Major Events
in African History
A Guide to the Study of the Origins
and Development of the Modern African States
Fr. Jovitus F. Kamara Mwijage
Morogoro 2012
Major Events in African History
Published by SALVATORIANUM
First Edition 2002
Second Revised & Enlarged Edition 2004
Subsequent Reprint with corrections 2012
ISBN 978-9987-645-12-7
Cover design: Bernard Witek

Jordan University College (former Salvatorian Institute of
Philosophy & Theology)
P.O. Box 1878
Morogoro – Tanzania
Tel.: +255 23 2604854
E-mail:
jordanunivcollege@yahoo.com
Web:
www.morogoro.sds.org
facebook.com/jordanmorogoro
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .................................................................................... 3
Forward................................................................................................... 7
Preface..................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements ................................................................................. 9
THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN
AFRICAN STATES .............................................................................. 11
CHAPTER I: Modes of Production and Social Production ................. 11
Modes of Production............................................................................ 11
Primitive Communalism ...................................................................... 11
Transition from Communalism to Feudalism in Pre-Capitalist African
Societies .............................................................................................. 13
Slavery ................................................................................................ 14
Feudalism ............................................................................................ 16
Capitalism ........................................................................................... 18
Socialism ............................................................................................. 20
Features of Pre-Colonial African Societies ........................................... 21
Social-Political Organizations .............................................................. 24
CHAPTER II: State Organization in Pre-Colonial Societies in Africa 27
Introduction ......................................................................................... 27
The Nature of Centralised Societies (Kingdoms and Empires) .............. 27
The Nature of Decentralised Societies .................................................. 28
Centralised States ................................................................................ 30
Centralized Kingdoms – West Africa ................................................... 44
Decentralized States............................................................................. 49
CHAPTER III: Education and Culture ............................................... 53
Culture ................................................................................................ 53
Education ............................................................................................ 53
Literacy in Africa Before 1500............................................................. 55
The General Aim of Education ............................................................. 56
CHAPTER IV: Contact with the Outside World ................................. 59
African Contact with Asia .................................................................... 59
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Major Events in African History
African Contact with Europe ................................................................ 60
Contact after the Sixteenth Century: The Dominance of the Oman
Arabs in East Africa ............................................................................. 63
CHAPTER V: The Long Distance Trade in East Africa ...................... 67
The Participants in This Trade .............................................................. 67
The Main Commodities Included in This Trade .................................... 67
Reasons for the Involvement of Many People of Pre-Colonial
Societies in the L.T.D. .......................................................................... 67
Features of the L.T.D. .......................................................................... 69
The Impact of the L.D.T. ...................................................................... 71
The Role of the Nyamwezi and the Yao in the L.D.T. ........................... 74
CHAPTER VI: Trans-Saharan Trade .................................................. 75
The Meaning of the Trans-Saharan Trade ............................................. 75
Participants in the Trans-Saharan Trade ................................................ 75
The Major Trans-Saharan Trade Routes ................................................ 75
Reasons for the Growth of the Trans-Saharan Trade.............................. 76
Reasons for the Collapse of the Trans-Saharan Trade ............................ 77
Effects of Trans- Saharan Trade............................................................ 79
CHAPTER VII: Mercantilism .............................................................. 83
Characteristics of Mercantilism ............................................................ 83
Triangular Slave Trade ......................................................................... 84
Organization of the Slave Trade............................................................ 86
Impact of the Slave Trade in West Africa.............................................. 87
How European Influence Led to the Underdevelopment of Africa ......... 88
How Africa Contributed to the Development of Capitalism in Europe ... 91
The Abolition of the Slave Trade .......................................................... 93
Why the Abolition of the Slave Trade Was Protracted........................... 98
The Protraction of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in East Africa....... 100
CHAPTER VIII: Agents of Colonialism in Africa.............................. 103
Reasons Why European Penetration into the Interior Was Protracted... 103
The Role of Explorers ........................................................................ 105
