 974–977
deLara, Ellen, 312
Dickinson, Emily, 665, 666, 667
Did Animals Sense Tsunami Was
Coming?, 107–110
Dinesen, Isak, 326, 328
Disguises, 43–52
Do-It-Yourself Interview, 506–510
Ebert, Roger, 712, 716
Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and NeverEnding Remembrance, from,
298
Eggers, Dave, 200
Einstein, Albert, 398, 399, 401, 403
Einstein on Peace, from, 398, 403, 404
Enrique’s Journey, from, 1120–1130
Espada, Martín, 670, 671
Extranjera Legal, 707
Fame is a fickle food, 667
Fenris Wolf, The, 1109–1111
Fifteen, 672
Fire and Ice, 662
First Lesson, 625
Fitzgerald, Robert, 1037
Foer, Joshua, 583
Fog, 661
For Me, It Was a Dramatic Day,
985–986
4 Little Girls, 716–717
Francia, Luis H., 675, 677
Friedman, Ceil, 978
Friedman, Lise, 978
Frog Prince, The, 777–793
Frost, Robert, 384, 392, 639, 640,
660, 662
Garbarino, James, 312
Geraldo No Last Name, 308
Gift, The, 696
Gift of the Magi, The, 363–368
Giovanni, Nikki, 695, 697
Girl Who Loved the Sky, The, 726
Glorious Food? English Schoolchildren
Think Not, 410–411
Golden Kite, the Silver Wind, The,
375–380
Goodheart, Jessica, 690, 692
Grandfather, The, 469–470
Graphic Novels 101: FAQ, 573–575
Graves, Robert, 1018, 1022
Great Escape, The, 100–104
Haiku, 636
Happy Man’s Shirt, The, 406–407
Harrison Bergeron, 69–74
Hayden, Robert, 192, 195
Hemingway, Ernest, 130, 132
Henry, O., 362, 363
History Behind the Ballad, The, 713
Homeless, 588–589
Homer, 1036, 1037
“Hope” is the thing with feathers, 666
How to Eat a Guava, 440–442
Hô Xuân Hu’o’ng, 643, 644
Hooker, Brian, 760
Hughes, Langston, 136, 137, 192,
194
Hurricanes, 514–517
Hurst, James, 332, 333
Ideas and Opinions, from, 401–402
I Got It: Mentoring Isn’t for the Mentor,
211–212
I Hear America Singing, 702–703
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings,
from, 490–494
Indian’s Views on Indian Affairs, An,
from, 530–532
Initiation, 247–254
in Just-, 632
Interlopers, The, 235–240
Internment, 676
Internment History, 730–731
Interview with Dave Eggers, An,
200–204
In the Current, 512
In the Family, 226–230
Issa, Kobayashi, 635, 636
I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, 687
Jackie Robinson, 591–593
Joseph (Chief ), 530, 532
Index of Authors and Titles 1341
Index of Authors and Titles
INDEX OF AUTHORS AND TITLES
Index of Authors and TItles
Kaavya Viswanathan: Unconscious
Copycat or Plagiarist?,
580–582
Kaayva Syndrome, 583–586
Kaldas, Pauline, 384, 385
Kennedy’s Assassination, 984–985
Kono, Juliet S., 675, 676
Kwok, Jean Fong, 42, 43
LeDuff, Charlie, 115
Lee, Li-Young, 695, 696
Legal Alien, 707
Le Guin, Ursula K., 270, 271
Leonhardt, David, 115
Letters to Juliet, from, 978
Letter to John Allan, 280–281
Letter to President Roosevelt,
399–400
Liberty, 57–62
Llano, María, Elena, 226, 230
Look Who’s in the School Kitchen,
Dishing Out Advice, 409–410
Lost at Sea: The Story of Ceyx and
Alcyone, 955–957
Lyall, Sarah, 409, 410
Lyness, D’Arcy, 310
Mamet, David, 776, 777
