Mauritius Office of the United Nations Resident Coordinator Mauritius May 2000 List of Abbreviations ACP BOT CBI CEDAW African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries associated with the EC. Build, Operate, Transfer Cross Border Initiative Countries on the elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women CHA Central Housing Authority COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern African States CPE Certificate of Primary Education CRC Child Right Convention CSO Central Statistical Office DBM Development Bank of Mauritius EIP Environmental Investment Programme EPZ Export Processing Zone FDI Foreign Direct Inve stment GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDFCF Gross Domestic Fixed Capital Formation GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GEM Gender Empowerment Index GDI Gender Development Index HDI Human Development Index ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund IRA Industrial Relations Act IMO International Maritime Organization IOR Indian Ocean Rim IOR-ARC Indian Ocean Rim - Association of Regional Coorperation IVTB Industrial and Vocational Training Board MBC Mauritius Broadcasting Corperation MEPD Ministry of Economic Planning and Development MFPA Mauritius Family Planning Association MEPZA Mauritius Export Processing Zone Authority MESR Ministry of Education and Scientific Research MHC Mauritius Housing Corperation MNC Multi National Company MOE Ministry of Environment, Human Resource, Development and Employment MOH Ministry of Health and Quality of Life MRC Mauritius Research Council MSB Mauritius Standards Bureau MWFWCD Ministry of Women, Family Welfare and Child Development NCC National Children Council NCD Non Communicable Disease NEC National Environment Commission NEAP NGAP NGO NHDC NLTPS PEL PGA POA ROEA SADC SIDS SME SMIDO UNDCP VAT WTO National Environment Action Programme National Gender Action Plan Non Governmental Organisation National Housing Development Company National Long Term Perspective Study Plan Epargne Logement Public Gathering Act Public Order Act Regional Office for East Africa Southern African Development Coorperation Small Island Development States Small and Medium Enterprise Small and Medium Industry Development Organisation United Nations Drug Control Programme Value Added Tax World Trade Organisation COMMON COUNTRY ASSESSMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................1 INTRODUCTION: SETTING A GLOBAL AGENDA FOR CHANGE ....................................................................................... ...............................12 1.0 THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH............................. 16 1.1 Evolution in Policy Approaches .............................................................................. 16 1.2 International Human Rights Instruments ................................................................. 16 1.2.1 The Constitution of Mauritius.......................................................................... 17 1.2.2 International Treaty Obligations ...................................................................... 18 1.2.3 Government Response to Global Conferences ................................................ 19 1.2.4 Amendments to the 1968 Constitution ............................................................ 20 1.2.5 Other Changes in Legislation Related to Human Rights Issues ...................... 21 1.2.6 Rights of Workers ............................................................................................ 22 1.3 Key issues for future intervention............................................................................ 22 2.0 THE ECONOMY.......................................................................... 24 2.1 General Overview................................................................................................... 24 2.2 Macroeconomic Trends............................................................................................ 25 2.2.1 Annual growth and unemployment.................................................................. 25 2.2.2 Savings and investment.................................................................................... 25 2.2.3 Current account deficits and foreign exchange reserves.................................. 26 2.2.4 Government budgetary balance and inflation rate ........................................... 27 2.2.5 Traditional Economic sectors........................................................................... 27 2.2.6 Emerging Service Sector: Financial and Business Services ............................ 28 2.2.7 Development of Free Port Activities ............................................................... 28 2.3 Policy Options and Performance ............................................................................. 28 2.3.1 Mono-Crop Economy and Import Substitution Strategy................................. 29 2.3.2 Sugar Boom and Budgetary Expansion ........................................................... 29 2.3.3 Structural Adjustme nt and Fiscal Austerity..................................................... 29 2.3.4 FDI Led Export Promoting Strategy................................................................ 30 2.3.5 Social Development ......................................................................................... 30 2.4 Development Constraints ....................................................................................... 31 2.4.1 The Characteristics of the Mauritian Economy as a SIDS .............................. 31 2.4.2 Declining Agriculture ...................................................................................... 32 2.4.3 Manufacturing Sector: Structural Constraints ................................................. 33 2.4.4 Tourism sector.................................................................................................. 34 2.4.5 Financial Services, Off-Shore Banking and Information Technology ............ 35 2.5 Emerging Challenges and Tasks Ahead .................................................................. 35 2.5.1 Maintaining Macroeconomic Stability ........................................................... 35 2.5.2 Responding to Globalisation............................................................................ 35 2.5.3 Expanding the Economic Space ....................................................................... 36 2.5.4 Strengthening Regional Integration Efforts ..................................................... 36 2.5.5 Trade in Services and IT .................................................................................. 37 2.5.6 Revitalising the EPZ Sector ............................................................................. 37 2.5.7 Developing Enterprise through SMEs ............................................................. 38 2.5.8 Credit facilities ................................................................................................. 38 2.5.9 Mixing grant with credit .................................................................................. 39 2.5.10 Upgrading Technical Skills............................................................................ 39 2.5.11 Raising Human Capability............................................................................. 40 2.6 Donor Interventions ................................................................................................. 40 2.6.1 Past and current interventions .......................................................................... 40 2.7 Potential Areas for the UN -System Involvement .................................................... 41 3.0 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 43 3.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 43 3.1.1 World Social Summit ....................................................................................... 43 3.1.2 Employment ..................................................................................................... 43 3.1.3 Housing ............................................................................................................ 44 3.1.4 Cultural Diversity............................................................................................. 44 3.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments……41 3.2.1 Social Development Strategies ........................................................................ 44 3.2.2 Housing Strategies ........................................................................................... 45 3.2.3 Employment and the rights of workers............................................................ 46 3.3 Government and International Organisation Interventions...................................... 46 3.3.1 Poverty Alleviation Programmes ..................................................................... 46 3.3.2 Housing Programmes ....................................................................................... 47 3.3.3 Disabilities ....................................................................................................... 47 3.3.4 The Ilois Community ....................................................................................... 48 3.3.5 The Elderly....................................................................................................... 48 3.3.6 Drug Control ................................................................................................... 48 3.3.7 Managing Cultural Diversity .......................................................................... 50 3.4 Obstacles to Successful Formulation and Implementation of Strategies and Policies............................................................................................................................48 3.4.1 Addressing the Problems of Poverty and Exclusion........................................ 51 3.4.2 Housing Problems ........................................................................................... 52 3.5 Analysis of Key Issues in Social Development ....................................................... 52 3.5.1 Poverty and Social Inequalities........................................................................ 52 3.5.2 Deprivation and Social Unrest ........................................................................ 55 3.5.3 Discrimination in the Employment Market .................................................... 57 3.5.4 Gender and Poverty.......................................................................................... 57 3.6 Key Areas of Possible Intervention ........................................................................ 58 4.0 CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS............................................... 60 4.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 60 4.2 Government Strategies and Policies ........................................................................ 60 4.2.1 Human Rights Provisions in the Constitution.................................................. 60 4.2.2 Reform of the Judiciary.................................................................................... 61 4.2.3 Local Government Reforms ............................................................................. 62 4.3 Government Interventions ........................................................................................ 62 4.3.1 Legal Amendments to consolidate Good Governance .................................... 62 4.3.2 Equal Opportunities Act .................................................................................. 63 4.3.3 Reform of Electoral Procedures ....................................................................... 63 4.3.4 Public Security Bill .......................................................................................... 63 4.4 Obstacles to Implementation of Strategies and Policies .......................................... 64 4.5 Critical Development Gaps...................................................................................... 65 4.5.1 Parliamentary Democracy................................................................................ 65 4.5.2 Local Government ............................................................................................ 66 4.5.3 The Press.......................................................................................................... 67 4.5.4 The Liberalisation of Broadcasting Services ................................................... 67 4.5.5 Public Administration...................................................................................... 67 4.5.6 Law and Order ................................................................................................. 68 4.5.7 The Judiciary.................................................................................................... 69 4.6 Key Issues to be Addressed ..................................................................................... 70 5.0 HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH.... 71 5.1 Global Conferences................................................................................................. 71 5.1.1 Rights versus Needs Approach in Health ........................................................ 72 5.2 General Health Policies and Strategies .................................................................... 72 5.2.1 Reproductive Health Policies........................................................................... 73 5.3 Obstacles, underlying Causalities and Development Gaps in the Health sector ..... 73 5.3.1 Main Health Indicators................................................................................... 73 5.3.2 Recent Population Trends ............................................................................... 74 5.3.3 Acceptors and Users of Family Planning........................................................ 74 5.3.4 Teenage Pregnancy......................................................................................... 75 5.3.5 Complication at child birth ............................................................................ 75 5.3.6 Reproductive Tract Infections ......................................................................... 75 5.3.7 STDs and HIV/AIDS ..................................................................................... 76 5.3.8 Newly emerging Health issues......................................................................... 77 5.4 New challenges in Reproductive Health and Population......................................... 77 5.5 Key areas to be addressed in Health, Reproductive Health and Population............ 79 6.0 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN .................................................. 80 6.1 International Instruments ........................................................................................ 80 6.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments ....... 80 6.3 Interventions of Government, UN and other partners ........................................... 81 6.3.1 Domestic Violence ........................................................................................... 81 6.3.2 Gender Mainstreaming..................................................................................... 81 6.3.3 Women Entrepreneurship and Poverty ............................................................ 81 6.3.4 The Girl Child .................................................................................................. 82 6.3.5 Women’s Health.............................................................................................. 82 6.3.6 Gender and the Law ......................................................................................... 82 6.3.7 Gender and the Media...................................................................................... 83 6.3.8 Women’s Political Participation ...................................................................... 83 6.4 Obstacles for Successful Formulation or Implementation of Strategies/Policies.... 83 6.5 Analysis of Gender Issues, Causalities and Development Gaps ............................. 84 6.5.1 Gender Issues in the Economy......................................................................... 84 6.5.2 Gender Inequality in Decision-Making ........................................................... 86 6.5.3 Women and Health Issues................................................................................ 87 6.5.4 Reproductive Health and Abortion.................................................................. 88 6.5.5 Gender-based Violence .................................................................................... 89 6.5.6 Feminisation of Poverty................................................................................... 89 6.5.7 Gender Disparities in Education...................................................................... 90 6.6 Key gender Development Issues.............................................................................. 90 7.0 CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT .............................................. 92 7.1 International Instruments ......................................................................................... 92 7.2 Government Strategies and Policies responding to International Instruments ........ 92 7.3 Interventions made by Government, UN and other Partners……………………… 7.3.1 Early Childhood ............................................................................................... 93 7.3.2 Abuse ............................................................................................................... 94 7.3.3 Adolescence ..................................................................................................... 95 7.4 Obstacles for successful formulation or implementation of strategies and policies 7.4.1 Primary education and CPE............................................................................. 95 7.4.2 Abuse ............................................................................................................... 96 7.4.3 Disabilities ....................................................................................................... 96 7.4.4 Adolescent reproductive health........................................................................ 97 7.5 Analysis of Child Rights and Development Gaps....................................................94 7.5.1 Juvenile justice ................................................................................................. 98 7.5.2 Participation..................................................................................................... 98 7.5.3 Health............................................................................................................... 99 7.6 Key child rights Development Issues ...................................................................... 99 8.0 EDUCATION ............................................................................... 100 8.1 Global Conferences................................................................................................ 100 8.2 Government Policies and Strategies ...................................................................... 101 8.3 Government and International Organisation Intervention..................................... 101 8.4 Obstacles and Constraints to successful implementation of policies and strategies ...................................................................................................................................... 103 8.5 Underlying Causes and Development Gaps ......................................................... 103 8.5.1 The Primary Level ........................................................................................ 103 8.5.2 Access to secondary school........................................................................... 104 8.5.3 The Secondary Level ..................................................................................... 106 8.5.4 Technical and Vocational education............................................................. 106 8.5.5 Tertiary Level Education ............................................................................... 107 8.5.6 Adult education and life long learning.......................................................... 109 8.6 Key Education Issues for Future intervention ...................................................... 109 9.0 ENVIRONMENT......................................................................... 111 9.1 International Instruments ....................................................................................... 111 9.2 Government Strategies and policies ....................................................................... 111 9.3 Action Plans following Global Conferences.......................................................... 113 9.4 Constraints to implementation of strategies and policies adhering to international instruments................................................................................................................... 114 9.5 In depth analysis underlying causalities and identification of key issues.............. 114 9.5.1 Waste Water Disposal.................................................................................... 115 9.5.2 Solid Waste Disposal ..................................................................................... 116 9.5.3 Transport and Energy..................................................................................... 116 9.5.4 The island of Rodrigues ................................................................................ 117 9.6 Areas of possible intervention in Environment ..................................................... 117 9.7 International Instruments for the Maritime and Fisheries Sector .......................... 118 9.8 Government and UN Intervention ......................................................................... 119 9.9 Areas of intervention in the Maritime and Fisheries sector................................... 119 10.0 FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION .................................... 121 10.1 International Instruments .................................................................................... 121 10.2 Government Strategies and Policies .................................................................... 121 10.2.1 Agricultural Policies .................................................................................... 121 10.2.2 Incentives to increase agricultural production............................................. 123 10.3 Food Production................................................................................................... 124 10.3.1 Food Production for Domestic Consumption and Imports ......................... 124 10.3.2 The Livestock Sector ................................................................................... 124 10.3.3 The Fisheries Sector..................................................................................... 125 10.4 Major Constraints and development gaps......................................................... 126 10.4.1 Agricultural self-sufficiency........................................................................ 126 10.4.2 Employment generation in agriculture......................................................... 127 10.4.3 Health and Safe Nutrition Issues .................................................................. 127 10.4.4 Occasional Food Shortage Problems ........................................................... 128 10.4.5 Women in agricultural activities .................................................................. 128 10.5 Key issues to be addressed in Food Security and Nutrition................................. 129 11.0 CONCLUSION: KEY ISSUES AND STRATEGIC FOCUS FOR THE UN SYSTEM...................................................................................129 REFERENCES ANNEX 1: Methodology 2: Contextual and Conference Indicators 3: Terms of Reference TABLES Table 1: Key Macroeconomic Indicators Table 2: Selected Social Welfare Indicators Table 3: Incidence of Poverty in Mauritius Table 4: Incidence of Syphilis and Gonorrhoea 1995-1999. Table 5: Fisheries Statistics 1992-1996 Table 6: Value of Fish and Fish Preparations Executive Summary The Common Country Assessment (CCA) is a country-based process for reviewing and analysing the national development situation and for identifying key issues for advocacy, policy dialogue. As part of the strive towards harmonisation of the programme cycles of the individual organisations within the Joint Consultative Group on Policy (JCGP), the United Nations System has decided to compile a Common Country Assessment, hereafter referred to as CCA. The CCA serves as the stepping stone for the preparation of the UNDAF (United Nations Development Assistance Framework).. In addition, the CCA provides input to individual mid-review of the involved UN organisations. The aim of the exercise is to provide a status of national development based on the compilation and review of a common set of indicators reflecting the priorities and mandates of the United Nations system, linked to internationally agreed goals set by the various world conferences held in the 1990s. The process is participatory, dynamic and continuous; it ensures learning from prior experience, brings in the UN system organization’s combined knowledge, know-how and new ideas, advocates new approaches, reaches new and revised consensus and updates the CCA document accordingly. (From CCA/UNDAF Guidelines, UN April 1999) 1. THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH Within the development paradigm, there has been a gradual shift in policy approach from a “basic needs” approach to a “human rights based” approach which highlights issues related to children, women, the socially excluded, and vulnerable groups in society. The human rights based approach is an integrated approach which covers not only the economic, social and cultural rights of individuals, but also their political and civil rights. UN agencies in Mauritius have been emphasising this policy shift in their work with the government, NGOs, and CBOs. However, there is still considerable work to be done to ensure that this approach is widely understood and applied to social and economic development issues in Mauritius. There is also a need to push for further changes in the legal system which at this time does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights found in the Universal Declaration, the European Convention, and the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Government of Mauritius has voluntarily undertaken a legal obligation to ensure that international human rights standards are applied in national law and practice by becoming party to various treaties relevant to human rights. Upholding the government to its obligations requires advocacy work and close monitoring. Another key issue is the need for human rights education. This is already being performed by some NGOs however, they need to be given more support in terms of funding and training possibilities. Also, human rights 1 education should be integrated in the school curriculum at an early stage. Lastly, the Human Rights Commission, which the government has agreed to set up should be established as soon as possible. 2. THE ECONOMY The economy of Mauritius has shifted from being a mono-crop agricultural economy to one where other major sectors, mainly the industrial, tourism and the services provide a substantial contribution. The preferential export markets for sugar and textiles, mainly through the sugar protocol and the Lome Convention are under constant pressure. At the same time, globalisation of the economy through the WTO will lead to the removal of trade barriers. Mauritius will have to prepare itself to face fierce competition on the world market through increased productivity and enhanced quality products. New areas of growth such as the financial services, particularly in the offshore sector and the free-port are also expected to become growing sectors of the economy in the years to come. The transition from a low wage labour intensive economy to high-tech capital production processes will not be a smooth one and will require massive and speedy investment in the appropriate training and education sectors. Even though Mauritius has witnessed a large -scale economic transformation, socio-economic disparities have widened. Public expenditure on education and health, as a percentage of government budget, has not changed significantly to have an appreciable impact on citizen’s access to these services. The increase in unemployment in recent years accompanied by inflation has contributed to a loss of purchasing power and in particular with respect to women as indicated by unemployment trends. In 1999, the unemployment rate was 11.3% for female workers and 4.0% for male workers compared to 2.2% for females and 3.0% for males in 1991. The RDI (Relative Development Index) shows some wide regional disparities in the levels of development. Geographical dispersal of industrial location and tourism activities has spread out employment benefits widely but there are still pockets of deprivation which have not benefited. Key areas for development intervention: i) Improving the quality of decision making and governance ii) Diversifying the dynamic economic base iii) Upgrading the skills of labour through technical training institutions iv) Expanding the human capability v) Developing and maintaining infrastructure vi) Preserving environmental resources for international tourism 2 3. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Mauritius has a long history of welfare services which dates back to the 1950s. It is noteworthy that Mauritius has been able to retain most of its social services and safety nets for vulnerable groups despite the constraints of the structural adjustment programme of the 1980s. Although this has generally prevented grinding poverty in Mauritius, there are deep-rooted reasons why some people from deprived or marginalised groups do not make maximum use of services and facilities in the same way that other groups have. Also, women suffer disproportionately from poverty and exclusion in deprived areas, and this can lead to severe mental and physical stress and even often to commercial sexual activities. The ageing population will increase pressure on medical services as well as on the social security system. Deprivation in the form of poverty and social exclusion has been one of the most disturbing side effects of rapid economic growth during the 80s and early 90s with specific localities and groups in society suffering disproportionately. This problem came to the forefront with social disturbances that broke out in several deprived housing estates in February 1999 following the death of a popular singer while in police detention. These social disturbances were unexpected and brought up issues such as socio-economic inequalities and social exclusion among inhabitants of the ‘cites ouvrieres’. This incident also brought up the need to effectively manage cultural diversity while promoting equality of opportunity among the different socio-economic and cultural groups. Since then there have been other cases of social tension and unrest provoked by an array of different and unconnected incidents, not necessarily in deprived areas, such as incidents following road accidents in both rural and urban areas, the burning down of a gaming house leading to the death of 7 persons, including an unborn child. It should be noted that persons of all ethnic groups and walks of life have been involved in these other incidents and it would be wrong to relate all these seemingly unconnected events under the single problem of social exclusion in deprived areas. The role and weight of socio-economic deprivation in the February 1999 events continue to be a subject of debate and controversy. It is important that these incidents be analysed and monitored very closely in order to identify their deep underlying causes. These events have however triggered very deep concern at all levels, government, the Catholic Church, the private sector and civil society on issues of deprivation in certain regions which could easily become breeding grounds for social unrest. Equality of access to education and employment is one of the major potential root causes of tension in a country where there has been up to now, a fairly strong level of ethnic concentration in some sectors of the employment market. Public and private sector jobs and certain advanced technology opportunities require a high level of qualifications and training, and therefore exclude large numbers and groups of people. There are also problems of unemployment surfacing once again and issues of workers rights which need to be resolved. 3 The quality of housing has greatly improved however, the demand for housing is growing at a fast rate. There have been until the 1980s, social housing schemes to cater for the needs of low income groups either by offering very soft loans for the construction of houses to people who had land or for the construction of low cost housing estates on minimal rental basis. The structural adjustment period of the 1980s witnessed a shift away from this policy to cost recovery and affordability principles. The problem of squatters has become more acute in the last few years and reflects the growing difficulties of low- income households. The issue of ethnic segregation in some low cost hous ing estates is a subject of concern, especially as there has been a constant degradation of physical infrastructure in those estates. Drug abuse and alcoholism are serious problems in Mauritius which can be seen as linked to issues such as poverty, social exclusion and lack of adaptation to the social environment. However, Mauritius has not ratified the 1998 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, one of the 3 main UN Conventions on Drug Control. Although different ministries such as Health, Education and Youth and Sports have programmes for the education of the population on alcohol and drug abuse, it is felt that not enough work is being done at a grassroots level. A closer collaboration between NGOs and the government that leads to a global evaluation of the problem and to a comprehensive plan of action is called for. In April 1999, the UNDCP/ROEA representative held talks with Government of Mauritius officials. After a UNDCP mission in April 1999, Mauritius was selected as one of the 9 countries to establish thematic groups on drug control to facilitate the process of coordination, and to integrate drug control in other inter-agency co-ordination groups at the field level on a pilot basis. Key areas for development intervention: i) The need to pursue a programme of social housing for low- income groups and to improve the physical infrastructure of certain existing housing estates. ii) A shelter programme for the poorest of the poor, the abandoned, and the homeless should be devised. iii) There should be a comprehensive evaluation of existing poverty alleviation programmes. iv) Need for more in-depth studies of deprived areas using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. v) A multi- pronged approach must be adopted to deal with the problems of deprived regions, because of the multi- faceted dimension of the problem. vi) Short entrepreneurship training programmes and micro-credit schemes for the young and for women in deprived areas to help the unemployed to develop new and more sustainable livelihood strategies. vii) Improve co-ordination and material and human resource capacity of NGO sector dealing with various aspects of social development. 4 viii) ix) x) xi) xii) xiii) xiv) xv) 4. More community development schemes and programmes involving young people, especially school dropouts in deprived areas, should be introduced. There should be more organised leisure activities, such as sports, artistic and cultural development schemes in deprived areas. Carry out a study to determine the seriousness of the drug abuse problem in Mauritius and to make recommendations for future action Set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee on drug control; and elaborate a Master Plan for Drug Control. Assist and strengthen both governmental institutions and NGOs to deal with prevention of drug abuse, treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers; and provide NGOs with financial assistance to carry out specific drug control activities For the Government of Mauritius to ratify the 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances For the Judiciary, Police, Customs, and Immigration services to receive specific training to increase their effectiveness in dealing with drug control More support for disabled children and their families. Special schools, which are at present mostly located in urban areas, should be decentralised and thought should be given to the opening of special units in regular schools. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS Mauritius has a fairly good track record concerning human rights issues. The Constitution of 1968 provides for the setting up of a politically democratic society and a number of basic safeguards for human rights. However, in the day to day administration of the country some of these provisions are not proving to be sufficiently effective with respect to the expectations of the electorate as the social environment has changed drastically since 1968. One such example is the electoral system based on the “first past the post” system which is leading to some gross distortions of the democratic process with large percentages of the electorate being without representatives in Parliament. Recommendations have been made for the reform of the Judiciary and are being gradually implemented. A Human Rights Commission will soon be set up as well as new legislation to combat corruption and money laundering. The issue of law and order has become a subject of concern with the rise in criminality and the high levels of frustration in certain deprived regions of the island. The recent introduction of the Public Security Act (PSA) forms part of government’s effort to consolidate law and order. This Act gives considerable powers to the Commissioner of Police in matters of public security, and is considered by some as containing serious infringements to basic human rights. It should be noted that the Act has not yet been proclaimed due to numerous appeals to Government to reconsider some of its provisions. 