Christian Missionaries ........................................................................ 107
The Establishment of the So-Called “Legitimate Trade” in Africa ....... 120
Chartered Companies ......................................................................... 122
CHAPTER IX: The Scramble for and Partition of Africa ................. 129
Background of the Scramble for and Partition of Africa ...................... 129
Reasons behind the Scramble for and the Partition of Africa ............... 132
The Terms of the Agreement of the Berlin Conference (1884-1885).... 143
Major Events in African History
5
The Significance of the Berlin Conference in Regards to the Partition
of Africa ............................................................................................ 143
The Partition Processes in East Africa ................................................ 145
Stages in the Partition of East Africa .................................................. 146
CHAPTER X: Establishment of Colonial Rule in Africa................... 149
Methods Used to Impose Colonial Rule.............................................. 149
African Reaction to the Imposition of Colonial Rule........................... 153
Why Did the Africans Collaborate? .................................................... 154
Reasons for Africans to Stage Resistance ........................................... 157
Why Did African Resistance Fail? ..................................................... 160
Mass Resistance in East Africa........................................................... 164
CHAPTER XI: The Colonial Situation .............................................. 197
The Colonial Administration .............................................................. 197
CHAPTER XII: South Africa............................................................. 249
South Africa at the Epoch of the Minerals Revolution ........................ 249
Impact of the Discovery of Diamonds in South Africa ........................ 250
Apartheid Policy in South Africa........................................................ 259
CHAPTER XIII: Pan-Africanism ...................................................... 263
Definitions of Pan-Africanism............................................................ 263
Development of Pan-Africanism ........................................................ 264
Pan-Africanism in Africa ................................................................... 267
Nationalism ....................................................................................... 268
Unitary Body of Africa ...................................................................... 269
The Importance of Pan-Africanism..................................................... 270
Achievements of Pan-Africanism ....................................................... 270
CHAPTER XIV: Nationalism............................................................. 275
What is African Nationalism? ............................................................ 275
The Process of Decolonisation ........................................................... 275
Nationalism in Tanzania .................................................................... 289
Ghana Nationalism ............................................................................ 301
Nationalism in South Africa ............................................................... 306
Namibia............................................................................................. 313
Mozambique...................................................................................... 316
Zimbabwe ......................................................................................... 318
CHAPTER XV: African Countries after the Independence .............. 323
Problems Facing African States since Independence ........................... 323
CHAPTER XVI: International Organs .............................................. 337
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Major Events in African History
The Organization of African Unity ..................................................... 337
The East African Community ............................................................. 342
The New East African Cooperation .................................................... 346
European Union (EU)......................................................................... 351
CHAPTER XVII: Neo-Colonialism .................................................... 361
International Trade ............................................................................. 361
Foreign Aid........................................................................................ 362
CHAPTER XVIII: Causes of Political Crisis...................................... 369
Uganda .............................................................................................. 369
Civil Crises in Nigeria ........................................................................ 373
The Civil War in Zaire ....................................................................... 377
References............................................................................................ 383
Forward
The purpose of this book is to provide a basic history of Africa. The
author begins by exploring the themes of production, including
feudalism, capitalism, and socialism. He then specifically examines
colonial rule and administration in African states. The formation of
political parties, which provided the impetus for liberation, included the
phenomenon of neo-colonialism. The author concludes with the political
crisis in African countries to date.
This book can be used by students of both O and A levels, as well as
by those in the first year of their university work. It is a useful reference
guide for anyone interested in African history.
S. K. Mugisha
REO
Preface
“Unless the Lord builds the house, its builders labour in vain.”
Psalm 127:1
The main intention of identifying and compiling this educational
material is to meet the needs of history students in O level, advanced
level, and college. Major Events in African History covers most of the
topics treated in paper one of Advanced Level History as given in the
current syllabus issued by the Ministry of Education and Culture.