Marigolds, 259–266
Marshall, Paule, 146, 147
Maupassant, Guy de, 350, 351
McCloud, Scott, 564, 565
Metamorphoses, from, 958–969
Mexico Next Right, 1117–1119
Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 690, 691
Mora, Pat, 706, 707
Morrison, Toni, 542, 543
Most Dangerous Game, The, 19–36
Mother to Son, 194
My Father’s Song, 624
Nankani, Sandhya, 580
National Geographic News, from,107
National Weather Service, 518
Nazario, Sonia, 1116, 1120
Necklace, The, 351–358
New Directions, 496–498
New York Times, The, from, 302–305
New York Times Upfront, from, 115
Next Green Revolution, The, 551–554
NOVA Online, 1141
Nye, Naomi Shihab, 647, 650
O’Brien, Tim, 208
1342 Index of Authors and Titles
Odyssey, The, from, 1036–1101
Part One, 1037–1074
Part Two, 1078–1101
O’Flaherty, Liam, 10, 14
Old Man at the Bridge, 130–132
Once by the Pacific, 640
On the Abolition of the Threat of War,
401–402
Open Boat Journey: The First Ten
Days, The, 1136–1140
Ortiz, Simon J., 624, 626
Osborne, Mary Pope, 954, 955
Papa Who Wakes Up Tired in the
Dark, 193
Paris and Queen Helen, 1018–1022
Peter and Rosa, 326–327
Plath, Sylvia, 246, 247
Plumwood, Val, 78, 90
Poe, Edgar Allan, 278–279, 280, 283,
286
Poe’s Death Is Rewritten as Case of
Rabies, Not Telltale Alcohol,
302–305
Poe’s Final Days, 298–301
Possum Crossing, 697
Presso, Juan T., 1212
Quindlen, Anna, 588
Randall, Dudley, 712, 714
Road Not Taken, The, 392
Romeo and Juliet, The Tragedy of,
807–950
Ross, Gayle, 1148
Rostand, Edmond, 760, 772
Saki, 234, 235
Salinger, Pierre, 985
Sanctuary, 677
Sandburg, Carl, 660, 661
Santiago, Esmeralda, 440, 442
Satrapi, Marjane, 558, 559
Scarlet Ibis, The, 333–344
Secret Latina, The, 461–464
Setting the Record Straight, 565–572
Sevareid, Eric, 984
Shackleton, Alexandra, 1141
Shakespeare, William, 798–799
Shipwreck at the Bottom of the World,
from, 1136–1140
Silverman, Kenneth, 298
Simon, Neil, 980
Siren Song, 1067
Smith, Dinitia, 974
Smith, Patricia, 115
Sniper, The, 10–14
Song of Myself, Number 32, from, 701
Soto, Gary, 468, 469
Sound of Thunder, A, 79–88
Stafford, William, 670, 672
Starfish, 631
Steffen, Alex Nikolai, 550, 551
StoryCorps, 504, 506
Strawberries, 1148–1149
Teaching Chess, and Life, 205–206
Tending Sir Ernest’s Legacy: An
Interview with Alexandra
Shackleton, 1141–1146
Thank You, M’am, 137–140
Those Winter Sundays, 195
Tiburón, 671
To Da-duh, in Memoriam, 147–158
Travis’s Dilemma, 115–117
Truth, Sojourner, 536, 537
Twain, Mark, 446, 447
Vega, Suzanne, 1041
Viereck, George Sylvester, 398
Vonnegut, Kurt, 68, 69
Walker, Alice, 680, 681
Weapons of the Spirit, 398
What Is Wrong with This Document?,
1212–1213
When I Was Puerto Rican, from,
440–442
Where Were You When President
Kennedy Was Shot?, from,
985–986
Whitman, Walt, 700, 701, 702
Why I Wrote Persepolis, 559–561
Wife’s Story, The, 271–274
Woman Work, 498–499
Women, 681
Wordsworth, William, 686, 687
Wright, James, 653, 654
Zimmerman, Mary, 954, 958