5 The police have been the object of severe criticism following a certain number of deaths of persons while in custody in police cells. Drug trafficking and abuse are other areas which require urgent attention. Key areas for development intervention: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) 5. The problem of non-implementation of recommendations from reports Assistance in re-examining the implications of the Public Security Act before its promulgation Setting up of the National Human Rights Commission Support for possible reforms of the electoral system to consolidate democracy Support to decentralisation of local government Assistance in the formulation and operation of an Equal Opportunities Act Reform and modernisation of public administration and prison services Strengthening the Police Complaints Bureau Increasing training and support services for the police to operate more effectively Setting up of a Press Council Liberalisation of broadcasting services HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH Mauritius has had a free health service within the broad framework of the welfare state which was introduced in the 1950s. However, the long-term sustainability of the “welfare state model” is becoming problematic as pressure increased on the various health services. In an effort to reduce the pressure on general hospitals, government adopted a policy of decentralisation of health services through the setting up of primary health care centres all over the country. Unfortunately there is a systematic by-passing of these primary health care centres. The requirements of the health sector have changed dramatically over the last few decades. There has been a shift away from communicable diseases to non-communicable ones, such as diabetes, cardio-vascular problems, and hypertension. Health indicators show definite improvements in the health status of the population except for infant mortality rates and low birth weight rates. It is generally felt that industrialisation, longer working hours, less healthy food habits, sedentary occupations, and lack of exercise may be having negative effects on the health of particularly women. The entry of women and younger people into the labour market as well as fierce competition in schools has left very little time for health education programmes. There is no explicit document on national population policy, however, since the 1960s, government has been strongly committed to family planning. The oral pill has remained for a long time the most commonly used method of contraceptive. However a new trend has been detected indicating a shift away from reliable 6 forms of contraceptives to less reliable ones such as the withdrawal and rhythm methods. The consistently growing abortion rate is a matter of serious concern and needs to be addressed urgently even if it is a sensitive issue. Though the problem touches mostly married women, anecdotal evidences reveal that most teenage unwanted pregnancies end in clandestine illegal abortions, suggesting that the problem is linked not only to a heavy reliance on unsafe Family Planning Methods, but also to a lack of appropriate Sexual and Reproductive Health information and services, especially to the adolescents and the unmarried. Access to clinic–based reproductive health services is denied to the adolescents and the unmarried as a result socio-cultural taboo. There is also evidence of an increase in the incidence of breast, cervix and prostrate cancer. Although the number of detected HIV/AIDS cases has not reached alarming proportions, there should be no room for complacency. Key areas for development intervention: i) Need to strengthen community based primary health services and to encourage a participatory approach. ii) Greater emphasis on continuous training programmes for medical and paramedical staff iii) Review and re-engineering of organisational structure of health services at the central level iv) Promote use of more reliable Family Planning Methods v) Assistance in making more effective sex education programmes for adolescents in schools. vi) The problem of teenage pregnancy must be addressed. vii) Urgent attention to the issue of sexual exploitation of youth. viii) Assistance to couples facing problems of infertility. ix) More health education programmes geared towards working women through greater use of audio- visual media techniques. x) Studies on the causes of the high incidence of low birth weight babies, stagnating stillbirth and infant mortality rates; as we ll as the health and general wellbeing of the mother, especially her nutritional status. xi) The move to less reliable birth control methods must be studied. xii) Women must be sensitised about the need to start ante- natal care early in their pregnancy (taking into consideration their time constraints). xiii) The benefits and meaning of exclusive breast feeding for the first 4-6 months, as well as weaning practices should be explained. xiv) A system of screening must be established to detect breast and cervical cancer. xv) The high incidence of abortion must be urgently addressed. xvi) An intensive programme of information and education on sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS should be devised. xvii) Support sensitisation programmes on non-communicable diseases 7 6. EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN The position of women in Mauritian society has changed significantly over the last few decades with progress being made in some areas towards gender equality. The most important factor which has changed the position of women over the past few decades has been the entry of large numbers of women into the labour force as a result of the setting up of the Export Processing Zones. The Constitution has also been amended, and other important pieces of legislation and an institutional framework to facilitate change have been introduced. Recognition of issues such as gender-based violence and sexual harassment has also increased. However women are still to be found largely in the low- level unskilled occupational groups and very few are in decision-making or leadership positions. Gender relations within the household have not adjusted to the needs of working mothers resulting in triple workloads and burdens for women. Men seem to have become marginalised from home-based activities and need to be re-engaged in family life. Women entrepreneurs face lack of access to credit and information networks, as well as resistance to their involvement in male-dominated business networks. Although Mauritius has made significant advances in the health sector, there is still a relatively high maternal mortality rate. Women’s triple workload often results in fatigue, strain, and stress. Women are also more vulnerable to the effects of poverty and social exclusion, especially in Rodrigues, where there is a higher percentage of female-headed households. Although there are no blatant gender inequalities at the primary and secondary levels of the education system, there are still certain disciplines which are considered to be male preserves and in which girls are largely or totally absent. Key areas for development intervention: i) Need for capacity-building in public and private sectors for gender awareness, gender sensitivity and gender mainstreaming at all levels. ii) Need to assess poverty alleviation programmes for gender sensitivity and impact on poor women. iii) Promoting women in decision-making functions/roles iv) Reconciling women’s unpaid and paid work and the need for policy responses to the burdens/strains associated with working women. v) Need to create more opportunities for women in the employment market in particular by orienting girls towards science and technical subjects as well as vocational training. vi) Breaking down the “glass ceiling” in the work place. vii) Drawing men into activities and programmes relating to family welfare and re-engaging them in households. viii) Providing capacity building support to women’s NGOs, CBOs and associations and encouraging more co-ordination between this sector and the government. ix) Supporting women in their economic activities through equitable access to credit etc. 8 x) xi) xii) 7. Need for new and amended legislation regarding labour, employment etc. and more changes to Napoleon Code to reflect gender equality. Sensitisation of the general public to gender issues through public relations/communications strategies by ministries, NGOs, and international organisations (advocacy). Focusing on adolescent girls and boys. CHILD R IGHTS DEVELOPMENT The government has committed itself to protecting the rights of the child, namely through accession to the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) in July 1990. There have been several amendments to existing law and some new pieces of legislation to reflect new policy approaches adopted towards children. The trend towards nuclearisation and the increasing isolation of the family from the community is creating serious childcare problems. The impact of the increase of mono-parental families and ensuing child care problems may be linked to high drop out rates in schools. The problem of child abuse was addressed for the first time in 1990 with the opening of a regional child abuse unit at a hospital to diagnose and treat children who have been victims of abuse. There are now regional units in 5 different localities. However, there is a lack of trained personnel in the area of counselling, rehabilitation, and child psychology. Of concern is the rising rate in the incidence of low birth weight babies which may be due to poverty, lack of access to information, inappropriate nutrition, unhealthy lifestyles and physical fatigue in the workplace. Adolescence is becoming increasingly a period of opportunity and risk with changes in lifestyles, greater freedom, and greater access to all sorts of information. One fundamental problem of the school system is the competition that exists at the end of the primary cycle when there is a scramble for places in good secondary schools. There are important inequalities between regions with the lowest CPE results occurring in the most socio-economically deprived regions. There have also been recommendations to include or strengthen sex education in the school curricula. However, many parents worry that this will encourage sexual activity amongst youngsters in school. Key areas for development intervention: i) ii) iii) 9 To strengthen provisions for early childhood care and development To further examine the impact on the child of competition at the primary education level and especially at the CPE To study and address the issue of educational inequalities at the primary level especially in deprived regions iv) v) vi) vii) viii) 8. To better understand problems of adolescents in the country and to look into ways of developing programmes of activities for their development. To promote research in the field of child abuse and strengthen services for the care of abused children To formulate and appropriate Juvenile Justice policy Assessment of the extent and nature of disabilities among children and support to the provision of appropriate services in this field. The address issues of health among children and more particularly the problem of infant mortality and low birth weight babies EDUCATION Education is free from the primary to the tertiary level and much progress has been made over the years to increase access to all levels of education for both girls and boys. Despite this progress, large disparities in performance rates in certain regions and among certain groups of the population reflect deeply rooted and multi-faceted inequalities in the system. The lowest pass rates at the CPE level are found in the most socially and economically deprived regions of the country. Competition is enormous to reach the good or “star” secondary schools. Enrolment rates drop from 100% in the primary sector to just above 50% in the secondary level as a result of the high dropout and failure rate at the end of the primary level. The language issue is another source of ethnic tension with proposals to include Oriental languages as subjects at the CPE level for ranking purposes. At the secondary level, many feel that the educational system may be outdated and not addressing the newly emerging needs of the country. A disinterest in science subjects has been noted in the case of both girls and boys but this is more marked among girls. There are also problems of inadequate facilities for scie nce subjects in some rural regions. For a long time, vocational and technical education has remained at the margin of mainstream and academic education. However, with the recent industrialisation, a much broader range of technical occupations have now emerged in the labour market. Again, there is a problem of gender disparity in enrolment rates in technical and pre-vocation schools. In 1999, the tertiary enrolment rate was 12%, calculated as the percentage of the population aged 19-24 years. This percentage includes distance education students as well as those studying in overseas institutions. Students attending tertiary institutions in Mauritius (University, MIE, MGI, MCA) constituted half of that figure, i.e 6%. There is increasing pressure of demand for places and clearly an inability of the tertiary sector to meet demand locally. The University is presently launching a programme of open/flexible learning courses leading to certificates and diplomas to be run after office hours. A new University, the University of Technology is being set up. There are also similar initiatives in the private sector. 10 Key areas for development intervention: i) Causes of low performance and lack of motivation must be studied more closely. The role and behaviour of potent ial employers in hiring decisions, and specialised teacher training and parental sensitisation programmes also demand closer attention. ii) At the secondary and tertiary levels, there is a need to examine career guidance as well as the causes of gender disparity in student enrolment in science and technical subjects. iii) There is a need to study the human resource requirement of the country in the years to come in order to reorient tertiary level education more effectively. iv) Adult education and life- long learning must be further strengthened and new communication techniques explored. 11 9. ENVIRONMENT Small island developing states are limited in size and have vulnerable economies. Therefore, land resources, energy resources and coastal zones, marine and tourist resources are vital for their development and need to be protected from degradation and pollution. A great deal of progress has been achieved in setting up the necessary legislative and institutional framework for environmental protection and for the implementation of a number of projects which had been developed under the first National Environmental Action Plan. The second plan has now been completed. Six areas have been identified where the risks to the environment due to economic development, are the highest and these are land resources, water resources, air pollution, bio-diversity, coastal areas, solid wastes and the special case of Rodrigues. National environmental standards have been promulgated for drinking water, noise, effluents for the sugar industry, treated wastewater for use in irrigation. Others are about to be promulgated, namely solid wastes, hazardous wastes and vehicle emissions among others. Key areas for development intervention: i) Pollution of coastal areas due to discharge of contaminated effluents and contaminated stream and river water coming from agricultural, industrial, domestic and tourist activities. ii) Pollution of the aquifers and rivers by agrochemicals and industrial effluents. iii) Solid waste disposal. The increasing use of plastics is a real threat. iv) Sewerage. v) Atmospheric pollution caused by an increasing fleet of vehicles and industries. vi) Increasing pressure for the release of agricultural land for residential or commercial use. vii) Soil erosion in Rodrigues. viii) Further provision of safe drinking water in Rodrigues. The key areas of intervention in the Maritime and fisheries sector relate to maritime safety, the strengthening of maritime administration, the introduction of new maritime legislation, training in the sector, research into and monitoring of marine pollution. 10. FOOD S ECURITY Given the constraints of size, the eating habits of the population, the climate and the soil type in different parts of the island, it would be impossible for the country to become self sufficient with regard to all its food requirements. The island’s economy has known a long history of dependence on sugar which has remained the central activity until the last couple of decades. There is therefore great reliance on imported foods but on balance, the value of agricultural exports, 12 sugar, tea and fish by far exceeds the value of our food imports. There is no real shortage of food in the country except possibly for short periods after a severe cyclone or during a drought. The current drought is the worst that the country has known for the last century or so. The limited area for agriculture leads to a very intensive form of cultivation with heavy inputs in terms of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides. Although the female participation rate in the formal sector of agriculture has been decreasing, a large number of women, especially in Rodrigues are still engaged in important agricultural production activities. Extension services and other related support systems need to become more gender sensitive in order to integrate gender planning into the agricultural and fishing sectors. Key areas for development intervention: i) Monitoring water management and deforestation, especially in the context of global warming. ii) Clear conservation policies for lagoons and high seas due to their importance for the fisheries sector. iii) Assessment of the present contribution of biotechnology to agriculture. iv) Development of clear guidelines for evaluating transgenic crops. v) Rethinking the livestock sector to increase herd size, encourage new professional farmers, and improve the quality of products. vi) New improved technologies for agricultural production and expertise in domestic and export marketing. vii) Develop agricultural sector through greater regional co-operation. viii) Further research into crop protection (pest and disease control). ix) Conservation of agricultural produce. x) Capacity-building in agricultural training, education, and extension, taking into account the special constraints and needs of women farmers and small peasants. 13 COMMON COUNTRY ASSESSMENT INTRODUCTION: SETTING A GLOBAL AGENDA FOR CHANGE Within the last decade, the international community has organised 12 major conferences with a view to achieving global consensus for a new development agenda for the 1990s and beyond. Governments participating in these conferences have committed themselves to address the major problems facing the world today. There has been considerable agreement on shared values and goals, and on strategies to achieve them. The areas covered have been child welfare, education, environmental protection, human rights, the advancement of women, reproductive health, the human habitat, food security and sustainable development. The conferences gave an opportunity to countries to examine their own situation and to take decisions on appropriate policies followed by action plans for the implementation of agreed upon policies. The 1990s witnessed the emergence of new approaches to development. The action plans of the various World Conferences 1 contain a variety of guidelines and principles reflecting new thinking about development. The major principles that have emerged are the following: • Development should be human centred. A multi-dimensional approach to development must be adopted because of the multifaceted aspects of the individual’s well being. Central goals of development include the eradication of poverty, the fulfilment of basic needs and the protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, not least the right to development. • Investments in health, education and training are critical to the development of human resources. It is necessary to promote increased and equal economic opportunities, to avoid exclusion and overcome socially divisive disparities while respecting diversity. • The improvement of the status of women, including their empowerment, is central to all efforts to achieve sustainable development in its economic, social and environmental dimensions. • Diversion of resources away from social priorities should be avoided, and where it has occurred, be corrected. The formulation of structural adjustment policies and programmes should take these considerations into account. • An acceleration of the rate of economic growth is essential for expanding the resource base for development and hence for economic, technical and social transformation. Economic growth generates the required financial, physical, human and technological resources and creates a basis for sustained global economic growth. (The World Conferences: Development Priorities of the 21st Century [UN Briefing Papers] 1997) 14 The recommendations emanating from global conferences have provided for effective linkages between the macro-economic and operational activities of the UN system and greater coherence and integration between the macro-economic and social policy framework and other cross-cutting policy dimensions such as gender, human rights and environment. 15 1.0 THE HUMAN RIGHTS BASED APPROACH 1.1 EVOLUTION IN POLICY APPROACHES In the context of the development paradigm there has been an important shift in policy approach from what is known as the ‘basic needs’ approach to the ‘rights’ approach and this shift applies to issues related to children, women, the socially excluded, and vulnerable groups generally. The basic needs approach focuses on the short-term practical needs oriented towards welfare and operates in a rather ‘compartmentalised’ framework. In contrast, the rights approach, which carries a sense of entitlement, is a more integrated and cross-sectoral approach that overarches human rights, democratisation, the advancement of women and environmental protection and quality of life. It is important to note that the new approach in no way overwrites the former one but merely marks an evolution by going beyond it. From welfare concerns, there has been a move towards sustainability, equity and more recently empowerment. The novel guiding principles are universality and interdependence. This new approach has triggered the need to develop new policy instruments and integrated action plans. An integrative and participatory approach has also become a condition sine qua non for successful implementation of programmes within this new paradigm. As a result of these new policy approaches, there has been considerable rethinking of the role of the United Nations in international affairs. More emphasis is being placed on inter-agency collaboration and co-ordination which would not be limited to the exchange of information but would extend to a ‘goal-oriented collaboration’ for maximising the comparative advantages of the respective agencies and organisations of the UN system. The inter-agency collaboration becomes even more important in the context of the new human-centred perspective which requires a multidisciplinary and cross -sectoral approach to development. The growing emphasis on the rights approach demands a move away from the ‘compartmentalised’ framework, where specific problems were addressed separately by separate organisations leading to unconnected interventions with different categories of people, to an integrated, interrelated and coherent framework. Moreover, the growing emphasis on the rights approach carries a sense of entitlement at the same time as it takes into account the multi-faceted dimension of a person’s well-being. This more integrated approach does not only cover the economic, social and cultural rights of individuals but also their political and civil rights. 1.2 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS The Vienna World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993 provided the international community with a new framework for planning, dialogue and co-operation that will enable a holistic approach to promoting human rights and will involve actors at all levels, 16 international, national and local. The Vienna declaration marked some major advances towards more wide-ranging consensus with far-reaching implications for all countries, through the following: 1. The protection and promotion of human rights, as the birthright of all human beings, to be the first responsibility of the State. 2. The provision and protection of all human rights to be a legitimate concern of the international community. 3. The legitimacy of the right to development reaffirmed as an integral part of fundamental human rights. 4. The specific rights of particularly vulnerable groups, including women, indigenous people, refugees, children, disabled people, detainees and victims of enforced disappearance and migrant workers and their families were recognised and specific measures were recommended to better protect them. 5. The establishment of a special rapporteur on violence against women. 6. The recognition that extreme poverty and social exclusion are a “violation of human dignity” and that states must make all efforts to combat extreme poverty. 7. The establishment of a High Commissioner for Human Rights for the promotion and protection of all human rights, promoting and protecting the effective enjoyment by all of all civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights, including the right to development. 1.2.1 The Constitution of Mauritius The Independence Constitution of 1968 is the Supreme Law of Mauritius, meaning that any law that is passed by Parliament but is inconsistent with any clause of the Constitution is null and void. It provides a framework for the laws and the legal protection of human rights. Chapter II of the Constitution guarantees a variety of Fundamental Rights and Freedom of the Individual drawn from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in some cases replicates the wording of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The specific rights guaranteed in this Chapter include the following: ‘the right to life, the right to personal liberty, protection from slavery and forced labour, protection from inhuman treatment, protection from deprivation of property, protection for privacy of home and other property, freedom of conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association, freedom to establish schools, freedom of movement (with certain restrictions as in any other democratic country), protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, caste and place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed.’ However, the Constitution does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights found in the Universal Declaration, the European Convention, or the Covenant on Civil 17 and Political Rights. The following rights are absent from the basic rights or freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of Mauritius: • • • • • Right to recognition Right to effective remedy Right to asylum Right to nationality Right to marry and form a family There are derogations from the basic freedoms for prescribed public interest purposes unless the legal restriction in question is shown “not to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society”. The legal restriction is usually allowed in the interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, and for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons. The most obvious derogation is the case of a person who loses his/her right to personal liberty if he/she is sent to prison by a court of law for having committed a criminal offence. There are provisions in the Constitution for further derogations during a period of public emergency. 1.2.2 International Treaty Obligations Mauritius is a party to the following treaties relevant to the field of human rights and humanitarian law: 1. Slavery Convention of 1926 2. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 3. Convention on the Political Rights of Women 4. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of August 12, 1949 5. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked members of the Armed Forces at Sea of August, 1949 6. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the conditions of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of August 12, 1949 7. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of August 12, 1949 8. Forced Labour Convention (ILO No. 105) 9. International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination. 10. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 11. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 12. Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (ILO No. 98) 13. Convention on the Nationality of Married Women 14. Convention Against Discrimination in Education 15. Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 16. Convention on the Rights of the Child 17. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 18. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment of Punishment 18 19. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights By accepting these treaties, Mauritius has voluntarily undertaken a legal obligation to take steps to ensure that international human rights standards are applied in national law and in practice. No specific legislation governing the procedure for the certification of treaties exists. In practice treaty- making seems to be within the sphere of the exercise of executive power. There is no direct provision in the Constitution which gives precedence to general International Law or International Human Rights Law. It is noteworthy that the only instruments from the above list to be incorporated in the domestic law of Mauritius are the Geneva Conventions by virtue of the Geneva Conventions Act of 1970. This Act made it an offence for any person to commit a grave breach of any of the Geneva Conventions, listed above as 4, 5, 6 and 7. 1.2.3 Government Response to Global Conferences One of the recommendations of the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 was the setting up the office of a High Commissioner as Head of the Centre for Human Rights. This was done later in the year. In 1994, the General Assembly of the UN proclaimed the UN Decade for Human Rights Education, 1995 - 2004. At the request of the Government of Mauritius, the High Commissioner/Centre for Human Rights (HC/CHR) conducted a Needs Assessment Mission2 to Mauritius in November - December 1996. The objective of the mission was to produce an evaluation of the country’s needs in the field of human rights with a view to formulating a Technical Co-operation Project between the HC/CHR and the Government of Mauritius. It is noteworthy that the Ministry of Justice is now known as the Ministry of Justice, Human Rights and Corporate Affairs, thus creating a portfolio of Human Rights. The UN mission made a number of recommendations. The main recommendations were: 1. A Review of the Judiciary system with a view to rationalising and removing anomalies in the interest of the rapid and efficient administration of justice. A report on the reform of the Judiciary has recently been submitted to Government. On the whole there seems to be consensus on the main propositions that have been made. 2. The need for the establishment of redress mechanisms, other than the Supreme Court, such as strengthening the role of Ombudsman or establishing an independent National Human Rights Commission. 3. From the perspective of human rights, the mission found it of utmost importance that the case for or against retention of Privy Council appeals be addressed and debated. 4. It would be most desirable to have one National Human Rights Commission possibly with several advisory Bodies or Committees devoted to women’s rights, 19 children’s rights, non-discrimination and equal opportunity and other particularly important issues. It should be pointed out that the government has already declared its intention to set up a Human Rights Commission in Mauritius. 5. The establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address the use of excessive force by the police in carrying out their mandate. 6. The issue of prisoner’s rights and human rights in the prison administration system need to be carefully examined with a view to effecting improvement in the existing prison service. 7. The “establishment of a National Committee for Human Rights Education by the 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998). The HC/CHR had already put its Special Advisor on National Institutions, Regional Arrangements and Preventive Strategies to the High Commissioner for Human Rights at the disposal of the Government of Mauritius for advice and assistance regarding the establishment of a National Human Rights Commission. The Protection of Human Rights Act was passed in late 1998. It makes provision for the setting up of a National Human Rights Commission which will be presided over by a person who has been a judge. The object of this legislation is to provide “for the better protection of human rights, for the better investigation of complaints against members of the police force and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereof.” There have been important developments in the context of the Judiciary. The Commission set up to look into the reforms of the Judiciary, presided over by Lord Mackay3 has now submitted its report with a number of recommendations which are being implemented either through legislation or administration procedures. 1.2.4 Amendments to the 1968 Constitution There have been several amendments to the Constitution but only those relevant to human rights issues will be considered here. The fir st amendment to the 1968 Constitution extended the life of Parliament elected in August 1967. It must be pointed out that there are provisions in the Constitution for amendments to the Constitution whereby certain clauses can be amended with a two-thirds majority and others, of a more fundamental nature, need a three-quarters majority. In fact with a three-quarters majority, any clause of the constitution can be amended except for Section 57(2) as explained later. In 1971, during a period of emergency, section 57(2) of the Constitution was amended to allow for an extension of the life of Parliament beyond the prescribed 5 years. In 1973 an amendment was brought to the Constitution to abolish by-elections altogether and henceforth vacancies in the legislature were to be filled by the best losers in the preceding General Elections, belonging to the same community and party as the outgoing member. In 1975, Section 42 of the Constitution was amended to bring the age of voting from 21 to 18. 20 In 1982, the Constitution was amended to restore by-elections and make mandatory the holding of elections every five years. This latter provision could only be changed if the proposed Bill has before its introduction in the Assembly been submitted, by referendum, to the electorate of Mauritius and has been approved by the votes of not less than threequarters of the electorate, and is supported at the final voting in the Assembly by the votes of all the members of the Assembly. The Bill in question relates to any amendment to be brought to the original Section 57(2). In 1986, Section 8 of the Constitution was amended to make it explicit that the court is authorised to confiscate the ill- gotten wealth of convicted drug traffickers. Although the government had ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1984, it was only in 1995 that Section 16(3), that relates to protection from discrimination, was amended to include the word sex. However, Section 16(4), which was not amended, provides that discrimination is still possible should Personal Laws be voted. According to Section 20 and 23 of the 1968 Constitution, a person born outside Mauritius whose father was a citizen of Mauritius was entitled to Mauritian citizenship but a mother could not transmit the same citizenship rights to her child. This discrimination against women has now been removed with an amendment to Section 20 and 23 in 1995 which stipulates that a person born outside Mauritius whose father or mothe r was a citizen of Mauritius is entitled to Mauritian citizenship. The other piece of legislation which contained discriminatory provisions against women was the one related to the right of the Mauritian woman’s foreign husband to be registered as a citizen of Mauritius while it was possible for the foreign wife of a Mauritian to do so. The amendments to Section 21 and 24 of the Constitution has removed the discriminatory aspect of this law by extending this right to both men and women. At the same time an amendment was brought to existing provisions of the Citizenship Act which stipulated that a Mauritian child who also happened to be a national or citizen of another country had to renounce one of the two nationalities when reaching the age of 21. The Mauritian child is no longer required to do so and can retain both nationalities. 1.2.5 Other Changes in Legislation Related to Human Rights Issues 1. In 1994, the Child Protection Act was enacted after accession to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and in pursuance of its implementation to make better provision for the protection of children against ill- treatment, neglect, abandonment destitution and any other form of exposure to harm. 2. In 1995 capital punishment was removed from the law. 21 3. In 1997, the Protection from Domestic Violence Act was passed to protect the rights of the spouse and that of the children of the spouse from violence including intimidation, harassment, maltreatment, brutality or cruelty; or any threat of such treatment. 4. In August 1998, the Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act was passed which brought amendments to a number of existing legislations including the Child Protection Act of 1994. At the same time amendments were brought to the Criminal Code Act to make sexual harassment a criminal offence and to give further protection to minors and to the physically and mentally handicapped person on whom a sexual act is committed. 5. In December 1998, the Protection of Human Rights Act was passed and proclaimed in January 1999. 1.2.6 Rights of Workers The Industrial Relations Act of 1973 which regulates trade union activities has certain clauses which are considered to be repressive, in particular those relating to the right of workers to strike. In fact the conditions laid down are such that it is virtually impossible to organise a legal strike. The Minister for Industrial Relations has announced that the ILO is working on a draft bill to replace the IRA. A Draft Bill on the Protection of Employment, prepared with the help of ILO, has just been circulated and will eventually replace the Labour Act. The Minister has indicated that an Institute of Industrial Relations will be set up at the beginning of 2000 where training courses in industrial relations will be given. 1.3 K EY ISSUES FOR FUTURE INTERVENTION All human rights issues relating to specific sectors will be taken up in detail in the later sections of the report. 1. • • • • • • 22 Human Rights education could be considered as one of the key elements for the successful implementation of strategies and policies in this field. A number of NGOs, listed below, are at present engaged in this exercise. They perform promotional functions, conducting human rights campaigns and providing assistance to victims of domestic violence and other human rights violations. Some of these organisations have investigated cases of alleged human rights violations and have published their findings. It is important that they be given more support in terms of funding and training possibilities. The main organisations are: Amnesty International (Mauritius Section) Indian Ocean Institute for Human Rights SOS Femmes Battues Women’s Liberation Movement (MLF) Women’s Legal Action Watch The Comite des Droits Democratique (CDD) There are two associations for the safeguard of the rights of the consumers: • • Association des Consommateurs de l’Ile Maurice (ACIM) Institute for Consumer Protection (ICP) It should also be noted that there are many other organisations which engage in human rights activities even if their mission is not directly linked to the defence of human rights. 2. Human Rights education should be integrated in the school curriculum so that children become aware of the concept right from early childhood. 3. The Human Rights Commission, which the government has agreed to set up, should be set up as soon as possible. 23 2.0 THE ECONOMY 2.1 G ENERAL OVERVIEW Mauritius is a small island developing state (SIDS) of about 1.2 million inhabitants, with an area of 1853 square kilometres, located in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar. Although, it is part of the African Continent, its location and cultural diversity in fact contribute to its distinct identification from the rest of Africa. It started, after attaining Independence in 1968, with almost all the features of an underdeveloped economy: high population growth rate, high unemployment rate, low savings and investment rate, low volume of exports, weak human and physical infrastructure and low level of economic development. Sugar cultiva tion and sugar exports were the backbone of the economy during 60s and 70s, accounting for over 25% of GDP. In the early phases of industrialisation, import substitution industries were given preference over export industries. During 1972-75, sugar boom surpluses were partly diverted to domestic industries, particularly hotel industry. Nevertheless, the management of foreign exchange by the Government provided spurt to government expenditure and wages. As a consequence, the inflow of sudden foreign exchange due to the sugar boom was converted into a foreign exchange crisis. As these problems were systematically aggravated, a full- scale structural adjustment policy (SAP), under the advice of IMF, was implemented. Currency was devalued two times, 1979 and 1981 and under the demand management exercise, efforts were directed towards control of imports and reduction of government expenditure. After 1982, growth prospects were accelerated due to political change, which favoured the strategy of developing an export-oriented manufacturing sector, particularly textiles. FDI profoundly contributed to this upsurge in industrial investment, employment and exports. Nevertheless, a good deal of the Mauritian economic success can be attributed to the favourable conditions both at home and abroad. Mauritius was well covered by the Lome Convention’s sugar protocol for access to European market and the Multi-Fibre Agreements for textile exports to Europe and the US. This effort was complemented by appropriate policy intervention, political stability, the modernisation of the sugar industry, and gradual diversification into offshore services, tourism and information technology (IT). Nevertheless, these encouraging trends have met with major setbacks in the recent years. Rising cost of labour, erosion in the protected international markets due to gradual episodes of globalisation and liberalisation and increasing competition with other countries, and a severe drought have been some of the current strains for economic development. Even though Mauritius witnessed a large-scale economic transformation, socio-economic disparities have widened. These disparities can be found in terms of incomes, capabilities, and opportunities having wide-ranging consequences for the 24 growth of human capability and social welfare. HDI, which takes into account income, education and health factors, scaled down by which Mauritius lost its rank from 54th in 1995 to 59th in 1997. 