It is my conviction that the information provided in this book will
satisfy the examination requirements, for it has been developed for this
purpose by an experienced educator who has identified the problems
facing Advanced Level History students. It is my expectation that this
textbook will be handy and worthwhile for teachers and students of
history, both countrywide and beyond. I hope too that this book will
bridge the gap created by the lack of suitable and relevant up-to-date
textbooks in history. A hardworking student who masters these notes
and supplements them with other readings shall succeed in presenting
the enclosed material in a logical manner, which will award him flying
colours.
My dear reader, preparing this cake is first of all risky, tiresome and
challenging. However, I am aware that well-wishers and devout
academicians, especially historians, may provide valuable feedback.
I am open to critique and constructive opinions for the second edition.
Welcome! I wish you the best in academic success. Remember: A toad
does not jump in a broad daylight unless something is behind it. (Chinua
Achebe, Things Fall Apart, p. 20.)
Fr. Jovitus F. Kamara Mwijage
Acknowledgements
Lord God, paving the way for me and granting me everything
necessary, You have made possible the birth of this book, adding it to
the tremendous drops in the academic ocean. Hallowed be Thy Name.
Secondly, in a very special way, I extend my sincere and heartfelt
gratitude to my Bishop, Nestor Timanywa, of the Catholic Diocese of
Bukoba, who supported me both materially and morally, particularly
with his incessant efforts to obtain for me the funds for this project.
Exceptional and esteemed appreciation goes also to Bishop
Desiderius Rwoma of the Catholic Diocese of Singida for his immense
support and encouragement. It was he who told me that becoming an
author of a book is possible, provided that one maintains indefatigable
determination.
Special regards I extend also to the Vicar General of the Bukoba
Catholic Diocese, the Very Reverend Fr. Almachius Rweyongeza,
whose indelible encouragement inspired me profoundly to this height. I
am equally indebted to OPAM (Opera di Promzione
Dellalfabetizzazione nel Mondo) of Rome, Italy, whose financial grant
has spearheaded this work into such a great success. Without it the
whole work would be a fiasco.
Distinguished thanks also extend to the Regional Educational Officer
of Kagera Region, Mr. Salvatory Mugisha, and to his academic officers,
who pleasurably recommended the project to OPAM.
Perpetually unique appreciation go to the Rector and his ViceRector, Fr. Medard Weyemere and Fr. Fulgence Rutatekururwa,
respectively, together with the 1998-2000 teaching staff of Rubya
Seminary, whose multiple support fuelled this work.
I would be failing if I forgot my former teachers of history, namely:
Fr. Simon Rutatekururwa (my First Rector at Rubya Junior Seminary),
Dr. Fr. Pius Rutechura, Fr. Benedict Bigirwamungu, Fr. Potentine
Mutalemwa, Fr. Hubert Rwebangira, and Mr. James Kayamba, who
opened my eyes into the wonders of history. It was they who taught me
to swim in this academic ocean.
Profound appreciation is extended to Fr. Julius Mulokozi, my coteacher in the History Department, whose advice, readiness and
promptness to proofread this work have given it syntactic flavour.
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Major Events in African History
I must also admit that I am intensely indebted to all who advised and
assisted me in this work: Dr. Fr. Melchior Kato, Fr. Marcel Kaberwa, Fr.
J.C. Rweyemamu, Fr. P. Mutungi, Fr. David Kamugisha, Fr. Leonard
Rutaihwa, Fr. Solomon Bandiho, Fr. Longinus Rutagwelera, Fr. Felix
Kamugisha, Fr. Maximillian Mutasingwa, Fr. Edmund Mutalemwa, Fr.
Jasson Kaiza, Fr. Marianus Rutagwelera, Ildephonce Katundu, Fr.
Eladius Mutunzi, Fr. Patrick Tibangayuka, Fr. Respicius Rwelamira,
Frt.Justus Kahwa Mr. Julius Ndyanabo ( Advocate in Dar es salaam),
Mr. Cyriacus Binamungu (Advocate and senior Lecturer at Mzumbe
University), Mr. Andrew Tham, and many others who do not appear in
this list, for it would not be possible. I say thank you all.
Again, kind mention must be given to Frt. Simon Madata, Frt.
Vincent Mpwaji, Frt. Cosmas Temba, Frt. Fabian Chona, and Frt.
Achilles Machumilane of Ntungamo Major Seminary (2001), who did
the initial proofreading of this work.
I owe much thanks to the authors of different books whose materials
and maps provided me with great assistance (they are mentioned in the
Bibliography); and the other history teachers of Rugambwa and Ihungo
secondary schools. Their support is fantastically appreciated.
Numerous thanks extend also to Sokwala Printers, who laboriously
but expertly and patiently moulded and put the work into the initial
form.
Lastly, remarkable thanks are due to my form six students 2000,
especially Gotfridus Mulisa and Justus Muchwampaka, who sacrificed
their time to make the original material legible and others whose zeal in
history increased my confidence and determination.
Fr. Jovitus F. Kamara Mwajiage
THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
MODERN AFRICAN STATES
CHAPTER I: Modes of Production and Social
Production
In this chapter, our main focus will be on the modes of production
and how they developed in Africa. A key person in the analysis of these
modes is Karl Marx. He believed that society was in conflict concerning
production and the equal distribution of goods. For him, where there is
no equality in ownership, either of the means of production or
productive forces or of the surplus production (or both), a change is
brought about by disagreement between the two classes.
Marx maintained that any quantitative change in the mode of
production has a necessary effect on the social relationship between
those who appropriate the major means of production and those who
produce; from this, the Marxist-Leninist theory states “history must
change according to the forces of production.”
In production, conflicts called class struggles develop which he
identified as “dialectical materialism.” For instance, in capitalism, the
petty capitalist and proletariat collide, with the proletariat forming the
anti-thesis and the petty capitalists forming the thesis. The result of the
collision is called the synthesis. For him, the ideal synthesis was
socialism, where there was no inequality or social injustices. Hence, in
this “classless” society, there could be harmonious life.
Modes of Production
In order for a man to survive, he must constantly satisfy his basic
needs: food, shelter and clothing. Fulfilment of these needs requires
forces of production such as human labour, instruments of production,
economic activity, labour productivity, objects of labour, surplus
production, and population. Marx analysed three pre-colonial modes of
production in Africa: primitive communalism, slavery, and feudalism.
Primitive Communalism
Primitive communalism came into existence about two million years
ago and was the first socio-economic mode of production in which
evolution of the society started. It covered the period of Stone, Bronze,
and Iron ages. In the beginning, people were powerless before their
environment. They collected whatever nature gave them for food (e.g.
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Major Events in African History
fruits, grains, roots and insects). The instruments of labour were stones
and sticks. Later stone axe, bow and arrows supplemented the former.
The invention of fire was played a vital role in man’s development; it
helped man to cook food and protected him from cold. With the
invention of bows and arrows, hunting and defence were facilitated.
Characteristics of Primitive Communalism
Low level of production: With crude tools and little knowledge, man
hardly mastered his surroundings. Hence, through production, man
satisfied his basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter. In a word human
existence was generally under the mercy of the environment.
Equality to all members: Communal societies were not stratified
(haves and have-nots). All the able-bodied people worked and produced,
all commodities produced were at the disposal of the community and
were shared equally, for nobody went hungry or lacked other basic
necessities for one’s material existence. Due to food deficiency,
population explosion was limited. The youths too participated in
production, learning at the same time skills from their elders of the
society.
Collective ownership: The members of the community jointly owned
the major means of production, including land, implements, dwellings,
tools and animals. A clan head or leader on behalf of all the kin headed
them. This system promoted good relationship among the members of
the family or community.
Subsistent economy: Due to the low level of development in science
and technology, people produced enough food for their upkeep in dayto-day life. Surplus of produce or food reserves were nowhere in
communal society. People were always vulnerable to natural calamities,
such as hunger and drought.