4 Even though, Mauritius has joined the group of upper middle income countries, its economic development is dependent upon narrow resource bases on international trade and tourism. Loss of trade preferences and increased competition in trade and tourism would entail severe implication for the economy. 2.2 M ACROECONOMIC TRENDS 2.2.1 Annual growth and unemployment The growth rate in real terms started to rise from the time of the sugar boom in the early 70s, but it accelerated after 1983. The highest growth rate recorded was about 7% during 1985-89 (8.3% in 1987). The overall growth rate ranged between 5 and 6%. Nevertheless, there have been some signs of stagnation in the recent years. The real growth rate has declined from 6.2% in 1996 to 5.2% in 1998 (Table 1), and further to 2.5% (revised forecast) in 1999 (mainly due to the severe drought conditions of the current year). Starting from an unemployment rate of 20 per cent in the early 80s, the level of employment increased to about 98 per cent in 1995. The unemployment rate decelerated in the 90s to an average of 2% annually compared to more than 9% in the 80s. The rate of unemployment has increased to 5.8% in 1998. While the male unemployment rate has stabilised around 4%, the female unemployment rate is higher at about 10% (Table 1). During the past few years, the increase in unemployment is mainly due to more female workers entering the labour force. Female employment, however, is more concentrated in EPZ firms (about two -thirds of EPZ employment). It is also important to note that whereas there is a decline in employment in the EPZ-sub sector, much of the additional employment has taken place in small business sector and small and medium enterprises (SMEs). 5 2.2.2 Savings and Investment Over the period 1982-97, the investment rate (gross domestic fixed capital formation) (GDFCF) increased from 18% to 27% (Table 1). There is some slow-down in the rate of investment after 1994, from 24.2% in 1995 to 23.8% in 1998. The growth rate of GDFCF (excluding aircraft and marine vessels) has slumped from a positive growth of 14.1% in 1996 to –1.5% in 1997, but again rose to 7.7% in 1998. This decline was witnessed particularly in domestic capital formation, as there was no perceptible decline in FDI during this period. Nevertheless, FDI as proportion of GDP is only about 0.5% as compared to Singapore (8%), Thailand (1.3%) and Malaysia (5.9%)6 25 2.2.3 Current account deficits and foreign exchange reserves The current account deficit has fallen from (-) 7% of GDP 1982 to (-) 2.7% 1997. There was a surplus in 1996 and 1998 (0.7% and 2% of GDP respectively) (Table 1). The re has been gradually more dependence on invisible trade such as services and tourism and on international remittances from non-resident Mauritians. TABLE 1: KEY M ACROECONOMIC INDICATORS Indicators 1982 1987 1992 Real growth rate (percent) 1995 1996 1997 1998 GDP 5.8 8.3 6.7 5.6 6.2 5.3 5.2 - Agriculture 19.4 -3.7 6.5 8.4 4.1 3.6 -1.4 - Manufacturing Of which EPZ - Tourism 5.2 14.6 6.6 5.9 5 9 6.2 7 16 5.8 6 10.2 6.3 6.9 8.2 - Construction -4.1 9.0 9.0 -2.0 4.5 -1.0 6.0 - Government services 2.0 3.0 3.9 5.0 6.0 3.5 3.5 8.7 6.2 5.9 6.2 5.1 5.8 17.6 5.5 7.9 17.9 5.9 5.3 21.9 5.8 96 99 101 113 60 42 65 38.6 62 42.2 67 41.2 50.5 50.3 53.1 51 -0.6 0.7 -2.7 2.0 - Financing, insurance, real estate and business services Unemployment rate Inflation rate Exchange rate 20.2** 11.4 10.8 9.1 0.6 12.1 2.0 4.6 16.9 Terms of trade Export as a % of GDP Export as a % GDP (excluding services) Import as a % GDP (excluding services) Current account deficit (percentage of GDP) Overall public sector budget deficit (% of GNP) Debt service ratio Domestic Debt as a % GDP Foreign Debt as a % GDP Savings rate 47 87 60 -1.1 -7 -3 -10.3 -1.2 -2.1 5.6 4.6 3.7 1.8 14 38 3.3 17 12.7 25.1 19 27.4 7 20.6 9.14 22.9 9.0 25 8.3 24.3 6.8 24.8 11.18 24 7.0 8.0 24.5 25.2 Investment rate 18 21.6 28.4 23.2 35.8 23.9 26 Foreign Direct Investment(%) Import equivalent(weeks) 0.15 1.12 0.4 0.47 22 0.9 1.279 27. 23.7 35.8 23.9 30.4 14.1 -1.5 7.7 Public Sector Investment as a 6 33.7 36.8 32.9 % of GDFCF GDFCF (excluding aircraft and marine 24.7 15.8 -5.9 vessel) * 1976 ** 1983 Source: International Financial Statistics and Bank of Mauritius Annual Reports 26 24.9 The total accumulated foreign reserves were able to meet the import requirements of 27 weeks at the end of 1997, which increased from 22 weeks, but it again fell to 23.7 weeks in 1998. The magnitude of foreign reserves has been under pressure, as there have been attempts to arrest the depreciation of Rupee. There has been a marked decline in the exchange rate. During the latter half of the 90s, adverse terms of trade, high balance of payments deficits and lagging export performance caused about 21% depreciation of Rupee against the Dollar and the Pound. This trend has more or less continued in later years. The Rupee has appreciated slightly against French Franc. As roughly 35% of total exports and 50% of total imports are denominated in US Dollar, these trends have consequences for exports, imports and price level. It is to be noted that unlike other major currencies, the newly introduced Euro has witnessed unpredictable movements, which may not be considered good for the EPZ and the sugar sector. 2.2.4 Government budgetary balance and inflation rate Overall budget deficits constituted less than 3% of GDP until 1992 but increased to about 6% of GDP in 1995. This trend is disturbing although attempts have been made to reduce it to 4.6% in 1996-97, 3.7% in 1997 and 1.8% in 1998. The government has improved the management of foreign debt by increasing creditworthiness. The debtservice ratio has been reduced from 9% in 1995 to 6.8% in 1996 and 8% in 1998. Debt to GDP ratio has gone down but there will be gradual increase in this ratio as external funds would be necessary to finance the major infrastructure projects. The inflation rate has been a source of concern in the recent years. During the period of the economic success story, the inflation rate was moderate at 2-3% per annum, which can be considered a necessary condition for economic growth. But in the early 90s, inflation has taken an upward trend, reaching a maximum of 7.9% in 1996. This rise in price level can be attributed mostly to imported inflation, and to some extent to the introduction of Value Added Tax in 1997 and exchange rate fluctuations. 2.2.5 Traditional Economic sectors The share of agriculture has declined from 29.3% during early 70s to 12.3% in 1990 and about 7.8% in 1998. The relative share of manufacturing, particularly EPZ, increased rapidly. Agricultural growth has suffered a severe setback in the recent years, but both EPZ and non-EPZ sub-sectors have maintained their growth rates (Table 1). The growth of tourism sector was adversely affected in the early 90s by the Gulf War, however this sector has consolidated its position. Tourist earnings constituted about 13% of GDP and about 30% of exports in 1998. The growth rate of this sector has witnessed slight decline in 1997-98, but there is a revival due to the rapid increase in tourist arrivals. 27 2.2.6 Emerging Service Sector: Financial and Business Services Due to further diversification of the economy, the quaternary sector comprising the financial services, free-port activities and offshore businesses, is now the fourth major sector of the economy. It is being constantly developed in tune with the increasing demands of a more modern trading environment. The necessary synergy between the sub-sectors is being created to generate more value-added. With an average annual growth of 10% over the past few years, its contribution to GDP has increased considerably to reach 12.3% in 1998. This sector has maintained its growth rate during recent years. Mauritius has carved a comfortable niche in the world of international financial services and has built its reputation as a trustworthy, stable and reputable offshore jurisdiction. Its main objective is to position itself as an efficient economic bridge to important trade and investment flows within the region and beyond. The success of the offshore sector has been built primarily on the opportunities which Mauritius provides, such as its expanding tax treaty network, its strategic location and its membership to major regional trading blocs. Mauritius is also progressively paving its way in establishing a solid investment fund industry in the offshore sector. Latest figures show that 142 funds were registered of which some 100 are active with a net asset base exceeding US $ 4.6 billion. South Africa, the United States, India and Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) represent the major sources of offshore investment. The offshore sector accounts for 2.5% of GDP or 22% of the financial services sector value added. 2.2.7 Development of Free Port Activities The rapid growth in free-port activities has entailed large-scale infrastructure expansion. Freeport activities cover an area of about 55,000 m2, which is expected to reach 110,000 m2 by the year 2002. Besides, the Mauritius Freeport stands to serve as a valuable instrument to facilitate the flow of goods in the region. So far, efforts to improve trade, especially among COMESA, SADC and IOC countries, have centred mainly on trade agreements and tariff reductions. But what is essential to note is that these regional blocs represent a market of some 350 million consumers and an import market value of over US $ 45 billion. 2.3 POLICY OPTIONS AND PERFORMANCE There are three distinct policy episodes that would explain the growth process in the early stages of development, namely import substitution (ISI), Structural adjustment (SAP) and FDI- led export promoting strategy (EPS). Whereas ISI and EPS are dominant policy options, SAP has been basically to smooth the transition from ISI to EPS. These policies produced a wide range of effects on the various sectors of the economy. 28 2.3.1 Monocrop Economy and Import Substitution Strategy The development strategy, for the period 1963-72, advocated by the Meade Commission (1961) 7 consisted of an advalorem tax on sugar exports with a view to finance diversification and restrain sugar production, arising from the quota price exceeding the free- market price. The Commission examined the prospects for various other crops and suggested land use and price support through marketing boards as alternatives. On the industrial side, Commission urged the government to encourage diversification and industrialisation through the use of fiscal incentives and disincentives. All the standard devises of ISI were used—tariff barriers, import quotas, licensing etc. to protect domestic producers and reduce imports to address the balance of payments crisis. One of the major recommendations of the Commission was to restrain wages to increase employment and for the rise of export-oriented manufacturing. During the 1960s, about 100 development certificates were issued to a variety of industries, which tended to rely on relatively capital intensive methods due to Government’s high wage policy and duty-free capital imports. This policy undoubtedly brought adverse effects on job creation, but in the short run high wages improved social welfare at the cost of reduced rents and profits, and hence investment. Economic growth suffered consequently. Emergency welfare programmes and other welfare measures put pressure on the government budget, which produced current budgetary deficits. 2.3.2 Sugar Boom and Budgetary Expansion During the period 1972-79, there was marked economic growth occasioned by an improved terms of trade due to sugar boom. The government favoured controlled increase in real wages and extended social services by investing in educational and health facilities, public utilities and low- income housing. In an attempt to raise revenues to meet the fast expanding transfer expenditures, the 6% export tax on sugar was replaced by a graduated tax. Despite tax revenue increases, by 1979, the fiscal deficit amounted to 13% and public debt to 48% of GDP. New investment opportunities, however, opened up under the EPZ and the hotel industry by expanding the package of fiscal incentives to investors. It is estimated that during this period sugar profits financed about half of investment in the EPZ sector (the other half came from foreign sources). Sugar surpluses continued to finance the industrial growth and resulting diversification of the economy. However, the co-existence of highly protected ISI firms and export-oriented firms, and overvalued currency did not exert any appreciable impact on the growth plane. Labour gained at the expense of sugar profits and reinvestment, which improved the social scene to some extent. 2.3.3 Structural Adjustment and Fiscal Austerity The policy of direct controls and budgetary expansion pushed the economy to full- scale structural adjustment under the supervision of IMF and aid from the World Bank sources. SAP consisted of successive recourse to SDR facility with the associated conditionalities 29 such as devaluation of rupee, phased reduction in the fiscal deficit, limits on government borrowing etc. The programme called for close monitoring of public sector investments, simplification and rationalisation of taxes, liberalisation of the economy, and structural reform. The policy of fiscal balance, reduction of subsidies on rice and flour, devaluation and wage restraint improved the competitive position of export-oriented manufacturing industries. The socialistic stance of the government was promoted by taxing the windfall profits on export due to devaluation. Restrained growth of wages, however, generated an anti- labour bias, which was nevertheless mitigated by rising employment. 2.3.4 FDI Led Export Promoting Strategy The period of export- led manufacturing growth from 1982 onwards, witnessed unprecedented growth in income and employment, particularly of female labour. The wage restraint and subsidy curtailment affected the working class adversely but real per capita increased by 28% between 1983 and 1987. During the period of over a decade, the average growth rate has been about 5-6% per annum. Tourism sector has complemented and consolidated the process of economic development. On the export tax issue, the government moved gradually, dictated by considerations of efficiency. The proceeds of this tax is no longer a source of government revenue and is currently utilised for the modernisation needs of the sugar sector. The development strategy is more geared towards diversification of the economy to meet the challenges of globalisation, and higher emphasis is being placed on the growth of financial services, the offshore sector, and IT industry. Attempts have been made to improve the status of the working class through free health care, free education and other selected subsidies. 2.3.5 Social Development During the process of economic transformation, attempts have been made to address the adverse social effects of rapid economic growth. Nevertheless, it is disheartening to note that public expenditure on education and health has not changed significantly to have an appreciable impact on citizen’s access to these services. In fact, public expenditure on education has declined as a proportion of total expenditure and GDP (Table 2). There is some marginal increase in expenditure on social services and welfare, which is predominantly on social security. TABLE 2: S ELECTED SOCIAL WELFARE INDICATORS Year Education 1979 1985 1990 1995 1998 % GTE 17.7 13.8 14.2 15.4 14.7 Health %GDP 3.5 3.4 Source: CSO, Annual Digest of Statistics 30 % GTE 8.0 7.6 8.7 8.6 8.3 %GDP 2.1 2.0 Social Service and Welfare % GTE %GDP 17.2 12.8 13.1 3.2 17.3 20.6 4.9 Increase in unemployment in recent years accompanied by inflation has contributed to a loss of purchasing power. It has been noted that the incidence of unemployment is higher among female workers. The increase in unemployment in recent years accompanied by inflation has contributed to a loss of purchasing power and in particular with respect to women as indicated by unemployment trends. In 1999, the unemployment rate was 11.3% for female workers and 4.0% for male workers compared to 2.2% for females and 3.0% for males in 1991. A general deterioration in income distribution is confirmed by the trend in income shares of different groups. The Gini coefficient decreased from 0.396 in 1986-87 to 0.379 in 1991-92, but increased marginally to 0.387 in 1996-97. There is no official poverty line in Mauritius. But according to World Bank estimates, in 1992 about 10% of the population in Mauritius had incomes of less than Rs 2168 per month. 8 In fact, some sections of the population have accumulated economic and social disabilities from previous generation and over a period of time due to lack of an effective incomes policy. 2.4 DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS 2.4.1 The Characteristics of the Mauritian Economy as a SIDS A number of characteristics, which emanate from the small geographical size and population and location of Mauritius, have consequences for labour market, financial market and FDI decisions. The economy suffers from limited human resource capacity in the form of skill and technical competence. This has produced upward pressure on wages much before full employment has been reached. Limited access to financial markets for concessional credit due to small economy and less creditworthiness has hampered the growth of an active financial sector. Similarly, an absence of a large domestic market and being far away from present-day sea-lanes has attracted only small MNCs and offered little incentive for R&D. Moreover, limited land area allows much less flexibility for the rational land use to improve comparative advantage in competing activities, namely agriculture, industry and tourism. The smallness of the Mauritian economy has increased the role of external capital and labour, and hence structural imbalances. Structural problems may occur rapidly and get transmitted to different sectors easily as the degree of integration of different sectors in the economy is very high. Thus, they are more vulnerable to external shocks and enjoy limited independence in formulating macroeconomic policies. Environmental factors make SIDS very vulnerable economies. Small island states argue that there should be some compensatory mechanism in proportion to the extent of vulnerability due to climate change. The Declaration of Barbados (1994) reaffirmed that SIDS are particularly vulnerable to natural as well as environmental disasters and have limited capacity to respond to such disasters and calamities. While such states are among those that contribute least to global climate change and sea-level rise, they are among those that would suffer most from the adverse effects of such phenomena. 31 The vulnerable coastal zones and oceans against the effects of land -based sources of pollution, limited fresh water resources, increasing amounts of waste and hazardous substances and limited facilities for waste water management are some of the critical issues for small islands. This is particularly the case for low lying coral based islands like Mauritius, where ground water supplies are limited and are protected only by a thin permeable soil. Even where rainfall is abundant, access to clean water has been restricted by the lack of adequate storage facilities. 2.4.2 Declining Agriculture Good climate and preferential treatment under the Lomé Convention have been the driving force for agricultural growth. Now, both good climate and preferential treatment are threatened. The cycle of cyclones, which occur almost every year during the summer months has been disturbed, and rain-carrying cyclones have become less frequent in the recent year, resulting in severe drought conditions. The heavy dependence of the irrigation system on rainfall and the low storage capacity of water caused a drastic fall in cane crop and hence sugar exports. Given the nature of sugar-specific technology, machines remain unutilised. Labour has been unemployed with no immediate employment opportunities in the face of rising unemployment. This new class of unemployed constitutes a new vulnerable group adding to the problems of social development and cohesion. Agricultural diversification has not proceeded due to climatic conditions and nonavailability of land. In fact, some tea estates have been converted into sugar plantations. This shows that under the Lomé preferences, cane cultivation is still profitable. Minor import substituting non-sugarcane activities such as inter-line cropping therefore do not change the profile of agricultural sector. Nevertheless, with conclusion of WTO agreement, preferential treatment under Lomé will be phased out in 2005. Thus, in the face of globalisation, the sugar industry will have to be more cost effective to improve its competitive edge, and will have to diversify into production of superior varieties of sugar. This would require more skill and human resources specific to this industry. Besides conventional agricultural diversification, the manufacturing of electricity from bagasse offers new opportunities. It is expected that the current contribution of 10% to the national grid will increase to about 40% in 2010. The success of the manufacturing of electricity would, however, depend on the production of sugarcane, which is currently experiencing a severe downturn, due to the drought. There are other initiatives, which have engendered opportunities as well as challenges for the sugar sector. Regionalisation of this sector is an example. The takeover of the management of sugar estates in Benin, Tanzania and Ivory Coast, and the rehabilitation of the ex-sugar estates in Mozambique present immense growth avenues. With considerable experience in sugar technology and R&D in the sector, the viability of a regional sugar economic zone would be much less threatened. 32 Agriculture in Rodrigues is basically rain-fed and the major crops under cultivation are maize, cassava, beans (pulse), sweet potatoes and vegetables. The major livestock reared are cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry. Total livestock production in Rodrigues not only meets the subsistence requirements of the island but also generates surplus for export to the island of Mauritius. 2.4.3 Manufacturing Sector: Structural Constraints FDI arrivals are guided by location-specific advantages arising from cheap labour and preferential treatment under Multi-Fibre arrangement. MNCs located in Mauritius have to compete with developed country MNCs operating in developed country markets with international best-practice technology. Recent trends in the EPZ sector, however, reveal that this sector suffers from basic structural problems. There is a heavy concentration of clothing and textiles in total EPZ exports (they constituted about more than 70% of total exports). An additional 10% of EPZ exports is provided by a number of products, which have not been able to diversify the exports to any meaningful extent. The overwhelming significance of European markets (more than 80%) is another source of concern. American markets occupy about 15% and COMESA and SADC represent about 2%. This lack of product and market diversification increases the vulnerability of export firms to external shocks. Export instability would increase over time, as we have experienced in the case of sugar. About 95% of EPZ exports are low-skill products, compared to Singapore, where lowskill intensity of exports is about 12% 9 . Similarly, labour intensity is about 90% in Mauritius, and is only 8.5% in Singapore. It is also vital to note that the expenditure on R&D by EPZ firms is very low as compared to other newly industrialised countries. This shows the extent of relative stagnation of Mauritian products in terms of technological development and changes in consumer preference. The rate of effective protection is much higher than the nominal protection (nominal tariffs) because export firms enjoy duty exemptions on the import of raw materials and intermediate inputs, and a wide ranging subsidies and concessions. According to Milner and McKay (1996), 10 the average effective rate of protection for manufacturing has declined from 115% 1980 to 65% in 1990. The current rate may be lower but these are still quite high rates of effective protection, providing protection to relatively inefficient firms. The export industry structure is highly concentrated. The proportion of big firms is not less than 55-60% of which about 40% are foreign firms. These firms are technologically advanced and financially sound. This dichotomy between large and small firms is another source of instability in exports. Large and small firms undertake all the processes of manufacturing independent of each other. Given that labour has become more expensive, large firms have been forced to resort to modernisation and labour-saving technologies. But this feature can provide additional strength to the industry if there is co-ordination between them. 33 There are other developments, which threaten the very basis of FDI arrivals. Unit labour costs have increased from 100 in 1982 to 327 in 1997, which was matched by labour productivity growth from 100 to 136 during the same period. Increasing inflation and higher interest rates due to gradual financial liberalisation have escalated the cost of capital and dampened the investment prospects in EPZ firms. Competition from low-cost Asian, African and transition economies, which have liberalised their FDI regulations, is gradually becoming a source of grave concern. Top heavy bureaucratic procedures in issuing FDI permits and work and residence permits for expatriates act as a disincentive. Likewise, the threat of elimination of preferential access to EUI and US markets with the expiry of Multi-Fibre Agreement in 2005 is likely to work as a deterrent for both forthcoming FDI and domestic investors. The manufacturing sector in Rodrigues is limited to a few enterprises, namely stone crushing, baking, metal works, woodwork, garment making, shoe making and small agroindustries. The industries produce primarily for the limited local market. The infrastructural and training facilities are not adequate enough to enable the production of high quality goods which could be exported to Mauritius or overseas. 2.4.4 Tourism sector The tourism sector lacks diversification as Mauritius offers basically coastal tourism. Thus, Mauritius has to compete with other destinations providing wider range of tourist products at cheaper costs. Since it is located far from present-day sea-lanes, travels costs tend to become prohibitive. Nevertheless, given the up-market tourism, tourist arrivals have been phenomenal. What is important to note is that tourism, being an importintensive activity, has implications for prices and cost of living for the resident population, as evidenced in small countries like Seychelles. International tourism also presents a threat to the social fabric of a multicultural society like Mauritius. The expansion of tourism is an opportunity but there are also environmental challenges. The sustainable development of tourism will largely depend on the strength of its backward linkages with coastal resources and the environment. These linkages can be strengthened by environmental protection from damages due to international tourism, which have budgetary consequences. The financing of environmental projects for protecting environment and improving visitor destinations is a major problem. Most tourism is a private, hard-to-tax activity and hence tourist tax collections have been very sluggish (Nath 1998). There has been a growing tendency in the tourist sector to sell Rodrigues as a special exotic destination, and to promote “eco-tourism” in the island. However, product marketing has not been very been effective, and the sector has not altogether developed as desired. Limited accessibility, and poor infrstructure have been contributory factors. The three main tourist hotels at Pointe Cotton, Murouk and Port Mathurin have got low occupancy rate, incomparable with those in Mauritius. The development of the tourist sector is not proceeding according to a definite plan and the socio-economic impact of the sector has not been assessed. The unplanned growth of tourism is sensed to cause irreversible damages to the socio-economic and physical environment, for example, 34 pollution of the lagoon, further degradation of the soil, and eroding of cultural values and traditions. There is need to conduct a tourist promotion study and develop a Tourist Development Plan for Rodrigues. 2.4.5 Financial Services, Off-Shore Banking and Information Technology International financial and banking services offer enormous growth prospects for a SIDS. But these services are high skill intensive and do not create mass employment. Value added in this sector has increased without generating enough jobs, and these services have employed only trained graduates and diplomats. This jobless growth may not be economically and socially acceptable. The skill formation specific to this sector requires investment in training, which will entail a drain on public finances. Financial and infrastructure limitations may constrain the supply of trained personnel and jeopardise the growth of this sector. 2.5 EMERGING CHALLENGES AND TASKS AHEAD 2.5.1 Maintaining Macroeconomic Stability Macroeconomic stability provides impetus to growth and safeguards the livelihood strategies of the most vulnerable sections of population against inflation. Budgetary reforms should comprise targeted policies on taxes and expenditures and public sector budgetary deficits, on the one hand, and prudent exchange rate management, on the other. Budgetary reforms should also be done with a view to ensuring gender sensitivity. 2.5.2 Responding to Globalisation The rapid strides in globalisation of economic activities and liberalisation, after the conclusion of GATT and the establishment of WTO, have gradually limited the benefits arising from the status of the most-favoured nation and tax haven. The newly emerging international trade order has initiated a wave of reduction in tariffs and quantitative controls on imports, and subsidies and tax concessions to exporters. The imports of intermediate products such as yarn, clothing, and capital goods, which previously did not attract import duties, in the changed circumstances will be subjected to these levies. Various types of fiscal concessions will also be gradually restructured and phased. There will be at least three types of impacts of trade liberalisation, namely on revenue, domestic industry due to increased competition from foreign producers, and prices. According to the Imani Report (1999), 11 the implementation of trade liberalisation measures under the WTO would result in loss of trade tax revenues including VAT of the order around 4.5% of total central government recurrent revenue. As regards the impact on domestic industry arising from the restructuring of taxes on imports of finished goods and raw materials, it has been shown to be marginal. It may also be important to note that there will be similar revenue implications when Mauritius joins regiona l blocks. The calculations indicated by the study show that Mauritius would lose between 22% and 35 33% of revenue collections from the taxes on trade with countries in SADC. Due to restructuring of tariffs, besides revenue loss on account of trade taxes and VAT, the impact on domestic industry is likely to be greater. However, due to increased competition with foreign products, there may be a decline in the prices of selected goods for the benefit of consumers. The main challenge, however, is how to manage the integration of the Mauritian economy into the global economy. The objective should be to exploit the opportunities globalisation offers for achieving high and sustainable growth, generating employment and eradicating poverty, while minimising the risks of economic and social marginalisation. Meeting this challenge will require strong national actions and strengthened national institutions, but also a broader vision of development that encompasses people-centred development and addresses its relationships with the various phases of globalisation. 2.5.3 Expanding the Economic Space There is growing recognition that in the face of globalisation, the promotion of regional co-operation and integration would prove to be a powerful development strategy, which will allow Mauritius to expand its limited economic base. The extension of this logic would suggest that economic opportunities can be further enhanced by joining more than one group, as some groups may have greater comparative advantage in certain economic activities than others. At present, Mauritius is a member of Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), Common Market for Eastern and South Africa (COMESA), South African Development Community (SADC) and Indian Ocean Rim- Association of Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC). 2.5.4 Strengthening Regional Integration Efforts This expansion of space should embrace Africa, Asia and Gulf countries in the region. Regional growth triangles, one of the recent experiments in regional co-operation, will allow the pooling of resources of member countries with harmonised policies under Cross Border Initiatives (CBI). The growth triangle has already made considerable progress in helping countries by complementing the comparative advantage of other member countries. Singapore has one of the most impressive programmes in Asia to attract MNCs to establish regional headquarters (RHQs) in Singapore. RHQs carry out a wide array of activities ranging from servicing regional customers to R&D work. They have concentrated in high growth industries, namely electronics, chemicals, engineering services, and hospitality and franchise management services. There are three types of schemes, namely operations, business and manufacturing. The latter scheme for firms, which has a significant manufacturing presence in Singapore and provides regional technical services, offers incentives like low corporate tax rates and double deduction of qualifying R&D expenses against income. There is also a great need to promote reverse FDI, that is, Maurit ian investors visiting developing country destinations, particularly in the African region as FDI. The de- 36 localisation of the textile industries in Madagascar, which started ten years ago is an illustrative example as a stepping stone for expanding the economic space. Similarly, Mauritius Telecom has already expanded its activities by entering the regional market in partnership with operators in South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Comoros. Mauritian trade with Africa is only about 5% of total trade. Intra-IOC trade accounts for about 3% of total foreign trade of the group, but this share is 20% for SADC and IORARC. It is crucial to diversify the present structure of the direction of trade to meet the challenges of WTO and the negotiations on the Post-Lome IV Convention. There is an urgent need for institutional support and enhanced skills to manage the regional trade and development initiatives. Mauritius must aim at developing as a centre of excellence in education, training, and R&D with a view to supplying skilled labour force to meet the needs of both domestic and regional public and private sectors. The development of training and research programmes can evolve on a phased manner giving first priority to international management and multinational finance, management of governance, technology management, environment and coastal management and management of marine resources. 2.5.5 Trade in Services and IT Under the umbrella of WTO, trade reform in services including tourism will have implications for Mauritius. Mauritius is involved in a globally competitive niche in offshore finance (banking and insurance) and the use of tradable service inputs in its production. These are high value added services. The advances that have been made in IT can give economic spin-offs, if the country enters into international trade of IT. Article IV of the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) provides assistance to developing countries to develop IT systems and distribution networks. These growing markets can be tapped by developing and marketing best practice IT technologies. 2.5.6 Revitalising the EPZ Sector The forthcoming shocks to the industrial sector can be addressed only by increasing the magnitude of their value added through upgrading and/or diversifying. There is a need to shift the focus from conventional EPZ products to high-skill and high-tech textiles and apparels, and to diversify markets. Developing a link between wages and productivity is of paramount significance. One of the tests of well- functioning labour markets is their ability to respond to the adjustment needs of economic transformation process. The tendency on the part of wages to adjust upwards is confirmed. During the period of structural adjustment in the early eighties, even in the presence of IMF conditionality, government did not adopt wage restraint policies. During the recessionary trends, post-1990s, the rate of wage inflation did not witness a decline or slow down. What is most urgent is to increase labour productivity to match wages by expanding training and retraining programmes. 37 2.5.7 Developing Enterprise through SMEs SMEs provide a second line of defence for the EPZ sector in terms of employment, value added and exports. Only 7% of the sampled enterprises were shown to have a fixed capital of more than Rs 5 million. A large number of SMEs are organised on an informal basis, and they present income and employment opportunities to many. About 80% of them are individual and partnership firms. According to CSO’s Census of Small Industries conducted in 1992, there were 40,947 small establishments including all types of units engaged in manufacturing, trade and services, with a total employment representing 24% of labour force and 21% of GDP. In a short period of time, they have acquired some technical competence. Nevertheless, the lack of qualified maintenance staff, and high prices of imported spare parts were found to be one of the most critical issues, constituting an important barrier to investing in high and new technology by SMEs. The special needs of SMEs are market information, skills, management training, finance and technical support. The institutional support for the development of SMEs is provided by Small and Medium Industry Development Organisation (SMIDO), which is also responsible for promoting the exports of SMEs. Its major programme, the common facilities centre, needs to be upgraded. There are also very few technical staff. This hampers the demonstration and diffusion capability routines of the centre, which is greatly needed to improve the design and manufacturing skills of SMEs. It is also noted that there is no culture of inter-enterprise sharing of facilities. A largescale market survey for ancillary products is required. Establishing technology parks, collaborations with overseas partners and institutions for technology transfer, and creation of common facilities for technology services need urgent attention. New strategies need to be evolved to promote technical co-operation with newly industrialising countries to expand and strengthen the role of FDI by SMEs. Small enterprises in Rodrigues are mostly involved in handicrafts, which is an important source of income to many families. Local materials such as “vetiver”, aloes and coconut shells are utilised to manufacture handicrafts products for sale to tourists and in Mauritius. 2.5.8 Credit facilities Credit has been used, through Development Bank of Mauritius (DBM) in the past to finance income- generating activities. When credit is used as a process that creates an environment that is conducive to income-generating activities, it attains a social dimension because it may reduce social inequalities. There are also significant gender implications of credit facilities. With rising female unemployment, credit-financed SMEs growth can be an important source of women’s economic empowerment. The institutional inadequacy for financial support is basically due to cumbersome formalities and collateral obligations. Banks including DBM are not equipped to deal 38 with small enterprises. There is a great need to develop the institutional capability to address the needs of SMEs in manufacturing, services and agriculture. The government has proposed to create a National Entrepreneurs Bank (NEB) to meet the credit needs of this sector. There may be a need to involve more than one or two banks and financial institutions in the job of providing credit to SMEs. In fact, multi-lateral lending can be more advantageous compared to bilateral lending since it allows cross checking and exchange of information. 