Absence of specialization: People were obliged to do all the jobs,
including making tools, hunting, looking for food, preparing shelters
and clothes. The division of labour was based on age and sex, men
hunted and collected food while women were responsible to take care of
the young, old men and women, and sick persons at home.
It is in historical record that African communal societies evolved
politically, economically and socially. For instance, in economic field,
gathering and hunting resulted into arable farming and animal
husbandry respectively. In African societies, the first social unit was a
family and when several families joined, they formed a clan and more
two clans constituted a tribe.
Chapter I
13
Transition from Communalism to Feudalism in PreCapitalist African Societies
The African societies were not static. They underwent a
transformation, which was categorically propelled by the influence of
the following factors: the environment, climate and soil fertility, the
growth of population, and the increase of productive forces.
By these factors, some societies experienced quantum changes in the
transition from primitive communalism to feudalism. Thus, by the
nineteenth century, some societies had already embraced feudalism.
However, some societies, including the Khoisan of Kalahari and the
Tindinga of the central Tanzania mainland, retained iron as their chief
metal and maintained their communal mode of production.
Certain tribes were especially favoured by climate and soil fertility.
In West Africa, they included the Mandika and the Yoruba in the forest
and savannah regions; in East Africa, the Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankore,
Toro, Tutsi, Haya, Hutu, and Waha in the interlacustrine regions and
Northeast Tanzania; and in South Africa, the Zulu and Ngoni in the
Drakensberg mountains.
The reliable rainfall and fertile soils allowed the expansion of
agriculture, especially the cultivation of permanent crops (e.g. bananas
in Buganda, which needed continuous attention). The cultivation of
permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements; these were
required in order to ensure maximum production, to cater for the needs
of the members of society, and to generate a surplus.
The advancement of science and technology led through a process of
trial and error to the discovery of iron. This was the turning point that
gave new colour to agricultural production. The tools produced were
sharper and stronger than the older ones. They facilitated agricultural
activities, increasing production. The improvement of tools led to the
expansion of economic activities above and beyond hunting and
gathering. This led to the further growth of surplus production.
The population growth was a condition sine qua non in this
transformation due to the increase of food and standard of living. The
population explosion precipitated a land shortage as people became
increasingly overcrowded in small areas. As the result of this, the value
of the land escalated, for it was not sufficient to check the rapidly
growing population.
The shortage of land and its increase in value also contributed to the
development of productive forces, since they were conditioned to
produce everything in a small area. The shortage of land, coupled with
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Major Events in African History
its increased value of productive forces, threatened the communal mode
of production and ultimately led to feudalism. This transformation was
facilitated by many factors. The transferral of land from communal to
private ownership led to the creation of the classes of land controllers
and the landless within the same community. The organization of labour
was then reorganized in favour of the controllers of land at the expense
of the landless. The landless families worked for the controllers of land
in exchange for a plot of the land to either pay in kind an agreed amount
of produce or to pay by their labour to the land controllers. The landless
were rewarded with protection from the master of the land.
In the same way, the distribution of the products was not equal. The
land controllers appropriated the lion’s share of the products of the nonowners of land. Over a period of time, this fully eroded communal
ownership and led to the creation of classes. The life of the society,
together with the new classes, could not withstand the vibrations of
change, so the rhythm of communalism underwent a full transformation
to a feudal mode of production. Due to the increasing inequality, some
societies became more powerful and conquered others. The result was
prisoners and wars. These required items, including firm tools for
exchange, were produced in order to negotiate with opponents.
Commodity production and the exchange of goods (barter trade) became
the major indicators of the onset of new modes of production.
The rich used their power to rule others. Armies in courts were set up
to suppress the poor and the have-nots. Thus the division of labour,
inequality, and the expansion of innovated changes led to the collapse of
communalism.