2.5.9 Mixing grant with credit In developing countries, where the cost of money is usually high, credit presents a natural bias in favour of high- yielding activities. Since SMEs have a significant effect on the income status of less rich segments of the society, it has been proposed that mixing credit with grants on an ad hoc basis may provide a way to allow the financing of potentially high- yielding activities. An example of this kind exists in the Mauritian EPZ sector. The Technology Diffusion Scheme (TDS) was set- up to grant private firms half the cost of buying services for raising competitiveness, improved productivity, quality and design services, and information on new technology. It was expected that 359 EPZ units would use the scheme, at an average of $10,00. Firms receive one grant for each service (they can avail of more than one grant for different services) and thereafter, they will have to pay the full market cost of the service. Several institutions were involved in technology support services, namely EPZ, MSB, SMIDO, MEPZA but TDS aimed at promoting the use of technical consultancy services and making it acceptable by the industry. A series of measures have been taken to boost up investment in Rodrigues. These include freight subsidy on shipment on some goods and raw materials to Rodrigues, the setting up of a Rodrigues Venture Capital and Leasing Fund to assist small enterprises and the Rodrigues Loan Guaratee Fund. 2.5.10 Upgrading Technical Skills Skill shortages and technological factors have shown to be significant constraints to growth of exports and upgrading of product design and packaging. Enrolments in the three core technological subjects Natural Science, Mathematics, and Computer and Engineering together at the University of Mauritius account for only 0.04% of the population. This is against about 2.8% of the level reached in Korea and about 31% of the level reached in India, Indonesia and Bangladesh (Lall and Wignaraja, 1998). 12 It is vital to note that enrolment in technological subjects is even lower for women. Tertiary level enrolments alone cannot produce the requisite skilled labour supply. A lack of technical institutions is the major drawback. The University and IVTB do not offer wide range of courses in technical education and training. The culture of in- house training has picked up slowly. There are about 12 firms in 1996, which have in-house training programmes. The number of employees being sent on external training has increased considerably in textiles and garments, chemical and electronics. Despite this, 39 the supply of trained personnel has not increased in consonance with the growing demand and the potential demand to meet the technical challenges of up-gradation and quality production. 2.5.11 Raising Human Capability Experience shows that growth-enhancing policies need to be complemented by initiatives that explicitly focus on making sure that the benefits of rapid growth are widely shared. This would entail widening opportunity throughout society by expanding human capital investment that includes all the people. Government intervention to improve access to educational opportunities, broad-based skill accumulation, and basic health facilities especially for the rural and female population will enable these groups to share in employment and earnings opportunities. 2.6 DONOR INTERVENTIONS 2.6.1 Past and current interventions International donor agencies have intervened with a view to mitigating the adverse impacts of development constraints and to enhancing capacity building to meet these challenges. Projects on poverty alleviation, private-sector support and information dissemination have been the major intervention activities. Regarding poverty, there is the Marshall Plan for poverty alleviation, a UNDP poverty project on promoting income-generating activities in Rodrigues, and a EU poverty programme. Donor intervention in Rodrigues’ economic development aims at encouraging and empowering the poorest communities to enable them to take care of their developmental needs. One of the important components is to get access to microfinance, such as credit unions and Grameen bank schemes. The UN system assisted with a review of investment policy to help identify strategies to attract FDI and to increase the pace of diversification to non-textiles. The objective was basically to provide recommendations geared to increase the contribution of FDI to sustainable economic and human development. Enterprise Mauritius Project seeks to develop a new generation of dynamic and successful SMEs that can contribute significantly to enhancing productivity, competitiveness, job creation and sustainable livelihoods. The programme provides an integrated and comprehensive scheme of services, ranging from business plan development, training, and credit to technology upgradation and export development at the enterprise level using a hands-on approach. SME development projects were aimed at diversifying the industrial base and at the same time generating income opportunities for women entrepreneurs and the economically weak in the society. Assistance was provided to build institutional capacity in both private and public sectors. One of the major instruments is the Build-Operate and Transfer (BOT) framework. The 40 aim is to develop basic administrative, legal and contractual framework with regard to the application of the Concessional Project scheme for the development of the county’s infrastructure. The BOT scheme has been used in two projects, namely the Free Port project and the bagasse power plants. The UNDP funded SIDSnet project involved the building of electronic networking amongst SIDS. The objective was to build information capacity by encouraging small island nations to share experiences regarding sustainable development issues unique to small islands. Vision 2020 (NLTPS, 1997) 13 has been a major project to undertake an overall assessment of the various sectors of the economy and build different scenarios for Mauritius in the coming decades of the 21st century. There are several follow-up programmes to restructure the economic, social and technological sectors. Technical assistance activities being implemented by UNCTAD comprise country projects focusing on globalisation, regionalisation and debt management, international trade in goods and services including environmental issues, investment, enterprise development and technology and services infrastructure including HRD and microfinance and port management for development and trade efficiency. UNCTAD and UNDP have launched in 1998 a 3- year global programme to enhance the ability of LDCs to manage their integration into the global economy in a manner supportive of sustainable human development. 2.7 POTENTIAL AREAS FOR THE UN-SYSTEM INTERVENTION 1. Improving the Quality of Decision Making and Governance • Boosting the consultative mechanism of decision-making with a view to inculcating the sense of ownership of policies and programmes among the stakeholders. • Expanding and diversifying the product line of the civil service supported by need-based training and retraining. • Fostering institutional development for decentralised decision- making and good governance. 2. Diversifying the Dynamic Economic Base • Participating in regional blocks to expand the economic space and markets. • Exploiting the opportunities offered by the emerging off shore banking and business and free-port services. • Entering the rapidly rising global market for information technology. • Expanding the economic base of SMEs by appropriate incentive mechanism and targeting. • Promoting and marketing of handicraft products of Rodridues • Expanding opportunities for incoming and outgoing FDI. 41 3. Upgrading the Skills of Labour • Streamlining the working of technical training institutions also with a view to reducing gender inequalities in these fields. • Designing incentive mechanisms for in- house training and retraining. 4. Expanding Human Capability • Micro financing of income generating projects. • Expanding the network of government-sponsored social institutions and NGOs. • Targeting credit and undertaking poverty alleviation programmes. • Fostering local economic development and improving access to services to have an appreciable impact on social inequalities. 5. Developing and Maintaining Infrastructure • Extending BOT-type projects to air and road transport development. • Attracting FDI to energy, water and transport sectors. • Expanding the potential of reservoirs and supplementing the existing water supply capacity by ground water and desalination sources, especially in Rodrigues • Consolidating alternative energy sources (solar, wind and bagasse). 6. Preserving Environmental Resources for International Tourism • Expanding the Exclusive Economic Zone by identifying and financing projects on development and protection of coastal zone, coral reefs, fisheries and marine resources. • Conducting a Tourist Promotion Study, and developing a Tourist Development Plan for Rodrigues • Participating in regional environmental improvement initiatives. • Developing Master Plan for industrial and automotive pollution abatement. 42 3.0 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 3.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS 3.1.1 World Social Summit In conformity with the U.N General Assembly resolution 47/92 of December 16, 1992, the World Summit for Social Development was held in Copenhagen on 6-12 March 1995. The innovative character of the Copenhagen agreements is that they brought together, for the first time into a coherent and integrated framework, several of the dimensions of social development endorsed by previous world conferences. This framework recognises the multidimensional nature of poverty and calls for an intersectoral and holistic approach to people-centred sustainable development. Although country specificities and differences were taken into account, the following policy priorities were identified: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Establishment of an enabling economic and social environment for people centred development Eradication of poverty Empowering all people for self reliance Improving access to basic infrastructure and social services Promoting job creation and sustainable livelihoods Ensuring equitable access to credit and productive assets Expanding social protection for vulnerable people Promoting gender equity and the full participation of women in development Expansion of productive employment and social integration. Achievement of equality and equity between women and men Ensuring that structural adjustment programmes include social development goals Preserving people’s security in the context of rapid and sometimes disruptive globalisation Attaining universal and equitable access to education and primary health care. Strengthening co-operation for social development through the UN The responsibility for implementing the Social Summit commitments lies mainly at the national level, with Governments working in partnership with civil society, and with extensive support form the international community when required. 3.1.2 Employment In 1998, member states of the ILO adopted a Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work which member states have undertaken to promote and realise even if not officially ratify. These conventions relate to: 43 i. ii. iii. iv. Liberty of association Elimination of forced labour Elimination of child labour Elimination of discrimination related to employment and occupation In the case of Mauritius, the declaration concerns particularly three unratified conventions: no. 87 on Freedom of Association and Nos 100 and 111 on equal remuneration and non-discrimination respectively. Concerning child labour, a key convention (No 182) on the worst forms of child labour was adopted in 1999. 3.1.3 Housing The Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) was held in 1996 in Istanbul. The main commitments were the following: • • • • Adequate shelter for all Sustainable human settlements Participation and gender equality Financing human settlements The strategies for implementing the plan of action were as follows: • • • • • Action to be taken to achieve adequate shelter for all and sustainable human settlements development in an urbanising world Ways to promote efficient land markets and sustainable land use Ways to mobilise financing and facilitating access to land and security of tenure Actions that Governments can take to integrated shelter policies with macroeconomic, social and environmental policies Actions to improve shelter delivery systems The strategies emphasise that individuals, families and communities must be able to improve their housing. Governments should promote better housing by prohibiting discrimination and ensuring legal security of tenure and equal access to land. 3.1.4 Cultural Diversity Mauritius signed the UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1995. The Convention aims at identifying and protecting certain unique cultural and natural heritage sites in member states. 3.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS 3.2.1 Social Development Strategies 44 In line with resolutions voted at the Copenhagen Summit and “L’Annee Internationale de la Lutte pour l’Eradication de la Pauvrete”, a two day seminar was organised in 1996 on “Les Etats Generaux du Social”.14 This seminar provided a forum for the different agents of social development, opinion leaders and socially committed thinkers from all walks of social life and sectors of the Mauritian economy to meet and discuss issues pertinent to the social development of Mauritius. The main objectives were: to diagnose the social problems and ills of our society; to analyse the functioning and malfunctioning of the social security mechanism in relation to the social realities of the present and of the future; and to make proposals for cohesive and comprehensive policy formulation in the areas of Social Security and National Solidarity. The Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity has issued a policy paper entitled Development Strategies 1998-2000 and a White Paper on Social Development is being prepared by the same Ministry with the support of UNDP. A number of studies have been commissioned on the problem of social exclusion including the report on social exclusion commissioned by the President of the Republic, 15 the study of Access to Social Services 16 and the Social Fabric Study funded by the Mauritius Research Council. 17 3.2.2 Housing Strategies In the wake of the Habitat II Conference, the Ministry of Housing and Land Development has set up a steering Committee which consists of government officials, t he private sector and NGOs and makes recommendations to the Ministry in line with the Habitat Agenda for Action. Although official figures indicate a very high rate of owner-occupiers compared with other countries, these figures hide other quite serious problems of housing which may culminate into a crisis in years to come if some issues are not addressed in time. Social housing programmes for low income groups which had begun in the 1960s, gave way to a new housing strategy based on cost recovery through the setting up of a public company, The National Housing Development Company Limited (NHDC) in 1991. The Mauritius Housing Corporation (MHC) used to build houses for middle income groups at the time when the Central Housing Authority (CHA) was catering for lowincome groups through their programme of social housing. With the shift away from the policy of social housing to cost recovery and affordability principles, the MHC no longer does so but provides soft loans to those below a certain income ceiling for the construction of their houses. The MHC started a scheme known as PEL (Plan Epargne Logement). The initial condition for entering the scheme is the opening of a savings account with the Corporation which makes the person eligible for a loan to buy an NHDC house. Apart from housing problems in deprived suburban regions, the other major housing problem for Government has been the sugar industry housing estates built to accommodate sugar workers near their work sites. All successive governments since Independence regularly reiterate their pledge to gradually dismantle these “sugar estate camps” which remain powerful symbols of the sugar plantation hierarchy of the 19th 45 Century. A study carried out in 1990 18 revealed that there were still 125 such estates. On the basis of the findings of this survey on the long term suitability of these lodgings, Government took the decision that sugar estates should embark on a large scale rehousing programme which would enable the phasing out of as many of these sugar estate camps as possible. The options offered were either the outright elimination of existing housing estates with the inhabitants resettled on an alternative site, or the sale of existing houses to their current occupants. In order to encourage the construction of low- income apartment blocks, a special scheme has been introduced to enable low- income groups to benefit from special tax and duty concessions. However, this has not proved to be very efficient as apartments built on that basis and which were meant for low-income groups have in fact been bought by middleincome households. Special development programmes have also been financed to improve the infrastructure on housing estates where roads, sewerage and water supply facilities have badly deteriorated. 3.2.3 Employment and the rights of workers Mauritius has had a good track record where employment creation is concerned. The export-oriented industrialisation policy adopted through the setting up of the Export Processing Zone completely solved the unemployment problem. There is now even a problem of labour shortage in that sector. However there are signs that problems of unemployment may be emerging again. Where workers rights are concerned, there are at present 330 trade unions registered with the Registrar representing about 21% of the active population. ILO provided support to Government for the drafting of a new bill to replace the Industrial Relations Act (IRA). The new bill is being circulated and is under consideration. 3.3 GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION INTERVENTIONS 3.3.1 Poverty Alleviation Programmes When the new Government came to power in December 1995, a Marshall Plan for the Development of Deprived Regions was prepared by a Committee of officials under the chairmanship of the Financial Secretary. Approximately 60 projects were identified that covered sewerage, supply of drinking water, upgrading of schools and infrastructural development. In the 1995/96 Budget, a new item entitled “Contribution pour la lutte contre l’exclusion “ to be managed by the Trust Fund for Social Integration of Vulnerable Groups, was created in the Capital Budget under the Prime Minister’s vote with a project value of Rs 500 million. In the last Budget 1999-2000, the sum of Rs 500 from the Privatisation Fund has been earmarked for the Trust Fund. Projects under this Fund will have to reflect new social priorities such as national unity, empowerment, better quality 46 of life, poverty alleviation and the fight against social polarisation. The proposed areas for assistance of this Trust Fund cover a broad range of vulnerabilities, including poverty, hunger and malnutrition, mortality and morbidity, social discrimination and exclusion, disability and family stability. The UNDP/ILO is funding a projec t on the “Fight against Exclusion in Rodrigues through Participatory Community Development and the Promotion of Income Generating Activities”, to cover the period April 1999 to March 2001 with a total Budget of $430,000. The main objectives of this project are to improve the living and working conditions of the poor segment of the Rodriguan population and stimulate local economic development through better participation and commitment 3.3.2 Housing Programmes The NHDC has already completed the construction of 3146 housing units targeting lower income groups on seven different sites on the island. The Company has also implemented a project of 704 apartments for middle- income groups with Belgian assistance. It was even more difficult to find takers for these units, and the prices had to be lowered. The Company has also executed a housing project for the very low- income groups with the construction of 672 housing units on 11 sites. A project of 2,100 housing units, meant for the lower income groups and scattered over 8 sites throughout the island is about to be completed. The construction of these low- income houses is being financed by a loan form the Malaysian Government. A grand total of 7000 units have been built by the NHDC since its creation 7 years ago. The Company is planning to commission the construction of some 1000 housing units every year over the next few years, reserving a proportion of these houses for the poor, in line with the Government’s stated policy to meet the needs of vulnerable groups. A sum of Rs 21 million has been earmarked for the rehabilitation of some 4000 housing units of the NHDC. All these housing projects have tried to incorporate the healthy “neighbourhood concept” in line with community development principles by providing comprehensive services such as regular water supply, electricity, sewerage, roads, parking facilities, waste disposal, telephone, and children’s playgrounds. 3.3.3 Disabilities In 1988 a Trust Fund for Disabled Persons was set up with the main objective of providing vocational training to persons with disabilities. Special education to children with disabilities has up to now been carried out mainly by NGOs with financial assistance and training provided by Government. The 1999-2000 Budget voted an allowance of Rs 1000 per month, for parents from lowincome groups (less than Rs 100,000 a year), who have disabled children below the age of 15. Enterprises employing disabled persons are allowed to claim 200% tax deduction in respect of the salary costs inc urred by such employment. The National Council for the Rehabilitation of Disabled persons and the Training and Employment of Disabled 47 Persons Board have been in place for a number of years and work with the collaboration of a number of NGOs. An increasing number of public buildings now have facilities to make them accessible to disabled persons. The Government proposes to bring the necessary amendments to the Building Act with a view to making mandatory provision for accessibility facilities in all future b uildings. 3.3.4 The Ilois Community The Ilois Community, displaced from Diego Archipelago at the time when Mauritius was to become Independent, continues to experience poverty and marginalisation in spite of the various material and social support programmes to facilitate their integration into the Island of Mauritius. In the 1998/99 Budget, the Minister of Social Security has announced the setting up of an Ilois Welfare Fund with the main objective of promoting the wellbeing of the community and their integration into the wider community. The Fund has now been set up with funds totalling Rs 500,000. 3.3.5 The Elderly Mauritius is already facing problems associated with an ageing population. The index of ageing, namely the number of persons aged 60+ per 100 children aged 0-14 year, which was 11.9 in 1962 and 32.6 in 1997, is expected to rise to 60.7 in 2017 and 100.6 in 2037 19 . The oldest of the old, defined as those aged 75 years or above are the mostly rapidly growing group among the elderly. This group constituted 16% of the elderly in 1962, 22% in 1997 and could reach 30% by the year 2037. Ageing of the population will increase pressure on medical services as well as on the social security system. The National Pension Fund will have to face a very serious dilemma because in a few years to come, the disbursement for pensions will outstrip contributions. The government has set up a special Committee to look into this problem and to study all the implications of this trend and to come up with recommendations. Care of the elderly by the family is becoming problematic with the large number of women entering the labour force. A senior Citizen Council has been set up to look over the general welfare of the elderly. Senior citizens throughout the island are grouped in Associations that operate under the Council and obtain assistance from it. With the assistance of the Chinese Government, the Ministry of Social Security has just completed the construction of a Recreational Centre at Pointe aux Sables for the elderly with disabilities. The Trust Fund for Vulnerable Groups has earmarked for the year 1999/2000, an amount of Rs 300,000 to assist charitable institutions to build or run homes for the elderly. 3.3.6 Drug Control According to “The Global Illicit Drug Trends” (1999) published by ODCCP, Mauritius reported a 0.4 annual prevalence of opiates abuse as a percentage of the population aged 15 and above. Drug abusers also accounted for 25.4% of the prison population, although 48 prison officials have unofficially reported a figure as high as 65%. The percentage of females among drug abusers in prison from 1992-1997 was 7.5%. Furthermore, 16% of the total number of AIDS cases reported from 1980 to 1997 are attributed to injecting drug use. According to figures released by the World Customs Organisation, between 1993 and 1998, 48.7 kg of herbal cannabis and 24.651 kg of heroin were seized by Mauritian authorities. Mauritius has not ratified the 1998 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, one of the 3 main UN Conventions on Drug Control. Legal assistance was provided to the Government of Mauritius by UNDCP in 1999 to develop and adopt the appropriate legislation, especially concerning money laundering, in order for the Government of Mauritius to accede to the 1988 Convention. It is hoped that the new Dangerous Drug Bill to be discussed in Parliament shortly will contain the appropriate legislation. In June 1996, “Les Assises Sociales de la Toxicomanie” 20 was organised by the Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity at which a number of suggestions were made which could provide the basis for an action plan. A National Agency for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Substance Abusers (NATRESA) was set up by an Act passed in 1996. However, out of the 28 centres affiliated to NATRESA, less than half are active. An evaluation of the Treatment Centres was performed by Appavoo and Associates in 1998, however an evaluation of NATRESA itself has not been carried out and is long overdue. Although different ministries such as Health, Education and Youth and Sports have programmes for the education of the population on alcohol and drug abuse, it is felt that not enough work is being done at a grassroots level to make youth in particular conscious of the dangers. On the government side, victims of alcohol and drug abuse are sent to the psychiatric hospital, Brown Sequard, for treatment. This is most inappropriate and calls for immediate attention. The centre for the rehabilitation of addicts at Vacaos has only 14 beds, so cannot accept many people. There is probably a case to decentralise the treatment of alcohol and drug addicts. A closer collaboration between NGOs and the government that leads to a global evaluation of the problem and to a comprehensive plan of action is called for. Attempts have been made to carry out some research on drug abuse, namely a study by the University of Mauritius in 1988-89. However, a number of methodological weaknesses, both at organisational and delivery level, posed barriers to the exercise. UNDCP has its “Rapid Situation Assessment and Interventions” methodology which has been fieldtested in a number of studies world-wide and which can be effectively used in Mauritius. It is a matter of concern that more than 12 years after it was set up, neither the Trust Fund nor NATRESA has addressed the question of designing and implementing a “Master Plan for Drug Control”. In April 1999, the UNDCP ROEA Representative held talks with Government of Mauritius officials. The second mission was undertaken in the wake of the Administrative Co-ordination Committee (ACC) Sub-Committee on Drug Control 49 decision to “establish thematic groups on drug control at the country level in all priority countries” and “to facilitate the process of co-ordination, to integrate drug control in other inter-agency co-ordination groups at the field-level”. Mauritius was selected as one of the 9 countries to start this exercise on a pilot basis. UNDP/UNDCP are collaborating to fund the mission of a 3-member Mauritian team to Australia to study the Drug Court System, due to take place in April 2000. UNDCP has also provided a Drug Loo to the Mauritian Police to be placed at the airport, in recognition of the serious trafficking in heroin. The Mauritian side is of the opinion that substance abuse is a gradual process (tobacco smoking, alcohol, cannabis, soft drugs and finally hard drugs) and that the exclusive reference to ‘drugs’ covers only the tip of the iceberg. 3.3.7 Managing Cultural Diversity The management of cultural diversity becomes a critical factor in maintaining social cohesion in multiethnic societies like Mauritius. At the same time as there have been efforts to forge a sense of national identity, the State has adopted policies to promote the diverse cultural heritage of the nation. The country has for the last few decades adopted a cultural policy of Unity in Diversity where an attempt is made to construct a national identity at the same time as cultural diversity is promoted. The Ministry of Culture, Arts and Leisure has as a mission statement the following: To foster a balanced and harmonious society through consolidation of existing pluralism, promotion of creativity and the celebration of cultural values. The Ministry promotes the celebration and sharing of knowledge of different religious festivals among the whole population while at the same time promoting the cultural heritage of the different groups which make up the Mauritian nation. The recent serious outbreaks of social tension following the death in police custody of a Rastafarian singer, who was promoting the African cultural heritage of Mauritians of African origin, which has up to now remained marginal compared to other groups, have brought up the need to effectively manage cultural diversity while promoting equality of opportunity among the different socio-economic and cultural groups. Special effort is being made to support activities contributing to the promotion of the cultural identity of Mauritians of African origin. Although as indicated in the section dealing with International Instruments, the UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage has been signed in 1995, Mauritius has not as yet identified the sites to be included in the world-wide list. Delay in the identification of such sites will make inevitable the type of tension which has arisen concerning the use of an important slavery related historical site, namely Le Morne mountain, for a tourism project. Among activities that UNESCO has undertaken in Mauritius, is the international meeting on the UNESCO slave route project which took place in Mauritius in 1998. 50 3.4 OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL FORMULATION AND I MPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES 3.4.1 Addressing the Problems of Poverty and Exclusion The problem of poverty and social exclusion was brought to the surface in a rather dramatic manner in February 1999, when riots broke out in several deprived areas with a certain degree of ethnic concentration which could have degenerated into a racial conflict on a national scale. One of the major difficulties of developing a rational and coherent strategy to address the problem of poverty and exclusion is the absence of hard data on the problem which would have provided a basis for the construction of social indicators to measure levels of poverty. There have been quite a few studies which have been carried out (by Appavoo,21 Bunwaree, 22 Lau Thi Keng23 and others) on the issues of poverty and social exclusion. However the absence of clear-cut indicators and other tools of measuring poverty proves to be a major obstacle to the formulation of appropriate policies. There is no official poverty line in Mauritius. Researchers in this area have devised their own cut-off points for determining social exclusion levels (Commission Justice et Paix1994, 24 Social Fabric Study MRC 1999, 25 Access to Social Services Lau Thi Keng 1997,26 Appavoo Associates 1997)27 . There is as yet no agreement as such on where the cut off point should be. Selected access indicators are quite often of limited value as they do not capture the various dimensions of the problem even if they provide a benchmark and a starting point. It would in any case be inappropriate to rely entirely on a purely quantitative measurement index of poverty and especially of deprivation because of the multi-dimensional aspects of the phenomenon and the subjective elements it contains. Studies of poverty and exclusion therefore must combine quantitative and qualitative methodologies to capture all these different aspects of the problem. Given the ethnic dimension of the problem, the absence of systematic research and hard data on poverty and deprivation does not only make policy formulation difficult but also creates tension between different ethnic groups as a result of necessarily subjective and selective interpretations of levels of deprivation and poverty among different sections of the population. Although Government has shown very strong concern for the problem of poverty and social exclusion and is deeply committed to engage in remedial action, interventions are being effected in a piece- meal and top-down manner. For better results, it would be important to adopt a participatory approach and rope in all the deprived areas into a major consultative exercise which would provide a more solid basis for a global master plan to combat exclusion of poverty. There are indeed many different forms of exclusion and poverty, but given the multi-dimensional and cross-sectoral character of the phenomenon, it would be necessary to engage all stakeholders into a global programme of action. This programme of action could go beyond mere remedial action in specific areas to a 51 reformulation of nationa l and regional development strategies which would in the long run automatically iron out these pockets of poverty and marginalisation. Such a holistic multi-sectoral approach would benefit all those who are in a deprived situation, irrespective of ethnic group or locality. Targeting specific groups might be counterproductive in the sense that it might lead to greater tension. It is important to approach the problem on a regional or local basis. 3.4.2 Housing Problems The quality of housing has greatly improved with nearly all houses having piped water and electricity supply. However the demand for housing is growing at a fast rate with the tendency towards nuclearisation of the family. It is estimated that the country will be needing an additional number of 2000 houses every year to meet the demand of nuclear family units for independent housing. It is unlikely that the demand will be met. Some 70,000 people have opened a PEL account and there are at present 22,000 requests for a house with the NHDC. There is also the problem of the desperately poor who are unable to fit into any of the presently existing schemes because of their inability to open an account with the PEL scheme. This new housing programme based on cost recovery and affordability has not solved the problem of those suffering from extreme deprivation and who often become squatters with all the consequential problems that results from this. Availability of land for construction purposes has become a serious problem. The price of land has been constantly rising and for the past few years the minimum price level per toise has been Rs 5000. In certain regions of Plaine Wilhems, the price has reached well over Rs 10,000 per toise. This situation has given rise to land speculation. Many Mauritians living overseas have also been buying land here, thus contributing to the escalation in prices. In Rodrigues, most of the land belongs to the State and Rodriguans are provided with land for housing purposes on a lease basis. 3.5 ANALYSIS OF K EY ISSUES IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 3.5.1 Poverty and Social Inequalities Successive governments have been working towards establishing a Welfare State by providing job opportunities and safety nets, which have dampened the emergence of poverty in the absolute sense. Rapid economic growth during the 80s and early 90s has gone a long way in improving the lot of even the less privileged. Nevertheless, any growth process has its undesirable effects particularly on the social fabric. Deprivation in the form of poverty, social exclusion and marginalisation is indeed one of the most disturbing side effects of rapid economic growth. These social inequalities have wider implications for economic and political stability, engendering severe consequences for social cohesion as well as for the long-term growth prospects of the economy. The people-centred approach considers that standard of living, when appropriately defined, could provide a global yardstick against which poverty could be measured. Standard of living-based poverty will have two distinct components: low income and 52 unsatisfied basic needs such as basic education and health. At the World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen in 1995, donors endorsed this dual approach to poverty, and committed themselves to the goals of eradicating poverty through concentrating on creation of productive employment opportunities and social integration. Thus, there are two ways of assessing changes in aggregate well-being: access to income and access to health, education and other social opportunities. From a policy perspective, poverty and social exclusion, therefore, can be defined in terms of capability failure. We can have various indicators to measure capability namely sufficiency, access and vulnerability. It has been acknowledged that our society must respond more effectively to the material and spiritual needs of individuals, the needs of their families, and the communities. Today the use of real national income as an indicator of economic development is held in disrepute. Sen (1992) 28 asserts that income is not a measure of capability. There is no official poverty line in Mauritius. The World Bank defines the absolute destitute having income less than one Dollar a day. According to World Bank estimates, in 1992 about 10% of the Mauritian population had incomes of less than Rs 2168 per month. 29 The Commission Justice et Paix in 1994, 30 however, stated that it was necessary for a family to earn at least Rs 5,129 per month to enjoy a decent standard of living. According to a study on poverty carried out by Appavou Associates 31 (see Table below), the line of poverty was drawn at Rs 3,500 per month. There are standard ways of determining a cut-off income, but this figure is very close to half median monthly income (Rs 3,935) in 1996/97 32 . In a slightly different context, Keng (1997)33 provided a threshold of Rs 2,500 per capita for discovering the extent of social exclusion of population. This cut-off income level, however, would have to be supplemented by other social indicators such as access to education and housing. Determination of poverty and exclusion lines on the basis of a set of selected access indicators may be of a limited value, as it is difficult to capture various issues related to human capability and welfare. Nevertheless, they at least provide a benchmark and a starting point. Information contained in Table 3 shows that incidence of poverty is disparate, being highest in Rodrigues and followed by the regions of Flacq and Riviere Du Rempart. We do not kno w the scientific basis of these estimates as the methodology is not known to us. It may be interesting to note here that based on the standard of $1 a day (or $370 per capita in annual income), it was estimated by the World Bank that about 1.3 billion people (30% of the population) in developing countries live in extreme poverty. In this perspective, the incidence of extreme poverty should be very low in Mauritius. Nevertheless, some sections of the population must have accumulated economic disabilities from previous generations and over a period of time due to lack of an effective incomes policy and therefore, they are considered socially excluded from the mainstream. 53 TABLE 3: I NCIDENCE OF POVERTY IN M AURITIUS Region Port Louis Riviere Du Rempart Pamplemousses Riviere Noire Savanne Grand Port Flacq Moka Plaine Wilhems Rodrigues % of poor households 12.4 27.2 20.1 22.4 18.4 19.1 28.1 19.6 17 36.4 % of poor individuals 16.54 30.2 22.5 25.2 22.4 21.4 34.0 24.2 20.3 41.5 Source: MRC,1999 Original Source: Appavoo Associates, Mauritius 1997. Poverty in Mauritius There are some estimates of the status of social exclusion available from surveys and opinion polls (Keng, 1997).34 It is evident from the table above that 9 to 10% of people are estimated as excluded on a national basis, using the cut-off revenue of Rs 2,000. The distribution of exclusion varies from one area to another, being highest in Roche Bois (20%) followed by Tranquebar. Opinion polls among the respondents confirmed that these two areas have more residents having problems with two out of three facilities – housing, education and revenue. The study also shows that different areas differ from the national average for their employment characteristics. The incidence of manual semiskilled workers is found to be higher in Roche Bois and Tranquebar but the number of manual non-skilled is higher in Bambous. Rodrigues has special problems, as shown from the figures in the above table. The level of economic development has not been similar to the high growth rates recorded in the island of Mauritius in the last few decades. The island finds itself completely outside the ‘great leap forward’ experienced by the island of Mauritius, in the 1980s with the successful period of industrialisation that the country has known. The average household income and education are much lower and unemployment rate much higher than in the island of Mauritius. The other sections of the report deal with sectoral issues in Rodrigues. The above analysis amply demonstrates that there are economic and social disparities across individuals, groups and regions. Thus, there is a need to analyse ways and means to increase the revenue of the poor and to meet more of their basic needs. Targeting of individuals can be a better approach rather than designating areas and groups for financial interventions by governments, donors and NGOs. UNCDF (1997)35 makes a distinction between entrepreneurial poor and non-entrepreneurial poor. The first category of economically weaker individuals do not need assistance for themselves, but they need help in accessing the resources required to set up some activities, which will eventually generate income. Credit may be of great value in this case. A sub-set of this class can be those entrepreneurial poor who need credit as well as capital subsidy. (Pulley, 1989)36 While providing credit to these entrepreneurs, it may be necessary to mix grants with 54 credit as a pump primer. Grants should take the form of capital subsidy to acquire capital equipment and technical support and advice. 3.5.2 Deprivation and Social Unrest The beginning of 1999 was marked by very serious incidents in the capital city of Port Louis when groups of people from the suburbs of the capital city took to the streets in protest against the death of a singer who was found dead while in police detention, after having been arrested for smoking marijuana at a concert. The unrest spread to other parts of the island and degenerated into collective rioting, attacks on property and looting of stores and supermarkets. During the riots wild rumours about persons from one group attacking the places of worship of the other group nearly led to a communal war on a scale Mauritius had not experienced since Independence. Houses of poor, defenceless people of specific groups living in isolated rural places were attacked by gangs as a measure of retaliation to the attack on property which had occurred in some towns. But fortunately the tension subsided after a few days and the country returned to a period of relative calm. Mauritians were very shocked and worried by these events and had thought that the country had progressed past such outbreaks. The country has for the preceding couple of decades, been presented as a model of economic success within the framework of remarkable social cohesion and inter-ethnic harmony and a vibrant political democracy. The February 1999 events exploded this myth rather brutally although many continue to say that these events were isolated and related to a specific event and do not indicate any decisive change in the relatively stable characteristics of the social fabric of Mauritian society. Others are less optimistic and believe that this is the inevitable outcome of growing inequalities between the affluent and the poor especially those of the suburban regions who experience the contrast between affluence and poverty much more sharply than their counterparts in rural regions, where poverty and exclusion are not necessarily synonymous. Successful industrialisation at national level does not seem to have benefited all groups to the same extent. Although it is without a doubt true that the impressive array of social services has been largely successful in preventing any measure of grinding poverty in the country, some of these services have perhaps not been implemented in such a way as to maximise benefits to the most needy. Although access to education and health and other services are free, there are deep-rooted reasons why some people from deprived or marginalised groups do not make maximum use of these services and facilities in the same way that other groups have. More in depth studies should be carried out to measure the effectiveness of social programmes and their implementation in some of these deprived areas and the reasons why part of the population seem unable or unwilling to benefit from them. The phenomenon of growing poverty and the feeling of social exclusion in low income housing estates (cites ouvrieres), where there are high concentrations of Creoles, had been a subject of concern since the end of the 1980s but no one could have predicted the outbreak of violence which occurred in early 1999. This episode brought up numerous 55 sensitive issues related to glaring socio-economic inequalities and the issue of “social exclusion” among the Creole community, which has become a highly controversial one for different reasons in different groups. The term exclusion itself has been under attack on the grounds that it might operate as a self- fulfilling prophecy among those whose exclusion may be much more of a subjective perception than an objective reality. Official statistics are not disaggregated on an ethnic basis and it is therefore very difficult to measure poverty levels in different ethnic groups. But it is generally agreed that the problem of poverty and its usual and inevitable consequences on educational performance and occupational chances is more acute in some suburban regions of the island where there is an ethnic concentration of Creoles. However, this does not mean that similar problems do not exist among other ethnic groups in other parts of the island where there is a concentration of Hindus, as shown in table in the earlier section (Appavoo Associates).37 In addition, the problem of the cites is compounded by the fact that there is high ethnic concentration of a single low- income group over a small land area, with high levels of overcrowding in a suburban setting very frequently on the periphery of urban centres where luxury housing and commercial developments are being established. Moreover, the cites have remained locked in rather overcrowded and insalubrious physical infra-structural conditions, and have become a breeding ground for alcoholism, drugs, domestic violence, petty thefts and criminal activities and prostitution. It is also important to realise the multi-dimensional aspects of social exclusion, which are not limited to low- income levels and material poverty but also to the subjective experience of prejudice and discrimination in the labour market and in access to educational facilities, both in the State and private sectors. There is also a strong feeling among Creoles, that their cultural heritage has been ignored and marginalised compared to other sections of the population. Although they constitute about 30% of the population, Creoles are very largely under-represented in the public sector, especially at higher levels of responsibility, the major obstacle being low educational achievement. The feeling of exclusion is also experienced at the level of political representation and meaningful participation in the affairs of the country at regional and national levels. It is also sometimes very painfully experienced at the level of control agencies such as the police and school teachers. The attitude of teachers and police officers towards the deprived groups at the community level, has not only not contributed to harmony and cohesion but may have in some cases, worsened relationships between different groups. The role of these two extremely important agents of community control should be closely examined and properly equipped so that they could become extremely useful stabilising and motivating forces, with immense potential for social transformation in difficult deprived areas. Since the February events, there have been several cases of social tension and unrest provoked by an array of different and unconnected incidents, such as fatal road accidents, the death of a whole family in a gaming house allegedly set on fire by football fans after a match, and tyres being burnt and a main road blocked in an area where inhabitants felt that the rationing of the water supply during this severe drought was being effected unfairly. It should however be noted that persons of all ethnic groups and different walks 56 of life, have been involved in the outbreaks of tension mentioned above and it would be wrong to subsume all these unconnected events under the single problem of the ‘creole malaise’. The role and weight of socio-economic deprivation in the February 1999 events continue to be a subject of debate and controversy. It is important that these incidents be analysed and monitored very closely in order to identify their deep underlying causes. These events have however rightly triggered very deep concern at all levels, government, the Catholic Church, the private sector and civil society on issues of deprivation in certain regions which could easily become breeding grounds for social unrest. A number of poverty alleviation and related support programmes have either been newly introduced or existing ones stepped up in those regions. There have also been a few sporadic outbreaks of tension in Rodrigues which should be studied and closely monitored. 3.5.3 Discrimination in the Employment Market Equality of access to education and employment is one of the major potential root causes of tension in a country where there has been up to now, a fairly strong level of ethnic concentration in some sectors of the employment market. There is no data on the level of concentration as official statistics are not disaggregated on an ethnic basis. Public and private sector jobs and certain advanced technology opportunities in the industrial sector require high level qualifications and training and therefore exclude large numbers and groups of people who are, for a number of reasons, low educational achievers. This will become a more serious problem with the gradual disappearance of traditional manual occupations such as labourers, dock workers and cabinet makers, and their gradual replacement by occupations requiring higher basic educational qualifications. Several political parties are demanding that an Equal Opportunity Bill be introduced in Parliament. It should be noted that attempts to introduce an ‘Agence Nationale de l’Emploi’ in the early 1980s with a view to controlling recruitment policies and practices and ensuring greater meritocracy in the private sector, were resisted by both private sector interests and Government on the grounds of its complex legal implications. 3.5.4 Gender and Poverty In a male-dominated society, women seem to carry a greater share of the burden of poverty than men. In deprived areas, there is a significant proportion of women who have either been abandoned by their husbands or have to bear the ‘tyranny’ or brutality of an alcoholic husband, whose pay-packet never reaches home at the end of the month. Women often have to resort to multiple jobs or to severe cuts in expenditure as survival strategies. In the worst cases, lack of employment opportunities drive a small proportion of these women, especially young single mothers, to commercial sexual activities. Young single mothers or abandoned wives can no longer rely on the support of the extended family, to the exte nt that they could a few decades ago. Therefore, they are inevitably drawn into situations of unhealthy dependence on temporary relationships with male partners, not interested in long term relationships with them. 57 3.6 K EY AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION 1. There is an urgent need for more in depth studies of deprived areas using both quantitative and qualitative techniques which would not only capture the immediate causes of problems but would go into their underlying structural and cross-sectoral dimensions. Findings of these studies could be used for the development of appropriate global policies to address the problem of poverty and social exclusion. 2. A multi- pronged approach must be adopted to deal with the problems of deprived regions because of the multi-faceted dimension of the problem. Those who feel deprived and excluded generally suffer from the following problems: lack of employment opportunities, low education achievement, low self-esteem, poor health, poor housing conditions, absence of any property ownership, brittle families, weak community support systems, no networks and no contacts with persons in positions of responsibility and therefore much less access to information about economic opportunities. 3. There should be a comprehensive evaluation of existing poverty alleviation programmes with a view to improving their efficiency and coordination. 4. There is a need to pursue a programme of social housing for low- income groups and to improve the physical infrastructure of certain existing housing estates. 5. A shelter programme for the poorest of the poor, the abandoned and the homeless, should be devised. 6. Short entrepreneurship training programmes and micro-credit schemes for the young and for women in deprived areas could help the unemployed to develop new and more sustainable livelihood strategies. 7. There is a large NGO sector dealing with different aspects of social development. The numerous associations which are registered at present function with widely varying degrees of efficiency, but they nevertheless reflect a high level of awareness and commitment to issues of social vulnerability. There seems however to be a lack of co-ordination between them. They also suffer from a serious scarcity of material support and professional training at the level of their field workers. There is an urgent need to empower the NGO sector with some degree of professionalism in social work skills and techniques of community work to be able to cope with newly emerging issues. This empowerment would also help them to go beyond their narrow concerns and interests and adopt a more holistic approach to social problems. 8. More community development schemes and programmes involving young people, especially school dropouts in deprived areas, should be introduced. 9. There should be more organised leisure activities, such as sports, artistic and cultural development schemes in deprived areas. 10. Carry out a study to determine the seriousness of the drug abuse problem in Mauritius and to make recommendations for future action 11. Set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee on drug control 12. Elaborate a Master Plan for Drug Control for approval by Parliament 13. Assist and strengthen both governmental institutions and NGOs to deal with prevention of drug abuse, treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers 58 14. Provide NGOs with financial assistance to carry out specific drug control activities 15. For the Government of Mauritius to ratify the 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 16. For the Judiciary, Police, Customs, and Immigration services to receive specific training to increase their effectiveness in dealing with drug control 17. More support for disabled children and their families. Special schools, which are at present mostly located in urban areas, should be decent ralised. Thought should be given to the possibility of opening special units in regular schools. 59 4.0 CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS 4.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) was adopted by the General Assembly by its resolution 2200 A (XXI) of 16 December 1966. The ICCPR which entered into force in March 1976 had been ratified and acceded to by 132 States, including Mauritius three months later. In addition to the right of self-determination and the right to equality and freedom from discrimination, this covenant sets out the right to life; the right to freedom from torture and slavery; the right to liberty and security of persons; the right to freedom of movement and residence; the right to equal protection of laws; the right to privacy; the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; the right to freedom of expression; the right to freedom of assembly and association; and the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs. This covenant has two optional protocols (the first one allowing for the bringing of individual complaints and the second one aiming at the abolition of the death penalty). Mauritius is one of the 85 States which has become party to the first protocol enabling the Human Rights Committee to receive and consider individual complaints. The second one relating to the death penalty has not been ratified or acceded to by Mauritius, although the death penalty has been removed from the law. 4.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES 4.2.1 Human Rights Provisions in the Constitution The Independence Constitution of 1968 is the Supreme Law of Mauritius, that is any law that is passed by Parliament but is inconsistent with any clause of the Constitution is null and void. It provides a framework for the laws and the legal protection of human rights. Chapter II of the constitution guarantees a variety of Fundamental Rights and Freedom of the Individual drawn from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in some cases replicating the wording of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The specific rights guaranteed in this Chapter include the following: the right to life, the right to personal liberty, protection from slavery and forced labour, protection from inhuman treatment, protection from deprivation of property, protection for privacy of home and other property, freedom of conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association, freedom to establish schools, freedom of movement (with certain restrictions as in any other democratic country), protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, caste and place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed. 60 The Constitution does not embody the broad range of civil and political rights found in the Universal Declaration, the European Convention, or the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The following rights are absent from the basic rights or freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of Mauritius. • • • • • Right to recognition Right to effective remedy Right to asylum Right to nationality Right to marry and form a family There are derogations from the basic freedoms for prescribed public interest purposes unless the legal restriction in question is shown “not to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society”. The legal restriction is usually allowed in the interest of defence, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, for the purpose of protecting the rights or freedoms of other persons. The most obvious derogation is the case of a person who loses his right to personal liberty if he is sent to prison by a court of law for having committed a criminal offence. There are provisions in the Constitution for further derogations during a period of public emergency. In 1986, Section 8 of the Constitution was amended to make it explicit that the court is authorised to confiscate the ill- gotten wealth of convicted drug traffickers. 4.2.2 Reform of the Judiciary There have been important developments in the context of the Judiciary. A Commission was set up, to look into the reforms of the Judiciary with a view to rationalising and removing anomalies in the interest of the rapid and efficient administration of justice. The Commission, presided over by Lord Mackay38 has now submitted its report with a number of recommendations (listed below) which are being implemented either through legislation or administration procedures. Government benefited from UNDP support in this exercise. 1. The need for the establishment of other redress mechanisms than the Supreme Court, such as strengthening the role of Ombudsman or establishing an independent National Human Rights Commission. 2. From the perspective of human rights, the Commission found it of utmost importance that the case for or against retention of Privy Council appeals be addressed and debated. 3. It would be most desirable to have one National Human Rights Commission possibly with several advisory Bodies or Committees devoted to women’s rights, Children’s rights, non-discrimination and equal opportunity and other particularly important issues. One of the provisions of the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1998 is the setting up of the National Human Rights Commission. 4. The establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address the use of excessive force by the police in carrying out their mandate. 61 5. The issues of prisoner’s rights and human rights in the prison administration system need to be carefully examined with a view to effecting improvement in the existing prison service. 6. The establishment of a National Committee for Human Rights Education by the 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998). 4.2.3 Local Government Reforms The Sooben Commission, 39 set up to make recommendations for reforms at the level of local government, has just submitted its report. Some of its main recommendations are the conversion of a number of large villages into municipalities, and the mode of functioning of the four district councils to be like that of the municipalities. The Commission has also recommended the creation of a Rodrigues Island Council whose members will be elected instead of nominated as they are at present. Although this proposal appears to have obtained the consensus of all parties concerned, there is apprehension that, given that a large majority of educated Rodriguans are civil servants and are unable to participate in elections, under existing legislation, very few suitable persons will be eligible to participate in those elections. Although the same regulation applies in Mauritius, the situation is less problematic with the large pool of persons from liberal professions or in the private sector who are able to engage in active politics. In general the report seems to have received some adverse comments because it has not addressed crucial issues of decentralisation of local government administration which remains a sensitive issue. 4.3 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS 4.3.1 Legal Amendments to consolidate Good Governance There has been in the last few years an important rise in the level of conscientisation over certain important human rights issues reflected in the following decisions taken: 1. Revocation in 1994 of the POA (Public Order Act) and its replacement by the PGA (Public Gathering Act). The POA of 1970 was considered to be too repressive because of the considerable powers it gave to the Commissioner of Police whose decision was final. The Act was revoked in 1994 and replaced by the Public Gathering Act which contains provision for recourse to the Supreme Court to appeal against the decision of the Commissioner of Police. (The newly introduced and very controversial Public Security Act will be discussed more fully in a later section.) 2. Amendment of the Newspaper and Periodicals Act in 1990 to remove the repressive aspects of the amendments brought to the Act in 1984, which it was felt interfered with the freedom of the Press, mainly through the requirement that large deposit be made to the authorities before a newspaper or periodical is published. 62 3. Setting up an Anti Corruption Tribunal. Since then the legislation relating to the setting up the Tribunal has been revoked in 1999 following pressures to replace it by a more stringent piece of legislation. However the new legislation has not materialised yet with the result that the anti Corruption Tribunal no longer exists. Many other amendments to existing laws or new laws relating to women’s and children’s rights will be dealt with in the directly relevant sections of the report. Several pieces of legislation related to civil and political rights are currently being drafted or debated. These are the Equal Opportunities Act, the liberalisation of Broadcasting Services, the setting up of a Press Council, the reform of electoral procedures, and the Public Security Bill. 4.3.2 Equal Opportunities Act It is felt that discrimination still persists on a fairly large scale on the grounds of sex and ethnicity, particularly in the employment sector. The present Government has mentioned a few times its intention of introducing a Sex Discrimination Act and an Equal Opportunities Act to ensure that Section 16 of the Constitution guarantees effective protection against discriminatory practices. With regard to ethnic discrimination in the labour market, approximately fifteen years ago, it was suggested that a National Employment Agency be set up with a view to controlling discriminatory practices in recruitment policies in the private sector where jobs are not advertised and there is no public accountability as in the public sector. Through such an agency, there can be recourse to the Supreme Court should a person feel discriminated against on the basis of his race or ethnicity. The Government decided not to go ahead with this plan because of its very complex legal implications and strong resistance from the private sector. 4.3.3 Reform of Electoral Procedures In 1998, there was a UN needs assessment mission for electoral procedures reform which was followed by a multi- lateral mission of experts to review the procedures in place. It is to be noted that Government has not implemented the recommendations of the UNDESA mission. However, the introduction of transparent ballot boxes has already been introduced in the same effort to improve electoral procedures. 4.3.4 Public Security Act Following the riots of February 1999, and the other violent incidents which occurred in the course of the year, there has been a great deal of pressure from various quarters to consolidate Law and Order. The recent introduction of the Public Security Act (PSA) forms part of Government’s efforts to consolidate law and order. This Act, which gives considerable powers to the Commissioner of Police in matters of Public Security, is viewed by trade unions and other grassroots organisations as containing serious 63 infringements to basic human rights and they feel it should be withdrawn. It should be noted that the Act has not yet been promulgated due to numerous appeals to Government to reconsider some of its provisions. 4.4 OBSTACLES TO I MPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES Mauritius has had a fairly long and impressive track record with respect to its interest in and commitment to human rights. As shown in the first section of this chapter, the country is signatory to most of the international conventions and treaties in this field and it is committed to further consolidation of democracy and human rights of the individual. There are also numerous NGOs engaged in the field human rights, such as Amnesty International (Mauritius Branch), the Indian Ocean Institute for Human Rights, SOS (Battered Women), Women’s Liberation Movement, Women’s Legal Watch, and The Comité des Droits Démocratique (CDD). Many trade unions and grassroots organisations are also active in the field of human rights education and in working for the protection and further consolidation of human rights. In the last few decades, Mauritians have generally become much more sensitised to human rights issues through exposure to workshops and seminars by international organisations (mainly UN agencies based locally) and other NGOs. The Government has also shown commitment by introducing a number of amendments to laws to comply with the international instruments. (mentioned above and in other sections of the report) However, as is well known all over the world, legislation is not enough to put an end to human rights violations. There are still numerous cases of such violations, largely undiscovered, especially where women and children are concerned. Police brutality has been another source of great concern and will be addressed in more detail in a later section. One of the major constraints of implementation so far has been of an organisational nature, and it is hoped that it will be overcome with the setting up of the Human Rights Commission. Individuals who have felt that their rights have been violated have not always had the necessary support to defend their case. NGOs have had limited capacity to provide such support although there have been quite a few cases, especially with respect to police brutality, where they have invested enormously into the defence of individuals whose rights had been violated. The scarcity of lawyers engaged in human rights work and the low level of engagement of civil society in this field, has also been another serious constraint. However, there have been some positive signs in the recent past with a number of lawyers, mainly women, showing interest and commitment in this field. Another constraint has been the absence of an understanding of the real meaning of good governance. The holding of elections on a regular basis is a condition sine qua non for the exercise of democratic rights but is not enough to ensure the full exercise of an individual’s political rights. The use of electoral bribery on a massive scale and the absence of control on political party funding can have a very distorting effect on the 64 democratic process. This issue was addressed in the Mission Report on Electoral Procedures but recommendations have not been implemented so far. There are inevitable political constraints to any remedial action here as it would affect all the major parties. Constraints are also of an economic nature. Inevitably the victims of violations, such as police brutality and electoral bribery, are generally fro m the weaker sections of society in economic, social and political terms. This precariousness makes them inevitable targets of police brutality and also easy prey for electoral bribery. The past few decades have witnessed a systematic decline in commitment to political ideology, and this has had a very unfortunate impact on the exercise of democratic rights. People are quite happy to bargain their support against electoral bribes of various forms, ranging from cash to the promise of a job. Socio-cultural constraints are more important in the exercise of women’s and children’s rights. There are still some deeply rooted family traditions which emphasise the subservience of women and children and continue to resist the idea that women and children have rights and should be allowed to exercise them. The way that women have been socialised and the way that the family is organised in most parts of the world has made it difficult for women to know about their rights and to exercise them fully. The issues are being discussed in greater detail in later sections of the report. The absence of systematic and formal human rights education in the school system and of sensitisation programmes in civil society at large has also been a major constraint. 4.5 CRITICAL D EVELOPMENT GAPS 4.5.1 Parliamentary Democracy Over the past two decades, there has been considerable dissatisfaction with and questioning of the present electoral system based on the “first past the post” principle. It is possible for political parties to obtain a fair percentage of votes at the national level, up to 30% in 1982, and not to elect a single member of the Assembly. Since 1982, there have been five general elections in 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991 and 1995. In 1982 and 1995 the alliance of parties that formed the government elected all their candidates in all the constituencies as a result of which there was no opposition in Parliament except for the four nominated best losers which all had to come from opposition parties. The absence of an elected opposition in Parliament makes a mockery of the democratic process with a situation where 30% or more of the electorate who voted for the opposition may end up having no representative at all in Parliament. The two factors responsible for this state of affairs are the “first past the post” system and the system of pre-electoral coalitions between the major parties, giving very little chance to smaller parties to emerge and present themselves a potential alternatives. The issue of funding also poses a disproportionate disadvantage for smaller parties which are not regarded by party funders as having any chance of being represented in Parliament. There have been persisting demands for reform of the electoral system with some form of proportional representatio n, which would allow parties to elect some of their members on 65 the basis of the percentage of votes obtained at the national level. This would ensure that there is an effective opposition in Parliament. Although there is general consensus that a new system must be worked out, there is apprehension of the impact that proportional representation could have on interethnic relations. Extreme care will have to be taken with regard to this factor in the formulation of any new electoral system. There are already special provisions in the electoral system to safeguard the rights of minorities in elections. The best loser system provides for the nomination of 8 additional members to be nominated to Parliament from the list of losers with the highest score belonging to communities that are under represented in the first list of elected members. Opinions are strongly divided on this issue; some people feel that the best loser system may be preventing a move away from ethnic politics, while for others, any dismantle ment of the present system would lead to more serious ethnic tensions. It should be noted here that the calculations being made for determining best losers is being done on the basis of the 1972 elections, given that in all the censuses after 1972, there is no question on ethnic appurtenance. A consensus seems to have been reached among all political parties about the need to introduce a quota to ensure a higher level of women’s participation in national and local elections. 4.5.2 Local Government Local government funding and administration is of critical importance in the Mauritian situation not only in terms of the consolidation of democratic principles but also in terms of ethnic distribution and sharing of power. The geographical dispersal of ethnic groups has for historical reasons led to a concentration of Hindus and Muslims in rural regions and Creoles in urban regions. Municipal Councils have very limited powers to generate funds and therefore become largely dependent on Central Government. The relationship between Central Government and local administration at the Municipal level has often been tinted with ethnic undertones. The issue of regional administration in the island of Rodrigues has also been the subject of similar tensions and is an issue which still needs to be resolved. Rodriguans have been asking for greater autonomy. The wide economic and social disparities between the two islands for a long time have nurtured considerable mistrust, bordering on hostility towards Mauritians. Village and district councils are in an even worse situation as they cannot generate any funds at all through the rural tax which all successive governments have talked about but not implemented for fear of loss of rural support. At the level of village councils the problem of decentralisation of power is perhaps even more acute, as they receive annual grants from Central Government which hardly allows them the possibility of engaging in important development projects at a local level. At this level the concern is much less connected with the issues of ethnic sharing of power but is still very much related to the issue of low levels of participatory democracy and resulting uneven development. 66 4.5.3 The Press Mauritius has a very vibrant Press which has existed for 225 years. It enjoys the legal freedom of a normal democratic society and there are different categories of newspapers generally classified as pro- government, pro-opposition, independent, representing a particular religious group, or specialising in a particular topic or interest. The language used by the Press is generally French. For the past few years there have been discussions about the necessity to set up a Press Council with the main objectives of maintaining ethical standards in journalism as well as protecting the independence of the journalist. However, no consensus seems to have been reached by the body of journalists, some of whom feel that this may be a ploy on the part of Government to control the Press. The relationship between the government of the day and the Press is not always an easy one, the Press seeing itself as having the role of watch-dog or even that of a “contre-pouvoir”. For historical reasons the local press has been largely controlled by the General Population, most probably because of that community’s relative ease with the French language. A Freedom of Information Act was mentioned in the present Government’s programme but has not been introduced yet. The Internet has become quite an important source of information and entertainment. Facilities are continuously being upgraded and some 6000 families and many schools are connected through the Mauritius Telecom services. 4.5.4 The Liberalisation of Broadcasting Services The issue of liberalisation has been hotly debated for a number of years and although general consensus seems to have been reached that broadcasting services should be liberalised, the MBC continues to maintain its monopoly on radio broadcasting. The considerable delay that there has been for the introduction of this piece of legislation seems to indicate that there might still be some political hesitation to bring about these changes in the broadcasting sector. Broadcasting services although managed by a public corporation is still very much under government control. The public perception of the MBC is that it is at the service of the Government of the day, in spite of the fact that according to the MBC Act, the national broadcasting service should be independent. The re-broadcasting of TV channels obtained by satellite by private enterprises has now been permitted as a result of a court action. The intention announced by the new Government elected in 1995 to further liberalise broadcasting services and to set up an Independent Broadcasting Authority has not materialised yet. 4.5.5 Public Administration The need for reform in public administration has been strongly felt for the last few decades as the country becomes even more absorbed in the global market-oriented economy. There was an increasing realisation that the civil service would need to be 67 transformed into an enterprise- friendly public administration to meet the challenges of globalisation and sustainable development. In an era where accountability and quality assurance will become conditions sine qua non for the regular evaluation of the functioning of any organisation, there is need to completely rethink the organisation of the public service. The public service is often viewed as being less efficient than the private sector which is run on commercial principles of output efficiency. As the public sector deals largely with services, other yardsticks of efficiency must be used. Given the difference in the nature of the output between these two sectors, it is difficult to ascertain to what extent security of employment in the public sector has contributed to waste and inefficiency. However, under the pressure of public dissatisfaction and international funding agencies, both central and local administration have started to subcontract an increasing number of services, such as maintenance services, security, refuse collection etc. Many government departments have been turned into public companies run on commercial lines and modern management principles, to reduce the load of bureaucratic constraints and inefficiency. There is a general consensus that the system must be reviewed and the sector reorganised for even greater efficiency. One of the major problems has been at the level of recruitment policies. There is at present no proper aptitude testing to measure the person’s real suitability for a job. Another problem is also the lack of proper monitoring or rather ‘mentoring’ from superiors when a young person joins the service. There should be a training period for all categories of new recruits. Another problem has been the absence of a well defined continuous training strategy at all stages of the civil servant’s career in the service. The relationship between the government of the day and civil servants also needs to be closely studied. There have been quite a few cases where civil servants have had to carry the burden of responsibility for actions performed under the directives of Ministers. Civil servants must be trained and properly equipped to deal with such situations. An important report has recently been submitted to Government on civil service reform and contains a number of recommendations which still remains to be implemented (The Burrenchobay Report).40 One of the issues which needs to be seriously addressed is the non- implementation of recommendations contained in reports and ways of getting involved in policy advocacy to encourage implementation especially on very important and critical issues. The UN system could assist Government to overcome some of the constraints and obstacles to non-implementation. 