Slavery
Slavery was the first class of antagonism in human history, which
was manifested in notorious form of exploitation, suppression and
humiliation. This economic system created the possibilities of some
people live on the sweat of others. The government, individuals, and,
indeed, many administrative powers owned slaves. In most cases, a few
lords or masters became masters others and their labour. Slaves were
coerced to work for their masters; slave owners had a complete grip over
both the means of production and the slaves. Slaves were disowned their
rights as were bought and sold like cattle or killed freely. Slave-owners
forced their slaves to work hard but in turn were provided with the
minimal means of subsistence, just enough to keep them in working
routine, thus they were regarded as mechanical executors of someone
Chapter I
15
else’s will. Besides slave masters never gave any personal material
incentives for his labour. In some parts of the world they were debarred
from marrying. The masters categorised the instruments of labour into
two subdivisions: the living (slaves, horses, and cattle) and the lifeless
(tools, such as hoes and ploughs). The surplus product of the slaves was
distributed in the following ways: a part of it went to the slave-holding
state in the form of taxes for the support of the interest of the ruling
class and the other was presented to the owner of the capital.
Slaves in Africa
Slave labour was employed to build cities and large structures, such
as the Egyptian pyramids. The other work done was to construct dams
and irrigation schemes in Egypt. Slaves mined silver, gold and iron, and
they were used as domestic servants in different ancient states. Slavery
in Africa never existed as an institution, except in Egypt, Muslim
communities, and on the coast of East Africa.
Disintegration of Slavery
The inherent and irreconcilable contradictions within the slave set in
its demise. The class struggle between the toilers and the exploiters
precipitated the crisis and dwarfed its development. It gave birth to
frequent hostilities against slave owners. Then the outcome of this was
the destruction of property and stagnation. As the masters and free
masses did not participate in production and depended on the surplus
produced by slaves, this increased the conflicts between slaves and their
masters, which finally resulted into famine and other social evils.
The slave resistances crippled the economic and military muscles of
the masters. As their military power was weakened, colonial subjugation
and plunder were hampered as major sources of state wealth and
slavery. Finally slavery lost its importance. In Rome, for example, slave
masters allowed slaves to pay money in order to be liberated
The growth of productive forces and the emergence of more
advanced instruments of labour necessitated the change in the mode of
production. For these new implements needed more devoted workmen
rather than slaves who were tired of this system and demanded freedom.
Nevertheless, the setting free of slaves did not guarantee them of
returning them land; instead it created another social problem of jobless
people seeking for employment to sustain their lives. Such opportunity
was found in plantation agriculture whereby one was able to rent a piece
of land to cultivate and pay tribute to the landholder. One could also get
employment in return for low payment. Thus, slavery paved way to
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Major Events in African History
another means of exploitative production, which was known as
feudalism.
Feudalism
Feudalism was the second mode of production principled on the
exploitation of man by his fellow man. It was based on property and
land. The feudal lords controlled the land, which was the principal
source of production. The vassals tilled the land, paid taxes, sometimes
owned their own labour. The feudal lords drew their vassals and serfs
from the peasants and ex-slaves. There merged three systems of feudal
rents:
Labour Rent
Labour rent was also termed as land rent, and had two dimensions,
firstly the peasant worked on his plot to get the necessary product for his
livelihood and then secondly peasant was obliged to work for three days
a week to create surplus for the landlord. To make peasants dutiful in
their masters’ estates the use of coercive measures were employed and
this minimised the peasant hostility.
Rent in Kind
This kind of rent required the peasant to work on his plot only,
producing a substantial part of the product to the landlord for the use of
land. This embraced grain, cattle, poultry, or any other form of produce.
Money Rent
This was the last form of feudal rent that grew in popularity after
money became a major medium of exchange. The peasant paid to the
landlords the surplus product in the form of money or cash. This form of
rent appeared in the period of feudalism’s disintegration and signaled
the gradual development of capitalism.