4.5.6 Law and Order Apart from the riots of February 1999, the rise in criminality has led to a certain feeling of insecurity in the population about the situation of law and order and the efficiency of the Police Force. There is worry not only about the growing incidence of crimes but also the nature of these crimes which seem to be getting more violent and in some ways more professional, frequently with the support of fire arms. There have been several incidents 68 of tourist attacks, some of which have been covered in the international media. This is a source of great concern for tourist operators. One of the country’s greatest assets was that it had been for a long time one of the most secure tourist destinations of the world. The Government has taken some important measures to reorganise the police force where training is being given paramount importance. The University of Mauritius in collaboration with Portsmouth University of the UK is at present running a BSc course in Police Studies for police officers. There have been numerous complaints of police brutality especially towards persons detained in police cells. Enquiries have uncovered some disturbing factors in a few cases. Special attention must be given to the role of the police in deprived areas. Officers posted in such areas must be given the right support and be equipped with the necessary training to understand the local community and deal with them more efficiently. The incidents which occurred last year had very powerful ethnic and racial undercurrents and could have ignited the country in a matter of hours. It is important therefore that the grass-root administration of law and order be seen to be free of any socio-ethnic bias. The administration of prisons has to be reviewed in the light of the very serious incidents that have been occurring recently. The most recent incident was a firearm attack on a prison officer just outside the prison. There are reports of some major problems in prisons, such as inadequate capacity for the prison population, homosexuality, material conditions of imprisonment, inadequate social and professional rehabilitation. The socioethnic distribution of the prison population is a cause of concern. Almost three-quarters of the prison population come from the most depressed suburban areas where there is a heavy ethnic concentration of two minority groups, namely Creoles and Muslims. The high rate of recidivism in prison communities has a tendency to lock prisoners in this vicious circle of criminality and tends to perpetuate a crime culture among certain groups. This can have very damaging effects on inter-ethnic relationships. Greater effort should be made to run more effective social and professional rehabilitation programmes. One of the most important Government response to the problem of law and order has been the introduction of the Public Security Act which is a causing much controversy as explained in Section 4.3.4 above. Lord Mackay41 has proposed the establishment of a Police Complaints Bureau to address the use of excessive force by the police in carrying out their mandate. This measure is currently being implemented. 4.5.7 The Judiciary There has been a considerable increase in peoples’ awareness of their rights and privileges over the last few decades leading to a dramatic increase in demand for judicial services which have not expanded at the same rate. There is as a result considerable delay in judicial processes. One of the measures proposed some years ago, which wo uld have reduced the pressure is the setting up of a Family Court that will have jurisdiction over 69 three broad areas, namely (a) matters currently dealt with by the Supreme Court such as divorce and separation (b) issues currently covered by the Juvenile Offences Act (c) cases ranging from battered wives, abused children, and simple family property disputes. More recently some of these issues have been dealt with in the Mackay report42 and recommendations made were not on the same lines as the previous ones. There is a need to take stock of all the various recommendations made and agree on the most appropriate ones so that the implementation process can be speeded up. In spite of high literacy levels of Mauritians, legal literacy is rather low, even among the educated. It is important that simplified versions of laws, such as those relating to marriage and the family and to workers rights, be popularised and made easily accessible for the public at large. 4.6 K EY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED The problem of non- implementation of recommendations from reports is sensitive in the area of civil and political rights but nonetheless needs to be addressed. Part of the constraint could be political but much of it could be of a practical nature, namely scarcity of appropriately trained human resources or could result from absence of information or lack of appropriate advocacy work to overcome resistance from certain quarters. The following key issues have been identified as requiring urgent attention: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Assistance in re-examining the implications of the Public Security Act Setting up of the National Human Rights Commission Support for possible reforms of the electoral system to consolidate democracy Support to decentralisation of local government Assistance in the formulation and operation of an Equal Opportunities Act Reform and modernisation of public administration and prison services Strengthening the Police Complaints Bureau Stepping up of training and support services for the Police to operate more effectively 9. Setting up of a Press Council 10. Liberalisation of broadcasting services 70 5.0 HEALTH, POPULATION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH 5.1 GLOBAL CONFERENCES None of the UN Global Conferences dealt exclusively with issues of health. However a number of them, especially the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, in 1994 covered mainly health issues. Many health issues were also covered by various Conferences on Women and the World Summit for Children upon which the CRC was developed. The International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994, dealt extensively with reproductive health and also showed the population issue in a much wider perspective in terms of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of all parties, roping in gender issues, child’s rights, the environment etc. Most of these issues are examined in the section on women. The Conference stressed that the aim of family planning programmes must be to enable couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children, and to have the information and means to do so and to ensure informed choices and make available the full range of safe and effective methods. Regarding the reproductive health care issue, the major recommendations included: • • • • • 71 All countries should strive to make accessible through the primary health-care system, reproductive health to all individuals of appropriate ages as soon as possible and not later than the year 2015. Reproductive health care in the context of primary health care should, inter alia include: family planning and services for prenatal care, safe delivery and post natal care; breast feeding counselling, information, education, communication and services. Areas covered should include education; prevention and appropriate treatment of infertility; abortion, including prevention of abortion and the management of the consequences of abortion; treatment of reproductive tract infections; education about and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases; information, education and counselling on human sexuality, reproductive health and responsible parenthood. Reproductive health-care programmes should be designed to serve the needs of women, including adolescents and must involve women in the leadership, planning, decision-making, management, implementation, organisation and evaluation of services. Governments and other organisations should take positive steps to include women at all levels of the health-care system. Innovative programmes must be developed to make information, counselling and services for reproductive health accessible to adolescents and adult men. Such programmes must both educate and enable men to share more equally in family planning and in domestic and child-rearing responsibilities and to accept the major responsibility for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. The issue of family planning goes far beyond concerns limited to the mere control of the population. Although the main target group in the field of reproductive health consists firstly of women of childbearing age, it covers much broader areas such as the well being of all members of the family. All human beings at different periods of their lives are potentially concerned by a reproductive health problem. 5.1.1 Rights versus Needs Approach in Health The Rights approach as opposed to the needs approach emphasises the right to reproductive health information and services with a view to reducing mortality and reliance on unsafe abortion. This includes the right of access to services and to information and counselling so that the individual is able to make an informed decision on the basis of all available information. This new approach also emphasises that the right to information and counselling about family planning methods and services should be extended to adolescents and youth and the unmarried whose right to equal treatment also implies the same rights as adults to complete confidentiality in the areas of reproductive health care. The Rights approach is sometimes contained in legislation but its implementation is not as easy given certain societal barriers or institutional constraints. It is important to evaluate from time to time the correspondence between provisions of the law and the actual exercise of certain rights. 5.2 G ENERAL H EALTH POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Mauritius has had a free health service within the broad framework of the Welfare State which was introduced in the 1950s. The long-term sustainability of the ‘welfare state model’ is becoming problematic as pressure increases on the various health services and demand grows for high-tech medicine. A study on the financial sustainability of the public health sector, more specifically on the development of a Health Insurance Scheme for the country, was carried out in 1996 to review alternative financing mechanisms in Mauritius. There is no established mechanism for rational distribution and allocation of resources in the health sector which has expanded in a piece meal manner in response to specific problems as they arose. An integrated approach would have ensured greater equity in the distribution of services. The emphasis has moved away from primary health care to hi-tech services with the increasing incidence of non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular problems. In an effort to reduce the pressure on general hospitals, Government adopted a policy of decentralisation of health services through the setting up of primary health care centres all over the country. Unfortunately, there is systematic bypassing of primary health care centres which is a major impediment to the overall functioning of the health care system. 72 5.2.1 Reproductive Health Policies An important landmark in the field of reproductive health policies dates back to the setting up of the Herchenroder Commission in 1953 to look into health issues at the time. The Report’s main recommendations were to improve the social position of the people, improve the status of women, restrict early marriage, provide better health care, encourage emigration, seek international assistance for family planning and set up integrated family planning services. The major part of the ICPD objectives have more or less been achieved and in some cases Mauritius may have even gone beyond the conference goals. There is no explicit document on national population policy, however since the 1960s, Government has been strongly committed to family planning. Government policies and measures taken in this field have since then succeeded in averting the Malthusian nightmare scenario which was building up in the 1960s, with a 3% growth rate of the population. Family Planning services were introduced by the Mauritius Family Planning Association (MFPA), a nongovernmental organisation, supported by the IPPF and joined later in 1963, by a Catholic Organisation, Action Familiale, engaged in the promotion of natural methods. Family planning services were gradually transferred to the Ministry of Health in the 1970s, with the help of UNFPA. However the MFPA and the Action Familiale continue to operate on a modest scale and benefit from Government grants. 5.3 OBSTACLES , UNDERLYING CAUSALITIES AND D EVELOPMENT GAPS IN THE H EALTH SECTOR 5.3.1 Main Health Indicators It could generally be said that the universality of access to primary health care has been achieved in Mauritius. The small size of the island and comprehensive transport network, as well as the decentralisation of services have been the major facilitating factors. However there are still problem areas, such as the persisting high infant mortality rates (the IMR has ranged between 18-22 from 1990-1998)43 and the high incidence of low birth weight babies (less than 2500 grammes). Government hospital records show that the rate of low birth weight babies has been increasingly consistently as follows: 9.5% in 1991, 13.9% in 1995 and 14.3% in 1998. The target of 5% fixed for the year 1995 would not have been achieved even in the year 2000. Some incidence of malnutrition and youth anaemia has been detected by some studies 44 although there is controversy over the extent of the problem. The SSR Medical Centre of the University of Mauritius has made public in February 2000, some findings of a study which indicate fairly high levels of anaemia in the youth population, especially girls. A study carried out by the Ministry of Health in 1985 45 and 1995 46, indicated much lower incidence although there is agreement about high levels of anaemia in the Rodriguan population. It is generally felt that industrialisation, longer working hours, less healthy food habits, sedentary occupations, and lack of exercise may be having negative effects on the health status of the population, especially women. 73 5.3.2 Recent Population Trends47 The main thrust of the population policy in this decade was to maintain the Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR) at the replacement level and to bring down by 10% the fertility rates of women in the age group 15-18, 25-29 and 40 + through intensive population and family life education and family planning services. Crude birth rate has dropped from 21.3 (per thousand population) in 1990 to 16.7 in 1998. Mauritius is already facing the problems of an ageing population with the child dependency ratio decreasing from 470 in 1990 to 366 in 2015 and 363 in 2040 at the same time as the old age dependency ratio increases from 135 in 1990 to 198 in 2015 and 343 in 2040. The total fertility rate decreased from 3.05 in 1973 to 2.20 in 1983 and 1.94 in 1986 which is the lowest ever recorded in Mauritius but had increased to 2.12 in 1996 and decreased again to 1.96 in 1998. The GRR has decreased gradually from 1.16 in 1993 to 0.96, which is below replacement level in 1998. This dramatic adjustment in fertility was mainly due to the postponement of age of marriage and use of contraceptive methods. The mean age of marriage for women rose from 19.8 in 1962 to 23.8 in 1990. There is no doubt that family planning intervention programmes must have played an important role but there have also been other underlying factors such as the improvement of health, the educational status of women, and general economic and social conditions of the population. The entry of women into the labour force had a very direct effect on the postponement and spacing of births within marriage. Aggressive domiciliary motivation campaigns on a face-to-face basis carried out in both rural and urban areas, were also critical factors. This was possible a few decades ago when women were more accessible. Even those who were employed in the agricultural sector were accessible for such campaigns after their working hours. The situation is very different now with the longer working hours of women in industrial factories and the difficulties of reaching them for information and motivation campaigns. There is a need for a total review of IEC techniques aimed at working women. 5.3.3 Acceptors and Users of Family Planning There were 213 family planning service points on the island of Mauritius and 12 in Rodrigues in 1998. Out of the 213 service points in Mauritius, there were 6 Family Planning Supply Centres and 61 industrial Family Planning supply centres.48 The Contraceptive Prevalence Survey conducted in 1985 49 found that 80% of women in unions between the ages of 15-44 were using a method of contraception. A follow up to the 1985 CPS was carried out in 1991, 50 and showed that the percentage had dropped to 75% of which 50% relate to modern contraceptive methods. It is a matter of serious concern that a decrease has been noted in the prevalence of users of contraceptive methods and this is a problem which should be further investigated so that the causes of this trend can be identified. 74 The oral pill has remained for a long time the most commonly used method of contraceptive. However a new trend has been detected in records of agencies, indicating a shift away from more reliable forms of contraceptives to less reliable ones, such as the withdrawal and rhythm methods. Among users, it is estimated that the percentage of those using oral pills has dropped from 10.28% of the estimated female population aged 15-49 in 1990 to 7.33% in 1998, whereas for the rhythm method, the percentage has increased from 6.96% to 7.92% over that same period. 51 It should be noted that in 1996, the percentage of those using the rhythm method had exceeded for the first time that of those using the pill. These estimates should however be treated with caution as the figures recorded exclude those who buy contraceptives from pharmacies. It may also be noted that with more women in the labour market, and longer working hours, there has been a shift away from FP agencies to private pharmacies. 5.3.4 Teenage Pregnancy Although the age specific fertility rate in the 15-19 age group has increased from a low of 39.60 in 1986 to 45.8 in 1991, it has gone down again gradually to reach 35.3 in 1998. However about 10% of the total births in Mauritius in 1997 occurred in the age group 1519, far above the figure of 4% which is the normally expected percentage for a country with a TFR of 2.1. Moreover, 10% of all pregnancies, live births and admissions to hospitals for complications arising from abortions are for women under the age of 19. 52 5.3.5 Complications at child birth Normal deliveries in hospitals are nearly always carried out by midwives, and a small number of normal deliveries and all instrumental and caesarean deliveries are carried out by doctors. In 1998, the number of deliveries in hospitals represented 84% of all deliveries in the island. 53 In the private nursing homes, nearly all deliveries are carried out by doctors. In 1998, deliveries in these homes represented 14.6% of all deliveries. 97% of all deliveries in the island are carried out by qualified personnel either in hospital or in private homes. The increase in the incidence of low birth weight babies is causing concern and has been discussed more fully in the chapter on children. In Rodrigues, in 1998, 85.8% of all deliveries in the island were carried out in the hospital at Creve Coeur and health centres at Mont Lubin and La Ferme. 9.1% of the babies were underweight and there were 3 stillbirth cases out of the 597 deliveries. 54 The incidence of low birth weight babies is much higher in the island of Mauritius than it is in the island of Rodrigues. 5.3.6 Reproductive Tract Neoplasm There is evidence of an increase in the incidence of breast, cervix and prostrate cancer. Cases of breast cancer treated in hospitals was 146 in 1996, 171 in 1997 and 177 in 1998. Deaths due to malignant neoplasm of female breast increased from 22 in 1991 to 50 in 1995 and 61 in 1999. The number of cases treated as in-patients due to malignant 75 neoplasm of the cervix uterus in government hospitals was 99 in 1991, 211 in 1995 and 230 in 1998. The national cervical cancer-screening programme was launched in January 2000. The immediate objective is to clear the backlog estimated to be approximately 170,000 cases over a five year period. 5.3.7 STDs and HIV/AIDS TABLE 4: R EPORTED CASES OF SYPHILLIS AND GONORRHOEA ( 1995-1999) 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Syphilis 45 33 49 27 41 28 20 17 16 13 Gonorrhoea 155 14 243 17 214 25 150 15 134 26 Source: Ministry of Health As can be seen from above table, there has been a decline in the number of reported cases of syphilis for both men and women over the last five years. The figures for gonorrhoea seem to be erratic and it is therefore difficult to detect any definite trend in one way or another. The first HIV positive case was detected in 1987 and the cumulative figure reached up to January 2000 among residents was the following: full blown cases and of HIV Positive Asymptomatic: 175 (117 males and 58 females) and 46 persons have passed away since 1987. Among non-residents the corresponding figure over the same period is 55 (46 males and 9 females). 55 Over the past five years, all the 25 cases were in the age group (25-50) for both males and females. Although the number of detected cases have not reached alarming proportions, there should be no room for complacency as there are numerous examples of other countries where large numbers of cases had remained hidden over fairly long periods of time before they could be detected. Two organisations are at present active in this field, the AIDS Unit of the Ministry of Health and a new NGO (PILS), both involved in educational and support programmes for those affected and their families. There are however serious constraints at the level of human and financial resources. It is believed that the high risk group in the population, namely commercial sex workers, make very little use of condoms. According to some unpublished sources only 20% are systematic users of condoms in that group. There is apprehension that official figures grossly underestimate the real extent of the problem. Systematic pre-marital and pre-pregnancy testing and easier access to condoms among the young remain highly sensitive and taboo and should be discussed more freely and openly. There has however been marked progress with respect to screening of pregnant women which is currently being carried out on a voluntary basis. When this was first introduced, there was fairly strong resistance to testing. However it is estimated that now, almost 90% of pregnant women attending ante natal clinics are screened for HIV. 76 5.3.8 Newly emerging Health issues Factors such as the ageing population, changing life styles, and more women entering the labour market will all lead to new needs and growing pressure on health services. Although health statistics show definite improvements in the health status of the population, the infant mortality and low birth weight rates remain high. There has also been a dramatic rise in NCDs, namely cardiovascular diseases and diabetes as well as cancer. Some of these problems could in fact be direct consequences of the rapid transformation of an agricultural economy to an industrial one in less than a couple of decades. This period of rapid economic growth seems to have coincided with decreasing emphasis on preventive care, community-initiated and community-led health programmes as well as a general relaxation of effort in the field of health education. Some of the reasons could be that as more and more people, especially women, entered the labour force and children got caught up in the infernal spiral of competition at school, there was less time for and interest in health education and other community based educational programmes. The revolution in information technology and media could have made easier mass transmission of information but they have more often been at the service of commercial interests than of educational ones. In this context it is important to strengthen community-based primary health centres to ensure quality health care and encourage a participatory approach to health care. The overall referral system needs to be reinforced without jeopardising endeavours currently under way to upgrade Area Health Centres located in the under-served areas into MediClinics (Community Day Care Hospitals). There is a need to strengthen continuous training programmes for medical and paramedical staff. Continuous Medical Education has already started but should be extended to all other categories of health professionals. The organisational structure at the central level, namely the Ministry, has outlived itself and no longer meets the emerging demands and characteristics of health services provision. It has to be reengineered along corporate lines with greater transparency, accountability and effectiveness in policy- making and definition of clear strategic orientations. The same principles should apply to the management structure at the peripheral levels especially the regional level where there is a semblance of decentralisation on paper but this is absent in practice and besides, it is not participatory leading to de-motivation of staff and operational inefficiency. There has to be a continuous monitoring and evaluation of the process and appropriate corrective action taken on the basis of such evaluation as required. 5.4 NEW CHALLENGES IN REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH AND POPULATION Without a doubt, the programme of birth control over the past 30 years has been a remarkable success, reflected in the sharp drop in population growth rates to almost 77 replacement level. It should be noted that the high abortion rates must have contributed substantially to this drastic reduction in birth rate. This means that although the motivation to have fewer children has become very strong it is not being matched by the same level of motivation at the level of the use of contraceptive methods. The problem may be at the level of information and education and/or appropriateness and accessibility of services. This problem needs to be thoroughly studied being given changing life styles and earlier exposure to sexual activity among youth. It is often said that the resounding success of the family planning programmes which started in the 1950s was due to the fact that women were accessible and could be reached in their own home environment for face-to-face interactive canvassing sessions. The situation is now very different with the large numbers of women in industrial worksites where health education sessions of a sensitive nature such as reproductive health can prove to be very difficult if not impossible. In fact even the attempts to set up mobile access clinics for contraceptives on these industrial sites are not proving to be very efficient. Health and more specifically sex education becomes even more important as more and more girls enter the labour force at an earlier age and become exposed to the possibility of becoming involved with male partners at an earlier age. A Study carried out in 199356 on young unmarried working women in the EPZ and AIDS-related risk behaviour showed that some girls may not be properly equipped to cope with the new experiences they are being exposed to in their emotional and sexual lives. The recent arrival of large numbers of young unmarried women foreign workers in the EPZ sector has further heightened concern over this issue. It is important that workers organisations, such as trade unions or workers councils and the management of different work sectors be sensitised on the importance of health education campaigns around these serious issues. It is likely that in the future health education campaigns will have to be conducted on the work site. Men have also been largely left out of motivation and education programmes resulting in their lack of interest in the issue. This must be remedied within the overall perspective of the need to strengthen male parenting roles and to re-engage men into their families. The absence of sex and family life education in schools has already been raised elsewhere and this issue needs to be addressed very urgently. There have been a few attemp ts made at the level of individual schools and associations such as the MFPA to train school teachers in this field but there is need for national concerted action which is the only way of achieving any meaningful and sustained result in this very complex area of human behaviour. Education programmes on sexually transmitted diseases, in particular AIDS, have been carried out with the assistance of UNAIDS and other multilateral agencies, and were quite effective but these need to be reactivated. 78 5.5 K EY AREAS TO BE ADDRESSED IN H EALTH, REPRODUCTIVE H EALTH AND POPULATION 1. Need to strengthen community based primary health services and to encourage a participatory approach. 2. There should be greater emphasis on continuous training programmes for medical and para-medical staff. 3. The organisational structure of health services at the central level should be reviewed and re-engineered along corporate lines with clearer strategic orientations, greater transparency, accountability and effectiveness in policymaking. 4. Sex education programmes aimed at adolescents must be strengthened and made more efficient both in and out of school. Co-ordination between different Ministries such as education, health, women and social security would be essential for the greater efficiency of these programmes. 5. The problem of teenage pregnancy must be addressed. 6. The issue of sexual exploitation of youth, both male and female needs urgent attention given the disturbing findings of a study that has just been carried out by the Ministry of Women, Child Development and Family Welfare on this problem. 7. Couples facing problems of infertility must be given all the necessary and available help in their endeavour. 8. There should be more health education programmes geared towards working women through greater use of audio-visual media techniques. 9. There should be studies on the causes of the high incidence of low birth weight babies, stagnating stillbirth and infant mortality rates which have remained at fairly high levels. The health and general well-being of the mother, in particular her nutritional status, must be looked into. It is also important that maternity wards be better equipped. At present there is a scarcity of life support equipment for newborn babies, especially low birth weight babies. 10. At the level of family planning methods, the move to less reliable birth control methods must be studied. 11. Women must be sensitised about the need to start antenatal care early in their pregnancy. At the same time access to such services must take into account women’s time constraints especially those who are working. 12. To promote breastfeeding, the benefits and meaning of exclusive breast feeding for the first 4-6 months should be explained as this is not very well understood. Weaning practices should also be explained to young mothers. 13. A system of screening must be established to detect breast and cervical cancer. 14. The high incidence of abortion cannot be ignored and must be urgently addressed although it is recognised that it is a sensitive issue for religious reasons and must be dealt with very carefully. Further studies should also be conducted to assess the extent of the problem, as well as the profile of women having recourse to abortion and problems encountered by these women. 15. The programme of information and education on STDs and HIV/AIDs in particular should be strengthened. 16. Sensitisation programmes on non-communicable diseases should be supported. 79 6.0 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN 6.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS Out of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 emerged the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (PFA) which affirms the commitment of States to adhere to 12 critical areas of concern regarding women and gender (i.e. poverty, education, health, violence, economy, armed conflict, power and decision making, institutional mechanisms, human rights, media, the environment, and the girl child). The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was ratified by Mauritius in 1985. This Convention cons ists of 30 articles, defines what constitutes discrimination against women, and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination. Mauritius is also a signatory of the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development which ident ified gender mainstreaming as key strategy towards realising gender equality. In 1997, Mauritius signed the Gender and Development Declaration of the SADC Heads of State and the subsequent Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children in 1998. 6.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS As follow- up to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, the Government of Mauritius approved the National Gender Action Plan (NGAP) 57 in December 1999. The NGAP for Mauritius adopts many of the recommendations found in the Beijing Platform for Action and was formulated following extensive consultations with government ministries, NGOs, CBOs, the private sector, and civil society. The Government of Mauritius committed itself to implement the Beijing Platform for Action in the following areas: • • • • 80 Development of a holistic approach to the health and welfare of women with special attention to the girl child, and women at work at home and outside the home Enactment of a Domestic Violence Act coupled with a national Information, Education and Communication campaign Integration of gender issues into government and private sector activities Formulation of a policy to encourage girls to take up technical and non-traditional subjects so that they may engage in professions, which were hitherto, considered as male domains only The MWFWCD has pushed the government to make various legal changes in the constitution in order to ensure more gender equa lity and adherence to CEDAW. These changes are covered in section 6.3.6. 6.3 INTERVENTIONS OF GOVERNMENT, UN AND OTHER PARTNERS 6.3.1 Domestic Violence Following recommendations from the Beijing Conference and in accordance with one of the critical areas of concern in the PFA, the Government of Mauritius has passed a Protection from Domestic Violence Act in November 1997. In May 1998, UNIFEM approved a “Violence against Women project” in Mauritius under its UNIFEM Trust Fund. This project was implemented by MWFWCD and included the setting up of an institutional framework, the sensitisation of the Mauritian public, and the training of its human resources in order to make the new Act fully operational. 6.3.2 Gender Mainstreaming The MWFWCD has set up a Gender Bureau in 1998 to promote gender mainstreaming and gender awareness in public and private sectors, and among civil society through a Gender Management System. The UNDP provided the services of a consultant to assist with this process. Gender focal points have also been identified in all ministries and departments. The Gender Bureau will also be implementing a Gender Sensitisation and Training Strategy in April 2000. The UNDP Mauritius is funding a “Gender and Development in Mauritius” Programme which will promote gender equality and mainstreaming through capacity building and technical assistance. Some of the objectives are to strengthen in-country gender analysis, policy making, and monitoring expertise at MWFWCD; and enhance the national capacity to engender national budgeting mechanisms and data collection and analysis. 6.3.3 Women Entrepreneurship and Poverty A Women Entrepreneurship Unit was set up by the MWFWCD to carry out special training programmes and to give advice to prospective women entrepreneurs. They have also launched a Grameen Microcredit Programme in Rodrigues and Mauritius in December 1997 that is targeted towards poor women in particular. A National Women Entrepreneurs Council was launched in March 2000. A directory of wo men entrepreneurs has been published in 1998.58 A joint UNDP/UNIDO “Gender Mainstreaming and Women Entrepreneurship Development Programme” was set up in January 1997 to promote entrepreneurship development among women by training women in food preparation and food hygeine. The UNDP/ILO “Fight Against Exclusion through Participatory Community Development and Promotion of Income Generating Activities” project in Rodrigues 81 addresses the problem of feminisation of poverty through micro-credit lending. The project began in April 1999 and will cover a period of two years. It aims to create sustainable livelihoods and income-generating jobs, through the promotion of microenterprises for low-skilled poor people, especially poor women. As 20% of households are female-headed in Rodrigues, and these households are the poorest, they make up a large portion of the recipients of credit. 80% of borrowers are women (UNDP 1999).59 The problem of lack of access to credit facilities is specially acute in Rodrigues where more than 50% of the women are engaged in agricultural activities and do not have easy access to credit because of lack of collaterals and technical know-how. There are also currently two other micro-credit programmes targeted towards poor women funded by IFAD and the EU. 6.3.4 The Girl Child MWFWCD has organised a workshop on the theme of “Empowerment of the Girl Child” in 1999 in which various ministries, NGOs, and organisations participated. They have also formulated a National Action Policy on the Girl Child. 6.3.5 Women’s Health The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life has recently launched a programme of screening for cervical cancer in Mauritius and Rodrigues. 6.3.6 Gender and the Law The MWFWCD, through the use of their Legal Advisor, has successfully brought about significant changes to the Napoleon Code since 1981 in favour of gender equality. Some of the major legal provisions are: • • • • • • • • • • 82 Women are no longer considered as minors and their husband’s chattel as they were before. A woman can now choose her profession, set up a business, open bank accounts without the permission of her husband. Women have a choice of matrimonial regime. She can choose to marry and retain control and rights over part of her wealth which does not fall in the common conjugal pool. Divorce can now be granted on the grounds of ‘faute’ or ‘rupture de vie commune.’ The minimum age for marriage without consent is 18. Between the ages of 16 and 18, a girl may get civilly married with her parents’ consent. Any person having sexual intercourse with a female under 16 years of age is liable to prosecution under the criminal code. The labour and Industrial Relations Act which now guarantees the equality of men and women with respect to the individual’s constitutional right to work and protection from unlawful dismissal. There is no legislation yet which guarantees the principle of equal pay for equal work. The National Pension’s Act was amended in 1987 to waive the discrepancy between men and women concerning the payment of a lump sum to the surviving spouse before he or she reaches the age of retirement. Since 1979, the Income Tax Act was amended to allow married women drawing emoluments to choose to be assessed separately from their spouse. In 1992, the Act was again amended to allow women to deduct their contributions to an approved medical scheme, which they could not do before. And in 1993, their financial contributions to the upkeep of the children was finally recognised. There is now • • • • legal provision for a woman who is the head of the household to deduct for her spouse if the latter is unemployed or incapacitated or for some other reason. In 1990, the Jury Act was amended to enable women to sit as jurors. The discrimination against women in the Citizenship Act which previously allowed only a male citizen to transmit his citizenship rights to his spouse was removed in 1995. The Protection form Domestic Violence Bill was passed in 1997 with the view to protect women from domestic violence. The Criminal Code was amended in August 1998 to make sexual harassment a criminal offence. The MWFWCD runs programmes on legal literacy through their network of Women and Family Centres, Women’s Bureaux and Community Resource Centres as well as on work sites. Also, one objective of the UNDP’s “Gender and Development in Mauritius” Programme is to raise awareness of women’s legal and human rights with civil society. This will be done through the production and dissemination of legal brochures and videos in various languages. 6.3.7 Gender and the Media In February 1999, the UNDP funded the mission of an international expert in gender communications to Mauritius to address the negative image of women in the media. 6.3.8 Women’s Political Participation The UNDP’s “Gender and Development in Mauritius” Programme will also promote gender equity in leadership and decision making through an in-depth research study on women’s leadership and political involvement in Mauritius and targeted leadership training for women involved in politics and/or holding leadership positions. 6.4 OBSTACLES FOR SUCCESSFUL FORMULATION OR I MPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES/POLICIES Although an impressive number of administrative and legal changes have been brought to empower women, there are still some major constraints in the way of implementation of strategies and policies. A major constraint has been the lack of appropriately trained human resources to implement the programmes of action in the country as a whole and even within the Ministry (MWFWCD) itself. A lack of co-ordination between relevant ministries and NGOs has also been noted. Much of the work that is being done could be much more effective by being complementary with greater co-ordination and interaction between the different organisations and agencies. Constraints which are cultural in nature are more difficult to overcome as they are very deeply rooted in religion and age-old traditions. Although there have been considerable changes in attitudes towards women who decide to go into the labour market or engage in public life, there is still a lot of ambiguity with regard to changes in women’s role in the household. Women can contribute efficiently in the labour force only if role 83 responsibilities in the household are altered to enable her to juggle with her triple burden, at home, at work and in the community. There are still some major obstacles at this level. The issue of the promotion of cultural diversity in a society like Mauritius complicates matters, as women are often depicted as the main depository and transmitter of cultural traditions, in which the submissive and unobtrusive characteristic of women are regarded to be important values to retain. This creates insurmountable problems for women who choose to go off the beaten track of tradition. Rapid ind ustrialisation created considerable opportunities for women to enter the labour force. However there have also been many costs, such as long working hours, strained conjugal relations and major lifestyle changes, factors which have not always been conducive to women’s fulfilment and empowerment. There is a serious lack of gender disaggregated data at present which hampers effective policy/programme formulation. Although there have been a number of studies carried out by students, academics, practitioners in the field on the gender issue, much more needs to be done in this field. Also, many critical areas of subordination have not been studied. 6.5 ANALYSIS OF G ENDER ISSUES , CAUSALITIES AND D EVELOPMENT GAPS The GDI rank for Mauritius for the year 1997 was 57 on total of 174 countries (Gender Development Index is HDI adjusted for gender inequality). Mauritius ranks 61 on 174 countries on the GEM index table (Gender Empowerment Index which measures participation of women in key areas of economic and political participation and decision making). In 1997, Mauritius performed a little better in HDI but its performance in GDI and GEM has decreased slightly from previous years. 60 6.5.1 Gender Issues in the Economy By far the most important factor which has changed the position of women over the past couple of decades has been the entry of large numbers of women into the labour force as a result of the adoption of the export oriented industrialisation strategy. This has caused some dramatic changes in gender relations and roles. In 1998, the majority (37%) of employed women were found in the EPZ manufacturing sector where average salary is low compared to other sectors. This is followed by the services sector with 25%. The female activity rate has risen from 34.7% in 1990 to 39.4% in 1998.61 However, data on male and female employment still demonstrate a marked tendency for women to be bunched in the low paid and low skill jobs with a very low percentage in positions of high responsibility such as legislators and administrators. Earnings figures compiled by the Statistical Office are not gender disaggregated and thus, it is difficult to assess gender differentials in earnings. Survey data indicates that men have higher earnings than women and this could be explained by more hours of overtime performed by men than by women. 62 In any case, the level of earnings in the manufacturing sector is the lowest among all work sectors in the economy. The 1995 Labour Force Survey63 84 revealed that the median salary for women was Rs. 2,300 while for men it was Rs. 3,500 meaning that women earned around 2/3 as much as men in 1995. The situation seems to be deteriorating because the 1996/97 Household Budget Survey64 showed that the median salary for women was Rs. 3,250 compared to Rs. 5,611 for men. Although women have considerably benefited from employment opportunities with the setting up of the Export Processing Zone, their overall position in the economy remains vulnerable. The EPZ sector is not covered by provisions of the Labour Laws regarding compensation in cases of closure as in other work sectors of the economy. There are also fears that there may have been a de-skilling process in the sense that they have not really benefited from any technology transfer in the low skill jobs that they occupy in factories. There are genuine fears that women might become marginalised with the adoption of new industrial strategies, involving high-tech production processes, given that access to mechanised technology and skills training is highly gendered and male-biased. It is important that women are fully integrated in all technical training schemes which would facilitate a more sustained and long term integration in the labour market. It would also increase their access to a range of employment possibilities in many other sectors. The Mauritius Employers Federation Annual Report of 1997 reveals some disturbing trends with regard to women unemployment levels. In August 1997 out of the 10,855 registered unemployed there were 4736 males and 6119 females which means that women make up 56.4% of the unemployed. The unemployment rate for men increased from 3.1% in 1990 to 3.9% in 1997; for women, it increased from 2.3% to 9.8% in the same time period.65 Rapid industrialisation has dramatically affected gender relations in households, work sites and communities, and has triggered a certain amount of tension and considerable ambivalence about what the role of women should be. Young women’s employment has weakened the influence of the family on attitudes and behaviour of youth generally. A number of studies were carried out on the social impact of industrialisation in the early 1990s. These studies reflect as much concern for the welfare of women workers’ health and wellbeing as they do for their efficient integration in the labour market. The studies focussed on problems of health and nutrition, absenteeism and productivity levels. Recognition of issues such as gender-based violence and sexual harassment has increased. This may be partially due to the fact that women are becoming more economically and socially independent and enjoy considerable support, both informal and organised, which is altering gender relations in households. Reactions to such emerging problems have been varied ranging from a co nservative agenda based on reasserting moral and familial values based on parental and male authority and homemaking roles for women to a more pragmatic and liberal approach highlighting the importance of women in the economy and the need to facilitate the ir efficient integration in the economy. In the sugar industry, women find difficulties in rising to the position of sirdars. Out of 500 sirdars, there are only 2 women. No women are in managerial positions in the sugar industry. 66 85 The structure of the Mauritian economy and the educational system have not contributed to the development of the entrepreneurial spirit, whether it is among men or women. However, the problem is more acute among women for a number of reasons mainly linked to traditional attitudes regarding women’s role in the family. Apart from women’s lack of access to credit, information networks, and inhibitions and lack of selfconfidence, there is considerable resistance to her involvement in male dominated business networks, and her interaction with male business partners outside normal family parameters. There has been some improvement over the past few years. A directory of women entrepreneurs67 was published in 1998 with a total number of 86 women who had registered their enterprises: 21 in textile, 12 in various crafts, 3 in pottery, 2 in metal products, 5 in leather products, 2 in wood products, 21 in services (kindergartens, driving schools etc) and 20 in food processing. 6.5.2 Gender Inequality in Decision-Making According to the MWFWCD, 68 in June 1998, there were 541 women employed as legislators, senior officials and managers (29.2% female). This includes 3 Permanent Secretaries (12.5%), 20 Permanent Assistant Secretaries (33.3%), 30 Directors/Managers/Executive Secretaries (16.8%), 15 Rector/Principals (29.4%), and 375 Head-teachers/Deputy Head-teachers (37.3%). In Rodrigues, in June 1998, there were 9 women legislators, senior officials and managers (28.1%). In the National Legislative Assembly, the number and percentage of women has moved from 2 (3.2%) in 1983 to 4 (6.5%) in 1987 to 2 (3.2%) in 1991 and 6 (9.7%) in 1995. In the Municipal Council the position is roughly the same the figures fluctuating between 7 and 8 (5.6-6.3%) but there seems to have been an improvement in the latest municipal elections in 1996, when 11 (8.7%) were elected. At village council elections the figure has fluctuated between 14 (1.9%) and 15 (1.0%) until the last elections in 1997, where there seems to have been an improvement with 41 women village councillors bringing the percentage up to 2.8%. In all the three types of elections, at national, municipal and village levels, a slight improvement has been noted. It would seem that political parties are paying more attention to the impact of the women on the electoral process. It is still difficult for women to participate fully in the political process. Although many of them militate at a grassroots level and in election campaigns very few are found in decision- making levels such as politbureaus and central committees. It is important to encourage all the major political parties to be more proactive and dynamic by presenting more women candidates at all elections. 86 6.5.3 Women and Health Issues There has been considerable improvement in the health status of women and children over past years. Life expectancy has risen from 62 in 1962 to 74.5 in 1997 for females, and from 58.7 to 66.5 for males. The fertility rate has fallen from 6 in the 1960s to 2.1 in 1997.69 Although Mauritius has made significant advances in terms of health services, there is still a relatively high maternal mortality rate (50 per 100,000 live births in 1997). The infant mortality rate and percentage of babies born underweight are also somewhat high (20.3 per 1,000 live birt hs and 13% of live births respectively for 1997). There has meant a slight upturn in the infant mortality rate since 1995 when it was 19.6 per 1,000 live births. There has also been an increase in the percentage of babies born underweight since 1991 when it was 9.5% in 1991.70 The target fixed for the year 1995 was 5% however this percentage may not be reached even in the year 2000. The slow decline and inconsistent trends in infant mortality rates and worrying rise in low birth weight babies is a serious problem and would seem to due to socio-economic factors such as poverty, lack of access to information, unhealthy lifestyles, inappropriate nutrition, and physical fatigue in the workplace. There are also new health concerns arising from changes in lifestyles and food habits. Due to increased time pressures, women have been relying more heavily on the preparation and consumption of fast foods for themselves and their families. A 1998 survey carried out by the Ministry of Health and Quality of Life 71 has shown that there has been an increase in Non Communicable Diseases (NCD) such as obesity, high blood pressure, cholesterol, and diabetes. The survey also found that due to an imbalance in diet, there is a high prevalence of anaemia in pregnant women and the delivery of premature babies and low weight babies. The number of deaths among women due to heart diseases and cerebro-vascular diseases is on the increase. There has also been an increase in the number of cases of breast, cervical and uterine cancers over the past few years. 72 Country-wide detection tests are needed at regular intervals (pap smears and mammographies). The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life has recently launched a programme of screening for cervical cancer in Mauritius and Rodrigues, however it does not reach out to a large percentage of women. Also, private clinics charge high fees for such tests. A large number of women have entered the labour force over the last two decades, and as a result, women’s workload has tripled. This has led to fatigue, strain, ergonomic problems and stress. These problems may be even more acute in nuclear family households. In addition, problems of depression, alcoholism and mental stress are becoming more common. However, Mauritius is lacking in mental health professionals prepared to deal with this problem. The entry of large numbers of women into the labour force has made them less accessible to health education programmes and community health campaigns on a door to door 87 basis. New forms of education and information transmission channels must be developed to adapt to the new situation of women. 6.5.4 Reproductive Health and Abortion Population control and family planning have been very successful in Mauritius, largely due to the small size of the island, high literacy rate of the population, and rapid growth of the economy generating high aspiration levels for children. However, a decline was noted in the contraceptive prevalence rate from 80% in 1985 to 75% in 199173. With larger numbers of women working for longer hours in industrial factories, there is a problem of access to them for health education programmes. Official records from various family planning agencies indicate that the oral pill has remained for a long time, the most commonly used method of contraceptive. However, a new trend is being detected indicating a shift away from the pill to less reliable forms of contraceptives such as the rhythm and withdrawal methods. Most family planning strategies have been aimed at women, however, there has been a move in many other countries to focus more on the role of men and their responsibility in family planning through contraceptive use. This approach is being attempted by organisations in Mauritius such as the Mauritius Family Pla nning Association. Teenage pregnancy (under 19 years) has remained at a 10% level over the last 10 years.74 Many of these pregnancies also terminate in abortion, therefore it has important implications for the education and future life chances of the girl child. At consultations held during the framing of the National Gender Action Plan, a felt need for reproductive health education in schools and youth clubs emerged. Abortion is illegal in Mauritius however there is a high rate of illegal abortions in the country. Many pregnant women, due to poverty and lack of information are forced to turn to back-street abortions or to use self- induced abortion methods, thus endangering their health. The only way to arrive at an estimate of the number of abortions taking place is on the basis of the number of complications after abortions being admitted to hospitals. The number of post abortion complications admitted in the public and private health institutions was 1,497 in 1988 and this has increased to 2,684 in 1998. 75 It is generally thought that there may be 6 to 10 cases of abortion for every case of complication that is admitted to hospital. If the average of 8 is used, then it would mean that there may have been around 21,750 abortions in 1996 and 21,472 cases in 1998, which is higher than the number of live births for those years. A study carried out in 1992 indicated that the large majority of those resorting to abortions are married who already have children. 76 Therefore it is clear that the problem is either that contraception is not used at all or is not properly used, or else the method used is not reliable enough. Some are pushing for the legalisation of abortion in Mauritius, however, it is clear that many obstacles exist to prevent this from occurring at the moment. 88 6.5.5 Gender-based Violence There has recently been considerable sensitisation of the problem of domestic violence and the way that it affects women. This is slowly being perceived as a human rights issue at the national level but remains problematic at the level of the domestic unit. According to Police records, from 1994 to 1996 there were 7,766 reported cases of violence against women of which 3,282 were reported to have been committed by the husband or the partner; 2,044 by relat ives including fathers, step- fathers, parents- in- law and other relatives and 2,453 by persons outside the victim’s family. Data from the Ministry’s Counselling Service indicate that from 1994 to 1995, there had been a rise of cases of domestic violence aga inst women from 425 cases to 966. It is difficult to say whether this rise reflects an increase in incidence or in the number of cases now being reported which a few years ago would have remained hidden. But there is no doubt that the changing structure of the family towards greater nuclearisation has considerable isolated victims and hence worsened their plight. The stress and strain of longer hours of work in an industrial setting coupled by the fact that there have not been dramatic changes in the distribution of household responsibilities have also contributed to heightened family tension which can lead to violence. The problems of violence and harassment directed against women in places of work are very difficult problems to address. Given the socially and psychologically sensitive nature of this problem which is normally related to relationships of domination and exploitation, there is very little data on which to assess the extent of the problem. But from informal reports, it would seem that the problem exists to a fairly important extent and should be addressed. 6.5.6 Feminisation of Poverty The strength of the family network has often dampened the hard blows of economic hardship and recession. However, the situation is rapidly changing and family solidarity and community support is no longer as strong as it used to be. Although official figures do not necessarily demonstrate a high incidence of female headed households (18%) there is evidence that many women have to fend for themselves independently of the physical presence of a male partner in the household. There is a slightly higher proportion of declared female- headed households in Rodrigues. However, official figures are not useful indicators of the women’s actual role and responsibilities in the household. The strong patriarchal norm which prevails makes it difficult for women to declare themselves as heads of households if a male spouse is present in the household even if they are the main provider in the family. In Rodrigues, the situation is more serious. A survey77 carried out by the Rodrigues Council of Social Services in all villages indicated that 63.6% of single parent female headed households were living on an income of less than Rs 1000 and 86% on an income 89 of less than Rs 2000. The problem is compounded by the fact that there are very few employment opportunities for women in the island of Rodrigues. The Social Fabric Study of 1999, 78 mentions the increasing cases of women who facing severe economic hardship and who are often abandoned by their partners. They often resort to livelihood strategies where the line between promiscuity, adultery and commercial sex work becomes very thin. 6.5.7 Gender Disparities in Education Educational statistics do not indicate blatant gender inequalities at the primary and secondary levels of the education system. Figures in fact show better performance levels for girls than for boys in most national examinations, at the end of the primary and the secondary cycles. But there are still certain disciplines which are considered to be male preserves and where girls are largely or totally absent. Although there are no institutional barriers to the entry of girls in courses such as Engineering at the University of Mauritius or pre-vocational training courses, there is lack of motivation on the part of girls to take up these opportunities because of the absence of women in the work sectors which require these specific skills. It would seem also that girls tend to do less well in the poorer resourced schools which could indicate the dual impact of class and gender on educational performance. 79 6.6 K EY AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION ON GENDER D EVELOPMENT ISSUES 1. There is a need for capacity-building in public and private sectors for gender awareness, gender sensitivity and gender mainstreaming at all levels. It must be ensured that national mechanisms have the ability to carry out gender mainstreaming and to respond to gender issues effectively (including budgeting mechanisms, data collection systems, research, analysis etc.). 2. Need to assess poverty alleviation programmes for gender sensitivity and impact on poor women 3. Promoting women in decision-making functions/roles (by building the capacity of grassroots women, girls at school, and those already engaged in politics or positions of leadership in different sectors and spheres) 4. Reconciling women’s unpaid and paid work and the need for policy responses to the burdens/strains associated with working women 5. Need to create more opportunities for women in the employment market in particular by orienting girls towards science and technical subjects as well as vocational training. 6. Breaking down the “Glass Ceiling” in the work place 7. Drawing men into activities and programmes relating to family welfare (including family planning) and re-engaging them in households. This will require changes in gender relations and roles. 8. Providing capacity building support to women’s NGOs, CBOs, and associations and more co-ordination between them and governmental bodies 90 9. Supporting women in their economic activities through equitable access to credit etc. 10. Women and human rights issues – the need for new and amended legislation regarding labour, employment, etc. and more changes to Napoleon Code to reflect gender equality 11. Sensitisation of the general public to gender issues through public relations/communications strategies by ministries, NGOs, and international organisations (advocacy) 12. Focusing on adolescent girls and boys (education and sex education, and building their skills and leadership abilities) 91 7.0 CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT 7.1 International Instruments Fulfilling the basic needs and rights of children is more than a question of national development. It is also a question of international rights and the moral and legal obligation the Mauritian society to its children. The Government has committed itself to protecting the rights of the child through a number of international and national events, including the access to the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) in July 1990. In July 1995, the first CRC country report was submitted to the special Monitoring Committee set up by the UN. The Committee was generally pleased with the report. However, some principal areas of concern mentioned by the Committee include: The CRC is not yet an integral part of the national legislation and that national law and regulations are not fully consistent with the principles and provisions of the Convention. The Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous) Act that has recently been voted by the National Assembly will largely resolve this problem. Issues being addressed by the amendments being proposed are child abuse, child labour, sexual exploitation, exposure to physical dangers and risks and other areas where children are concerned. Insufficient attention was being paid at both national and local levels, to the need for an efficient monitoring mechanism that could provide a systematic and comprehensive compilation of data and indicators on all areas covered by the Convention and in relation to all groups of children, especially those who are victims of abuse. There is at present a considerable amount of statistical and other data sources from which a great deal of information can be obtained but there is a need to set up a centralised mechanism which would facilitate the integration of all this data into a more relevant and meaningful data set to enable regular updating and monitoring of the situation. Reports on the situation of children could be published on a regular basis. There may be a need to review certain data collection techniques. The collaboration of the CSO would be essential in this context. The Committee also recommended the establishment of an independent mechanism such as an Ombudsperson for the Rights of the Child, a wide circulation of the Convention as well as the subsequent country report and written replies in order to generate debate and awareness of the Convention, its implementation and monitoring within the Government, the Parliament, non-governmental organisations and the general public. It was suggested that the CRC could be incorporated in the school curricula. 7.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES RESPONDING TO INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS All sections of the Mauritian Constitution apply to children and adults alike. Therefore Mauritius is in the process of reviewing and revising national legislation related to 92 children for conformity with its own constitution and international obligations embedded in the CRC and other international instruments. There have been several amendments to existing laws and some new pieces of legislation which have been introduced in the last decade reflecting new policy approaches adopted towards children. The major ones are: The National Adoption Council Act of 1987, The National Children’s Council Act of 1990, The Child Protection Act of 1994, Amendments to the Constitution to ensure gender equality, Amendments related to Citizenship and The Protection from Domestic Violence Act of 1997. Further amendments to existing legislation in line with the CRC are: The Protection of the Child (Miscellaneous) Act, The Criminal Code Amendment Act and The Criminal Code (supplementary amendment) Act. Implementation of rights in the Convention (article 4 of the CRC) sets out States' overall obligations to implement all the rights in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The National Programme of Action for the survival, Development and Protection of Children, the NPA, 80 which was endorsed by the Government in 1992, provides a common platform for action with regard to children. The NPA is the instrument by which Mauritian commitments to children are being carried out. It is a mechanism for identifying all the plans for children developed by government departments, nongovernmental organisations and other child-related structures, and for ensuring that these plans converge in the framework provided by the Convention, the goals of the World Summit for Children, and the country’s development programme. Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes the child's right to education. Mauritius is committed to the principle of total equity in educational opportunity. Education is free at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. At the preprimary level it is partially free and currently new policies are being developed to facilitate access to pre-primary education. In addition to the decision to subsidise private provision of pre-primary education, Government has returned to the policy of increasing pre-primary facilities in primary schools. 7.3 INTERVENTIONS MADE BY GOVERNMENT, UN AND OTHER PARTNERS . 7.3.1 Early Childhood The issue of childcare has not been a priority for a long time because the traditional community based family structure in the country catered more than adequately for the needs of children of that age group. But the trend towards nuclearisation and especially the increasing isolation of the family from the community is creating serious childcare problems. The need to look after children prevents many women from engaging in other activities, and in particular from earning adequate incomes. Also, due to prevailing gender roles and relations in Mauritian society, men do not satisfactorily take responsibility for domestic activities such as childcare which would lessen pressures upon women in households. The increase in the number of monoparental households may also be having a negative impact on childcare and socialization practices. 93 In the last few years government has decided to address the issue of the care of children under the age of 3 years and a study was commissioned on the needs of early childhood and has come up with the following policy intentions: • • • • Provision of a proper legislative framework with established norms and standards to cover the home-based sector. Provision of proper guidelines and regulations for a formal system of accreditation. Establishment of a career service in child care through the proper training of personnel and the formal recognition of this training, coupled with an appropriate salary structure that is based on qualifications and experience. Establishment of a centralised unit within the Ministry to manage the licensing, standardisation and supervision of all childcare services. The Mauritius Institute of Education has started to offer special training for teachers in the field of Early Childhood Development. The CRC provides the rationale for alternative systems of care for children in need. At least 15 Articles support the development of a foster care approach. It is shown that while foster care has no formal recognition in Mauritius, a number of organisations are currently implementing fostering programmes and developed guidelines.81 7.3.2 Abuse The problem of child abuse was addressed for the first time in 1990 when the National Children’s Council operating under the aegis of the Ministry of Women set up a regional Child Abuse Unit at the Jeetoo Hospital to diagnose and treat children who have been victims of abuse. More recent amendments in the Child Protection Act made it an obligation for doctors and teachers to report suspected cases of child abuse. The most recent development has been the setting up in 1995 of regional units called Child Development Units in 5 different localities where cases of abuse can be reported and counselling and legal advice as well as shelter provided to battered children. The Child Development Unit works closely with other agencies such as the Police Department, health authorities, schools and college authorities. Good progress has been achieved at the level of facilitating the detection and reporting of cases. 94 7.3.3 Adolescence Adolescence is becoming increasingly a period of opportunity and risk. Changes in life styles, greater freedom, greater access to all sorts of information made possible by the revolution of information technology have dramatically transformed the lives of young people and at the same time also increased risk factors in their lives. But one should not forget that children and young people are the major source of Mauritius’ human capital in the future. The fact that they are the workers, scientists, parents and leaders of tomorrow means that their survival, health, nutrition and educational progress are key issues for reconstruction and development today. The Ministry of Youth and Sports launched The National Youth Policy 2000-2004: Empowering Youth in the New Millennium” in February 2000. It covers various issues relating to youth including education, agriculture, health, population and family life education, environment, arts and culture, sports and leisure, civics, and communications and media. 7.4 OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES 7.4.1 Primary education and CPE The enrolment rates at primary level are very high, close to 100% and even beyond in some cases, as some children are registered in more than one school. However, the official enrolment figures do not reveal poor attendance or non-attendance, low performance rates and other inefficiencies in the system. Although pass rates have continued to increase over the years, it is not certain that they necessarily reflect improvements in functional literacy rates. One fundamental problem of the present school system is the competition, which exists at the end of the primary cycle when there is a scramble for places in good secondary schools. Only around 12 % of those who compete, manage to get places in the schools referred to as the “star” schools on the basis of their performance at the CPE examinations. One of the main reasons of this fierce competition is the fact that there are huge variations in the standards of schools in different regions of the island. There have been numerous unsuccessful attempts in the last ten years to introduce the 9year school system, which would to a certain extent reduce the competitive character of the system by eliminating the intolerable pressure of the CPE examination of children of 11-12 years old. There are important inequalities between regions with pass rates at the CPE ranging from 20% in some schools to 80% or 90% in others. The schools with the lowest pass rates tend to occur in the most socio-economically deprived regions of the country. The Master Plan published in 1991 82 devoted a whole section to “low achieving schools” defined as those with pass rates of less than 30%. It was declared important to improve standards in these schools for the sake of equity and efficiency. It was also recognised that the problems of these schools were directly related to the social problems of these localities. 95 The problem of CPE failure and the concern that this is causing is highlighted in the 1997 White Paper 83 in the following statement: “ for the 8892 who failed, only an aggregate of 2400 have found their way to Basic Pre-Vocational or Technical school. Over 6000 kids are left without a future.” The major concern is that the legal working age is 15 years and drop out rates at the end of the primary cycle imply that about 6000 kids are roaming around in the streets, while some of them are probably employed illegally. It is hoped that the proposed 9-year schooling system will help to resolve this problem by filling in “ the waiting time between school and entry into the labour market.” 7.4.2 Abuse Reported cases of physical and/or sexual abuse have been steadily increasing over the past few years, indicating either an actual increase in the crime, or an increase in the numbers being reported to the police. It is a fact however, that children are being informed about abuse and they are therefore reporting abuse more than in the past. Although progress is being made, the child protection system is lacking in many ways and need urgent attention on all levels. The aspect of secondary abuse in the court, lack of co-ordination between service deliverers and lack of policy should be addressed. And in order to strengthen services for the care of abused children, more reliable data are needed, as is the education of parents and youth at schools. Children are generally not prepared for the court procedures and prosecutors do not make use of educational psychologists or other specialists trained to explain to the court why children sometimes react and answer in the way they do. Children are simply badgered like adults and with the least discrepancy are labelled as “unreliable witnesses”. Furthermore, it is imperative that all court officials, including high court judges, be trained to understand the complexities of child abuse and especially child sexual abuse. An additional problem is the scarcity of trained personnel in the area of counselling, rehabilitation, child psychology and other related fields. A lot of this work requires a fairly high level of professionalism and specialised training, which the staff of the Ministry does not have for the moment. 7.4.3 Disabilities There is no reliable information on the number of children with disabilities, but according to the Ministry of Economic Planning and Development, there were in 1992, about 6000 children in need of special education. 84 The 1990 Census reported 2396 disabled children aged between 0 – 14. This is probably a gross underestimation of the actual number of the disabled as there is a great deal of underreporting in this context. There are mild disabilities, which are not considered important enough to be reported by those giving information to Census enumerators. Some of the disabilities are hidden for social reasons. Disability in the Mauritian context still generates a great deal of stigma and shame for the 96 disabled and his environment and embarrassment in the general public. The disabled are not very often seen in public and there are very few institutions to cater for their needs. For the moment, most of the work being done is by NGOs with some assistance from Government funds. It is estimated that existing facilities are catering for the needs of just fewer than 1000 of the 6000 children in need of special education. Due to lack of special schools, the majority of them are integrated in the regular school system. 7.4.4 Adolescent reproductive health The complete absence of sex and life skills education in schools is a matter of serious concern. The CRC Monitoring Committee suggested that sex education should be integrated into the school curricula. There is ambiguity in parents’ attitudes towards sex education in schools. Many are worried that talking about sex in schools might in a sense ‘normalise’ sexual activity of youngsters still attending school. Therefore, the lack of opportunities and services including Adolescent Reproductive Health services available to children and young people in Mauritius must urgently be addressed. Teenage pregnancy, STD´s, including HIV/AIDS requires an urgent and holistic response. Effective strategies must be implemented to offer a more humane and sustainable future for the youth. Skill development, education, and employment creation are critical priorities in this regard. 7.5 ANALYSIS OF CHILD RIGHTS AND D EVELOPMENT G APS Strong family values cut across all the different sections of the Mauritian population. However it should be noted that there are still very deep traditions of parental authority and filial obligation which characterise parent-children relationships. In this context, the exercise of children’s rights can only become a reality if the general philosophy behind the CRC is understood and accepted by parents, teachers and the community as a whole. It is at present difficult to estimate parents’ and teachers’ awareness of the rights approach to children needs and problems. Many of the problems affecting children, whether it is in the fields of health or education have structural causes which cut across many different sectors of their lives. For example, to understand and address the problem of high drop-out rates of school children at primary level it is not sufficient to examine immediate causes such as disinterest and lack of parent and teacher motivation, but also to look at underlying and structural environmental factors, such as poverty, unemployment, family violence, poor housing and physical infrastructure, and difficulty of access to social services. A holistic and multi-sectoral approach must be adopted at the level of both research and analysis as well as of intervention. 