Features of Feudalism
This system was based on inequality, in which the feudal lords
exploited the peasants through the payment of rents, and other feudal
structures such as handcraft production and commercial dealings. Apart
from, those sources mentioned above, both in Europe and Asia, land
predominated other structures and was owned privately by the feudal
lords. In African kingdoms, such as Uganda kingdom and in some forest
states of West Africa, the major means of production centred on either
land or livestock, especially cattle or crops. Peasants could use the land
freely, but they were required to pay rent. The peasants were joined to
Chapter I
17
the feudal lords by laws. That is why the peasant hardly deserted his plot
freely, but could only do so with the consent of the feudal lord.
Feudalism grew in practice with the onset of new developments,
including the iron plough and other tools, the stabilization of agriculture
and market gardening, and later the agrarian revolution.
Feudal Mode of Production among African Societies
The feudal mode of production in African societies existed in
different forms; its nature depended on the place in which it was
exercised. In the Interlacustrine area, the power of the ruler depended on
the ownership and the control of land. This system was called
Nyarubanja in Karagwe and Buhaya. In Buganda, it was known as
Nvunjo and Busulo. Obugabire developed between the Tutsi and Hutu
in Rwanda, Burundi, and Buha. The feudal relationship in these regions
revolved around cattle ownership. The Tutsi could transfer some of their
cattle to Hutu. The donor thus became the virtually the master
(SEBUJA) of the recipients (BAGABIRE). The Omugabile and his
family were obliged to perform duties for the master, like cultivating
and governing the property of the master.
UMWINYI was another type of feudalism along the coast of East
Africa. In this case, the Wamwinyi, who controlled land, tenants and
serfs, monopolized political and economic power. The tenants and serfs
lived on the land of the feudal lords in return for labour, services, and
tribute. The Wamwinyi were political and religious leaders.
In Zanzibar, the relationship of Umwinyi was spurred on by racism
and religion. The society was divided into Arab, Shiraz, and Africans, in
decreasing order of autonomy. The religion of Islam divided people into
different categories: heathen (Washenzi) and civilized Waungwana,
Arab, Shiraz, and Muslim Africans.
The Wanyamwezi and Wasukuma formed another form of
feudalism. The power of the leader was based on the control of the
producers themselves. The ability to control and mobilize labour was
ideologically based: the Mtemi led the people to new land (Kutema),
wherever it was available. In Ethiopia, tenants rented houses and were
subject to their landlords. Others became labourers in the construction of
magnificent palaces and public works.
Among the Zulu, feudalism depended on agriculture and pastoralism.
People acquired land and cattle in exchange for the agreement that they
would remain loyal to the king and work for him.
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Major Events in African History
In Egypt, feudalism developed in conjunction with the building of
the pyramids and in the serving of the Pharaoh, while in West Africa
feudalism was associated with trade and mining activities.
Capitalism
Capitalism (or free enterprise or modified free enterprise) is defined
as a political and socio-economic system based on private property and
private profit. In this system, individuals and companies own and direct
most of the resources used to produce goods and services. Such
resources include land and other natural resources, labour, and capital.
This capital can include factories, equipment, and money used in
business activities.
Capitalism divides a society into two main groups: the capitalists and
the proletariat. The former own the means of production and the latter
are the waged earners and toilers. They are deprived of their means of
production and subsistence. Hence, they sell their labour as waged
workers.
In capitalism, private ownership is highly respected and sacrosanct.
Labour, the products of labour and land become commodities. (A
commodity is anything produced for market exchange.) The worker sells
his labour to capitalists; the latter pays the workers a wage. With the
wage, the worker buys her/his means of subsistence: therefore, the
relation of production between the workers and the capitalists is
commodity based.
Capitalism stresses private economic choices. People are free to
decide how they will earn and spend their income. Companies may
choose which goods and services to produce and how much to charge
for them. They also compete with one another to sell products. Major
economies that are based on capitalism include The United Kingdom,
The United States of America, Germany, and Japan.
How Capitalism Works
Five factors comprise the major economic influences in a capitalistic
society. These include individuals, businessmen, and the law of supply
and demand, trade unions, and the government.
Individuals influence the economy as consumers, workers, and
investors. For instance, if the consumers show by their purchases that
they prefer small cars to large cars, dealers will order more small cars
and fewer large ones
Businessmen decide what to produce and where to conduct their
activities. To succeed, of business must sell enough of its products at a
Chapter I
19
price high enough to yield a profit and enable the business to survive.
Hence, business plays a large role in determining how fast a capitalist
economy grows.
The market forces prices to fall when supply exceeds demand and
rise when demands exceed supply. Income in a capitalist economy
depends chiefly on supply and demand for the skills that the society
values most. People who have valuable skills that are in scarce supply
can attract high income.
Trade unions also influence wages in many capitalist countries.
Trade unions bargain with employers to establish wages scales and
working conditions acceptable to their members.
Some governments have established minimum wages for workers.
Government agencies also enforce safety standards. Governments in
capitalist nations allow individuals to use property and companies to set
wages, issue money, supervise public utilities, and enforce business
contracts. Governments also pass laws to protect competition and forbid
unfair business.
Problems of Capitalism
Economic instability. Capitalist economies experience ups and
downs. Economic expansion leads to prosperity, but inflation causes
money to lose its value. Due to inflation, capitalist nations often suffer
business slumps accompanied by joblessness.
Inequalities in the distribution of wealth. Some people in capitalist
countries can afford many luxuries. Others, however, lack adequate
food, housing, and other necessities. This unequal distribution of wealth
results largely from capitalism’s emphasis on individual economic
freedom.
Neglect of public interest: Most companies in capitalist countries try
to earn as much profit as they can. Sometimes, however, government
actions are necessary to ensure that the profit motive work in the public
interest (e.g. the creation of low-cost housing and community health
facilities). Without government regulations, many industries might
suffer bankruptcy.
Factors Influencing the Rise of Capitalism
Crude and merciless exploitation of proletariats by capitalists as they
controlled the means of production and money.
Masses of people were deprived of the means of production that was
their subsistence. Though they were apparently free as members of the
20
Major Events in African History
proletariat, they were required to sell their labour to the masters owning
the means of production.
Capitalism passed through two stages: (A) pre- monopoly capitalism;
and (B) monopoly capitalism or imperialism. (Both have the same
economic basis: i.e. private ownership of the means of production and
the exploitation of waged labour.)
(A) Pre-monopoly capitalism
The development of primitive and industrial resulted into the premonopoly capitalism. Primitive accumulation of capital, both within
Europe and abroad promoted primitive accumulation, which in turn led
to the growth of mercantilism. Industrial capitalism evolved from the
womb of mercantilism. The former gave rise of manufacturing of goods
in industries. The capitalist exploited the workers in various ways
including low wages, long workdays, and child and female labour. Such
tactics helped the capitalists to accumulate a lot of wealth.
(B) Monopoly capitalism
Monopoly capitalism is comprised of an association of capitalists.
They control the production and sales of most of the particular goods.
There may be different forms of monopoly capitalism (such as cartel),
but the main interest is maximization of profit.
Features of Capitalism
The monopolies controlled the economies, political life, and
governments of their countries. Larger monopolies divided the
remaining part of the world and exerted their sphere of influence.
The larger monopolies usually derived power from their home
governments in their endeavor to seize foreign lands. (This led to the
growth of monopoly imperialism.)
For the development of capitalism, see the section pertaining to the
partition of Africa.
Socialism
Socialism aims at setting up a society, which is classless. In this
system, the peasants and workers (working class) possess the means of
production. Socialism is attained by proletarian revolution. Once
achieved, everybody is obliged to contribute and work for the good of
the society. Hence, in this society there is elimination of national
oppression, no exploitation of man by man and defence of the gains of
socialism against encroachments by external and internal enemies. On
the other hand socialism seeks to raise the working people’s living