97 7.5.1 Juvenile justice Article 40 (3) of the Convention on administration of juvenile justice, requires "the establishment of laws, procedures, authorities and institutions specifically applicable to children…" The article clearly implies special courts of law to deal with children in conflict with the law. There are at present ten different Juvenile Courts in Mauritius. Some of these Courts are presided by very young Magistrates who although are qualified lawyers with at least two years practice at the bar, may not be ideally trained to deal with the difficult problems concerning children. According to the Juvenile Justice Administration Report85 (p. 113) it is said that " …even where a Court sits in camera the announcement of the decision of the Court must be made in public, the present practice of the Juvenile Court to announce in camera its decision in cases of juveniles, heard in Chambers, appears to be violate of the Constitution and therefore illegal." The recommendations in the report show that there is an urgent need for a formal juvenile justice system in the country to ensure that all children who come in conflict with the law are treated according to the international standards on the administration of juvenile justice. Without a juvenile justice policy, the involvement of specific governmental and non-governmental bodies alike is insufficiently based on an institutional concept. 7.5.2 Participation The main articles in the CRC on Participation cover the rights to express views, the right to information, the right to participate in cultural life and the arts, freedom of expression, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of association and peaceful assembly, the right to privacy. Participation rights generate the most controversy especially in traditional and conservative societies where the power structure of the family is built upon the supreme and unquestionable authority of parents. With respect to Article 13 of the CRC, concerning freedom of expression, it can be said that in general, Mauritian children are not encouraged to express their own opinions and views at home or at school. Traditional approaches are still used in schools where the teacher is considered to know best and a child considered impertinent by elders if he or she challenges instructions. Children have generally been kept out of the public sp here and out of important decisionmaking spheres, on the grounds that they would not be able to understand issues related to the affairs of a country or the world. The result has been that children and young adults have become totally disinterested in civic affairs. There has also been a tendency for them to become over-dependent on their parents and teachers and to lack a spirit of initiative and inquisitive minds as well as the ability to think independently. 98 There have been some initiatives to encourage the participation of children in the recent past, such as the Model United Nations, the Lonrho Award, MSPCA (Mauritius Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) and the National Youth Award, but unfortunately all these activities are of a competitive nature. The UNICEF’s project, Education for Development, which encourages the participatory approach in the teaching and learning process, is a commendable effort in this direction. 7.5.3 Health The main health statistics show definite improvements in health indicators of children although the drop in mortality rate has not been going down as fast as necessary to reach the targets set for the year 2000. The IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) went down from 57.0 per thousand live births to the lowest level reached at 18.0 per thousand live births in 1994 but has in the last couple of years there has been a upward trend to 19.4 in 1998.86 And therefore the target rate of 12 will not be reached by the year 2000. The main factor contributing to this high rate is the frequency of neo-natal deaths, within the first week of life. Another area of concern is the rising rate in the incidence of low birth weight babies. The figure with respect to deliveries carried out in government hospitals increased from 9.5% in 1991 and has decreased slightly to 14.3% in 1998. The target fixed for the year 1995 was 5% and also this percentage may not be reached even in the year 2000. It is difficult to explain this rise in infant mortality rates and low birth weight babies at the same time as maternal mortality rates have been declining steadily. It would seem that the reasons might be less directly related to medical factors than to socio-economic and psychosocial ones such as poverty, lack of access to information, inappropriate nutrition, unhealthy life styles, and physical fatigue in the workplace. It should be noted here that Rodrigues which has a strong community based health care system with highly localised and sometimes even domiciliary services has registered a relatively much lower rate of low birth weight babies than Mauritius. Surveys87 carried out in 1985 and 1995 indicate a definite improvement in the nutritional status of children as a result of the improvement in the standard of living. Malnutrition (low weight for age) has diminished from 12% in 1985 to 9.6% in 1995. Stunting (chronic malnutrition) decreased from 17.5% to 10.2% but on the other hand acute malnutrition (low weight for height) increased from 4.9% to 9.0%. 7.6 KEY CHILD RIGHTS DEVELOPMENT ISSUES The following key issues are potential areas of further intervention by Government, NGO's and UN agencies in the coming years: 1. To strengthen provisions for early childhood care and development 2. To further examine the impact on the child of competition at the primary education level and especially the CPE 99 3. To study and address the issue of educational inequalities at the primary level especially in deprived regions 4. To better understand problems of adolescents in the country and to look into ways of developing programmes of activities for their development. 5. To promote research in the field of child abuse and strengthen services for the care of abused children 6. To formulate an appropriate Juvenile Justice policy 7. To assess the extent and nature of disabilities among children and support to the provision of appropriate services in this field. 8. To address issues of health among children and more particularly the problem of infant mortality and low birth weight babies 8.0 EDUCATION 8.1 GLOBAL CONFERENCES Educational issues were covered by a number of International Conferences held since 1990. The most important one was the World Conference on Education for all: Meeting Basic Learning Needs held in Thailand in 1990. The most important resolutions of this conference were the following: • • • • • Expansion of early childhood care and development activities, especially for poor, disadvantaged and disabled children. Universal access to and completion of primary education by the Year 2000 Reduction of adult illiteracy rate to ½ of its 1990 level by the Year 2000 and to significantly reduce the current disparity between male and female illiteracy rates. Expansion of provision of basic education and training in other essential skills required by youths and adults. Increase of acquisition by individuals and families of the knowledge, skills and values made available through all education channels including the mass media, other forms of modern and traditional communications and social action The International Consultative Forum on Education for Education for all held in Amman, Jordan in June 1996, a mid-decade review of the Jomtien Declaration on Education for all identified the following areas as needing continued support form Governments and international organisations: • • • • • Reinforcement of education for girls Emphasis on early childhood development Greater importance on the quality rather than the quantity of school output Facilitating the transition between basic education and higher level of education. Formulation of out of school literacy and education programmes 100 • • • • More efficient management of education systems Monitoring system to assess progress and identify constraints Elaboration of new strategies to make quality education accessible to all Increasing the training, status and motivation of teachers. 8.2 GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES There have been a number of developments in the field of educational policy over the past few years. A Master Plan was produced by the Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture in 1991 entitled “Master Plan for the Year 2000” which covered all the different levels of the education sector, namely the pre-primary, the primary, the secondary and the tertiary as well as vocational, technical, adult and continuing education special education and distance education. Following the change of Government in December 1995, the new Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development produced a White Paper on Education in 1997 which covered the pre-primary, primary and secondary sectors of education. This was followed by an Action Plan88 which covered the same three sectors. There is much controversy both in the country and within Government on some of the measures that are being recommended in the Action Plan, especially those related to the setting up of middle schools, the phasing out of the CPE ranking system through the regionalisation of secondary admissions. The Government has set up an inter- ministerial committee chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister to look into the appropriate ways of implementing the plan. Although the great majority of Mauritians are unhappy with the present system, there is a great deal of resistance to the introduction of structural changes which some fear might lower standards or work against the interest of their children. At the end of 1999, Government announced a number of measures which form part of a comprehensive package of recommendations for the education sector. The objectives of these measures are to curb competition and to create conditions for greater equality of educational opportunity. These measures which will take effect as from January 2001 are the following: • • • • The construction of 16 new secondary schools during year 2000 The regionalisation of admission procedures for 10,000 seats in secondary schools The admission of 1100 pupils in high achieving schools on the basis of ranking at the CPE examinations The introduction of a priority programme to assist low achieving primary schools, including a special incentive bonus of Rs 1000 per month for Head Teachers and teachers working in those schools as a measure of affirmative action. 8.3 GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION INTERVENTION 89 The Government has committed itself to enforcing pre-primary education as a right and as a first step in this direction has taken the decision in 1998, to contribute the sum of Rs 200 towards the fees for every 4 year old child attending a pre-school registered with the 101 Ministry. The policy was to encourage private initiatives in the pre-primary sector. However more recently, the Government has gone back to its original plans to create a pre-primary sector within existing State primary schools. An important UNICEF supported programmes have been launched for the pre-school stage (see section on Child’s Rights). Another UNICEF project, which has been widely accepted in several schools in Mauritius and Rodrigues, is the Education for Development programme which seeks to advocate values of global solidarity, peace, tolerance and awareness of environmental issues. The programme of reme dial education and special support for low achieving schools, the ZEP (Zone d’Education Prioritaire) which had started in the early 1990, was reinforced with greater emphasis being placed on a holistic approach in the delivery of education, and on the upgrading of the zone in which the low achieving schools are found. UNESCO is also supporting another project set up by the Ministry of Education, Learning Without Frontiers, that relates basic education to social goals and is aimed at providing basic literacy to disadvantaged groups in society. The Basic Education for Out of School Adolescents in Rodrigues (BEFA), a joint initiative of the Ministry for Rodrigues, the Rodrigues Council of Social Services and UNICEF, aims at providing a second opportunity to illiterate out-of-school youths of 1317 to have access to basic education. The pressure of demand for good secondary schools led Government to resume its programme of construction of new secondary schools in 1995. In 1996, 6 new State secondary schools were opened making a total of 29 State secondary schools. In response to the problem of drop outs form the primary cycle, four basic secondary schools, catering for those who had failed the CPE, became operational on a pilot basis in 1995. There are now 20 such basic secondary schools catering close to 2000 students. The Model United Nations programme initiated by the UNDP and supported by UNESCO and the Ministry of Education, involves about 800 students annually and seeks to sensitise young secondary leve l students to the social and political issues of both national and international importance and relevance. The programme of the Ministry of Education to give all schools and colleges access to computer facilities and the Internet is well under way. Government response to growing demand for tertiary education has been to encourage the setting up of new Universities both in the private and the public sectors. In 2000, two new institutions, namely the Mauritius University of Technology and the Knowledge Centre (De Chazal Du Mée), will be operational. The University of Mauritius is also gradually increasing its intake. 102 8.4 OBSTACLES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SUCCES SFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES AND STRATEGIES Education is the sector where there has been the greatest number of reports and recommendations ranging from small remedial action to improve the system to major structural reforms. It has been difficult to reach consensus on the major reforms being proposed, such as regionalisation of admissions to secondary school, the use of oriental languages in performance assessment and ranking at CPE level, the gradual elimination of the ranking system at the CPE, the 9 year basic school system (incorporating middle schools), and more recently the new idea of stratifying secondary schools into different categories of schools, based on past performance levels. Obstacles to all these recommendations are numerous as listed below: • • • • • • • • • • • • Lack of political and national consensus without which major reforms cannot be effected Organisational constraints within the Ministry itself Difficulties of integrating confessional and other private schools within such reforms Delicate language issue Parental interest in maintaining an elitist system Parental rejection of technical educatio n and preference for academic education Teachers’ resistance to major reforms which involve drastic changes in pedagogical and organisational structures, and in their scheme of duty The existence of a parallel system with institutionalised private tuition at all levels. Low levels of commitment and inadequate salary incentive structures to attract good teachers. Not enough emphasis on pastoral care and complete education at teacher training level Over-centralisation of decision making in the interest of standardisation and control which sometimes stifles initiatives at the level of individual teachers. Lack of a clearly defined objective for tertiary education and lack of co-ordination between the different tertiary level institutions leading to duplicatio n and wastage. Although the Government, international organisations and the private sector have been engaged in laudable initiatives to improve the system, all the projects undertaken can only have limited impact unless major reforms are carried out. 8.5 UNDERLYING CAUSES AND DEVELOPMENT GAPS 8.5.1 The Primary Level Educational policies in Mauritius date back to the 1950s. A great deal has been achieved in the field of education. There are no legal or institutional obstacles to access and good performance. However, there are other factors which are in the way of complete equality of educational opportunity. 103 Although Mauritius has succeeded in maintaining its policy of free education at both primary and secondary level, there are still serious problems of underachievement and inequality in some regions of the island. The very high enrolment rates (nearly 100% for both boys and girls) may also not necessarily reflect corresponding levels of functional literacy. Educational inequalities have deep rooted causes which go back into the historical formation of Mauritian society which has generated both economic and social disparities which persist up to the present time. The lowest pass rates at the CPE level are found in the most socially and economically deprived regions of the country, where failure rates are as high as 60-70%. Some qualitative research studies have been carried out to determine the causes of educational underachievement in these areas. The reasons advanced are poverty, absence of social capital, low motivation and lack of interest on the part of parents and of teachers. The problem of the attitude of teachers has been highlighted in an in depth study carried out by Bunwaree in the Social Fabric Study. 90 More research needs to be carried out on the specific causes of drop-outs in those areas. Teachers in those areas should be sensitised and be given special training to firstly understand the causes and nature of inequalities and their impact on the educational process. Secondly they should be equipped to carry out remedial education in the very deprived areas and maintain regular and efficient contact with parents and the local community generally. 8.5.2 Access to Secondary School 91 A great deal of the tension that exists in the educational sector is connected with the problem of access to what are perceived as good or ‘star’ secondary schools. Enrolment rates drop from 100% in the primary sector to just above 50% in the secondary level, as a result of the high drop out and failure rates at the end of the primary level. The causes of this discrepancy is deeply rooted in the profound inequalities which persist in society itself and the inability of the primary school system to overcome them. About 30,000 children compete for 4000 places in ‘good’ schools. Around 60% of them do not pass the CPE exams. This explains the fierce level of competition and the tyranny of private tuition in the final year of the primary level. This issue has become further complicated by the decision to allow secondary level confessional schools, which at present benefit from full State subsidy, to retain autonomy in the recruitment of their staff and with respect to 50% of their intake. All other admissions to secondary schools are done strictly on the basis of performance at the CPE level. The language issue has also been another source of ethnic tension. Ranking is based on 4 main subjects at CPE level, namely English, French, Maths and Environmental Studies. Oriental languages are taught but do not count for ranking purposes. There have been pressures to include these languages among the subjects which are counted for ranking purposes on the grounds that children of Asian origin have a disadvantage in French compared to children of French/Creole descent who live in urban regions and are more exposed to the French language. This issue has considerably embittered interethnic 104 relations and as it is directly related to the problems of access to good secondary school, it will only be completely resolved when there are enough secondary schools of good standard all over the island. It is to be noted that the kreol is the lingua franca of the great majority of children in the country and bhojpuri for a substantial number of them in rural areas. These two languages are not recognised as official languages although many teachers do in fact make use of them in the classroom at the lower levels of the primary level. The Government has been very cautious about the language issue and has preferred not to have an explicit policy on the issue of language to be used as teaching medium leaving it to the discretion of individual teachers. This absence of policy has serious pedagogical and social implications specially in deprived areas where children do not have exposure to any other languages and often have the misfortune of having teachers who for one reason or another do not make use of this discretion judiciously in this particular setting. 105 8.5.3 The Secondary Level At the secondary level, there is a strong feeling that the educational system may be outdated and not addressing the newly emerging needs of the country. The World Bank commenting on training institutions in the public sector states that “ they tend to be unresponsive to industrial needs, have outdated curricula and poor equipment and teachers” compared to those in the private sector. It is imperative that research be carried out in this area to determine the manpower requirements and training needs of the country in the years to come. Most important of all is the need to look into ways of encouraging critical and independent thinking at all levels of the system and to adopt a participatory approach in the learning process. A marked disinterest in science subjects has been noted in the case of both girls and boys but it is inevitably more marked among girls. Some of the more immediate causes of this problem are linked to current opportunities on the labour market. The recent period of industrialisation has created more opportunities in the fields of management and computing than pure science. The same is true of humanities and social science subjects such as sociology, psychology, literature and history. The more deeply rooted causes of the low level of interest of girls in science subjects is linked to the socialisation process in the home and later in the school, where science is viewed as a male domain. 8.5.4 Technical and Vocational education For a long time, vocational and technical education has remained at the margin of mainstream academic educational stream. There is still a great deal of parental resistance against technical and vocational education which is seen as the last resort for those who have not made it in the normal academic streams. However, the recent rapid industrialisation of the country may have led to some changes in attitude to technical training being given that a much broader range of technical occupations have now emerged in the labour market with relatively interesting wage rates. However it remains true that technical education is still very much for those children who do not do well in academic subjects. The main responsibility for providing technical education devolves upon the IVTB (Industrial and Vocational Training Board) which was set up in 1988 and at present manages 18 centres for further technical education and training. In 1997, training in the 18 centres were provided to 1237 full time and 2781 part-time students, making a total of 4018. The entry requirement is a minimum of three years of secondary schooling. Training is provided in 12 apprenticeable trades and 3 new trades in the Hotel Industry which were approved in 1996. The IVTB has also the responsibility to register and monitor the work and curriculum of private training institutions. Employers contribute a 106 monthly levy to the IVTB as their contribution to the training and in return the IVTB offers grants to trainees of up to a maximum of 75% of the training cost of those employed by those employers who are contributing the levy. As at 31 March 1998, 90 private training institutions were registered with the IVTB and the total number of trainees was 16,208. 92 There is still much gender disparity in enrolment rates at the technical and pre-vocation schools. The low presence of girls in those training schemes is rooted in the gender role stereotypes which are transmitted during the socialisation process in the home and in school later on. It is also often the case that young people and their parents are not aware of all the training and employment opportunities. This is especially true in deprived areas where there are higher drop out rates from school where there is an even greater need for this kind of information. 8.5.5 Tertiary Level Education The University of Mauritius was the only player in the field of tertiary education until recently when Government decided to take vigorous steps to set up new tertiary level institutions and encourage private initiatives in this field. In 1999, enrolment rate at tertiary level, including distance education students and those studying overseas, was 12% of the population in the age group 19-24.93 Students attending tertiary institutions in Mauritius (University, MIE, MGI, MCA) constituted half of that figure, i.e 6%. There is increasing pressure of demand for places and clearly an inability of the tertiary sector to meet demand locally. The University is presently launching a programme of open/flexible learning courses leading to certificates and diplomas to be run after office hours. A new University, the University of Technology is being set up. There are also similar initiatives in the private sector. The access problem is not related to the quality of output at secondary level, but rather to the inability of the tertiary sector to meet demand. In fact it is often a source of very great frustration that applicants with very good grades are unable to secure a place at the University of Mauritius but are offered places in the most prestigious British or US universities on the basis of their good performance. Access to tertiary education is therefore very competitive as it is based strictly on a performance-related point system and computerised ranking. As a result and being given the present inequalities in the educational system, young people from deprived areas are largely absent from the campus. Although there is no well established system of affirmative action for deprived areas, admission regulations are relaxed in a few cases of persons mainly from Rodrigues, in an effort to build capacity in the island. Gender balance has been satisfactorily achieved, with some faculties moving close to having 50% women. However the ratio of male to females in the Engineering Faculty in recent years was 4:1. 107 Some of major constraints to increasing access are the following: • • • • Budgetary constraints. Tertiary education is free, and therefore the University is unable to generate funds and relies almost completely on government grants which are not being sufficiently increased to enable the necessary expansion for an increase in intake. Human resource scarcity in some academic disciplines Unattractive salaries and working conditions for academics Inadequate infra-structural facilities, buildings, libraries, equipment. The University is presently engaged in launching a new programme of open/flexible learning courses leading to certificates and diplomas to be run after office hours for those already in employment or for women homemakers who may wish to pursue higher studies or have some special interest in a particular field. The problem of transport is however a major obstacle in the evenings as the campus is out of the way of the main bus routes. There may be a case for decentralising the campus to open up opportunities for a larger number of people. Apart from the problem of access, the Unive rsity is often criticised for not responding directly to the needs of the economy. Although it is accepted that the role of a University cannot be solely oriented towards meeting the immediate manpower requirements of the economy, strategic planning at the University cannot completely disregard the aspect of ‘employability’ of its graduates. But to pay too much attention to this aspect would also turn the institution into ‘follower’ rather than a ‘leader’ and increase its vulnerability to the vicissitudes of the economy. Secondly, technological change has become so rapid and the direction of change so unpredictable that emphasis should be placed much more on basic intellectual training to ensure greater flexibility and adaptability to changes in the technical and economic environment. Another major problem in this field is that training is a long-term process and requires heavy initial investment. By the time a training plan is developed and the training process implemented and completed, the development strategy may have changed with completely new manpower requirements. A delicate balance must be maintained between mere development and training of intellectual potential and giving people the appropriate skills to meet certain specific needs of the economy at any point in time. One of the complaints of employers who have recruited University of Mauritius graduates is that even the ones who are academically very strong, lack a sense of initiative and have to be closely guided and monitored. This difficulty to be independent is closely related to the fact that there is no residential campus and students continue to live at home and do not engage much into activities outside their study programmes. It may also be related to the directive approach of teaching styles at primary and secondary level as well as the close guidance and monitoring of private tuition which very few children can escape in the present system. 108 The Otto Essien programme of vacation work placement of University students, an initiative of the UNDP, has proven to be very successful in providing students with some exposure to the world of work, while they are still at the University. The University has taken over the programme which is now known as the Student Work Experience Programme. A number of other tertiary level institutions, notably the Mauritius Institute of Education, the Mahatma Gandhi Institute are engaged in higher education. Given the small size of the island there should have been much more collaboration between those institutions with regard to the use of expensive equipment, libraries and human resources. The different institutions have unfortunately developed rather independently and this situation does not seem to have improved very much with the setting up of the Tertiary Education Commission which was to oversee and co-ordinate the activities of the different institutions. 8.5.6 Adult education and life long learning The MCA (Mauritius College of Education) and the University of Mauritius have been developing distance education courses for the benefit of adults already in employment or at home. As the requirements of the economy are changing so rapidly there is a need for providing more facilities for in service training. Distance education also provides opportunities for self-development. New communications technologies have to be used for adult education especially to cater for the special requirements of those who are unable to get time off from work. Longer hours of work have significantly reduced access to those in employment and this problem could be overcome through modern communication technologies. Although a great deal of effort is being made to increase computer literacy, Mauritius has a long way to go to emulate countries of South East Asia. It is important that all categories of people, including women at home, the elderly and those living in deprived and remote regions be given access to computer and Internet facilities. In this era of globalisation, it is access to information which will be the crucial factor in the fight against poverty, underdevelopment and exclusion. 8.6 KEY EDUCATION ISSUES FOR FUTURE INTERVENTION 1. Education inequalities are critical in generating and sustaining poverty and social exclusion. It has been found that low educational achievement in childhood increases the risks of marginalisation and exclusion in adult life. It is of paramount importance that the profound causes of low performance and lack of motivation be studied more closely. However it is important to realise that improving education will not necessarily solve all the problems of the deprived. There is a need for complementary measures such as the role and behaviour of potential employers in their hiring decisions, access to information about employment opportunities and other support systems. Specialised teacher training and parental sensitisation programmes to 109 facilitate teacher-parent interaction also demand closer attention especially in the context of primary education in deprived areas. 2. At secondary and tertiary level, there is a need to look into the causes of gender disparity in student enrolment in science and technical subjects and generally at career guidance right from the lower levels of secondary school. 3. In order to plan tertiary level education more effectively there is a need to study the human resource requirement of the country in the years to come. However being given the very rapid technology driven changes in production processes, school and tertiary level curricula should contain the necessary flexibility to adapt to changes over a short period of time. It is important also to create opportunities for entrepreneurship training among the young to encourage self employment in the informal sector of the economy with growing pressures on the public and parastatal sectors of the economy to contract. 4. Adult education and life long learning must be further strengthened and new communication techniques be explored to increase life long adult access to educational opportunities. 110 9.0 ENVIRONMENT 9.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS Mauritius has adhered to a number of International Instruments related to environmental protection within the last decade. In fact between 1992 and 1996, Mauritius had signed all the conventions covering biodiversity, climatic change and international waters, as follows: • • • • • • • • • • • • Convention on Fishing and Conservation of living resources of the high seas, 1958 (entry into force 4.11.70) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (signed 10.6.92) Convention on the Preservation of Biodiversity (ratified 4.9.92) Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (accession 18.8.92, entry in force 16.11.92) Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (accession 18.8.92 entry into force 16.11.92) London Agreement to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. (accession 20.10.92) Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (accession 24.11.92) Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol (ratified 30.11.93) United Nations Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. 1994, Barbados. Convention to Combat Droughts and Desertification (certified 11.1.96) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (ratified 4.11.94) Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from ships of 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL) (entry into force 5.7.95) 9.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES In 1988, the first National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP 1) and the Environmental Investment Program (EIP 1) were prepared and have been followed in the early 2000 by the NEAP 2, where summary recommendations for EIP 2 for the next decade also are provided. The NEAP 2 provides a national environmental diagnosis as well as an environment related analysis of the following major sectors of the economy: industry, tourism, energy, agriculture, environmental resources and transport. Both NEAP 2 94 and EIP 2 have now been approved by Government.95 The National Environment Strategy for the next ten years can be summarised as follows: To follow the principles of sustainable development by providing environmental services, encouraging responsible environment practices and enforcing appropriate environmental standards in order to safeguard health and welfare, conserve the country’s natural 111 heritage, and enhance the quality of life of all the people of Mauritius. The six priority projects within NEAP 2 are the following: 1. The restructuring of the Department of Environment 2. The development of an Environmental Information System 3. The development of Environmental Indicators 4. The identification and monitoring of sensitive high risk zones 5. To set up a framework for integrated coastal zone management. 6. To improve the management and monitoring of Industrial hotspots. NEAP 1 paved the way for the comprehensive Environmental Protection Act (EPA) in 1991 which provided the Ministry of Environment, Human Resource Development and Employment (MoE) with the legal framework for environmental protection of the whole country. Prior to this, the responsibility for the protection of the environment was spread across a number of different ministries and Government Departments. The EPA gave overall responsibility for the protection of the environment to the MoE which, through the Director of the Environment, exercises wide powers for environmental policy implementation and law enforcement. To ensure co-ordination and co-operation of environmental management among enforcement agencies and other public departments dealing with environmental protection, cross-sectoral bodies were established at several levels namely: • • • The National Environment Commission (NEC), a Cabinet level inter- ministerial group chaired by the Prime Minister was established to consider and agree upon national environmental policy and strategy. The NEC met for the first time in two years on the 25/1/00, after a decision was taken that the Minister of Environment should replace the Prime Minister as President of the Commission. An inter-ministerial Environmental Co-ordination Committee (ECC) to be chaired by the Permanent Secretary of the MoE, responsible for agreeing to a co-ordinated response to implement the policies and strategies from the NEC. The Environmental Advisory Council to provide a channel for comments and suggestions on environmental policy and investment with members mainly from nongovernmental sectors. The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) has already set some standards regarding noise, water pollution and air pollution. Mauritius has also participated actively in the follow up activities of the UNFCCC and has attended, at ministerial level, the three Conference of Parties (COP) organised so far in the context of this convention. It should also be noted that the NEAP 2 pays special attention to the development of the Island of Rodrigues, where environmental issues have their own specificities in a national context. These will be elaborated upon later in this section. 112 Mauritius is also a party to the East African Regional seas programme. It is playing an important role in the safety of life and property at sea under the SOLAS Convention. It has assumed responsibility for the preparation and issuance of weather and sea forecast as scheduled broadcast through the Indian Ocean INMARSAT Satellite for the areas bounded between the Equator and latitude 300 S and between longitude 55 0 E to 950 E together with the area between the Equator and latitude 100 30’S and African coast to longitude 550 E under the WMO/IMO Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS). 9.3 ACTION PLANS FOLLOWING GLOBAL CONFERENCES In response to the Rio conference and through the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and its Enabling Activities Programme, UNEP helped fund the guidelines for preparing a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. A draft was finalised in November 1994. However, no Action Plan has yet been finalised. From August 1997 to September 1998, UNEP, through the GEF/Enabling Activities Programme, provided Mauritius with financial and technical support to finalise the Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. With the support of UNEP/GEF, necessary steps have been taken with the relevant authorities to activate the drafting of the Bill on the National Bio-safety Guidelines for the Safe Development and Introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms in Mauritius. The Mauritius Oceanographic Institute has recently been set up, under the Mauritius Research Council, to collect information on the marine environment and its resources. The obligations of the institute will not override, but rather complement, the duties of the Ministry of Fisheries. The Institute was set up as a response to the national workshop of the National Climate Committee, in November 1996. As from 1999, the UNDP has been nominated the GEF field office by the Ministry of Economic Development, Productivity and Regional Development, and has thus the responsibility of disseminating information regarding the GEF at all levels. The following National Environmental Standards that have already been promulgated: Drinking Water (July 1996) Noise (March 1997) Treated wastewater for use in irrigation (Aug 1999) Effluent limitations for the sugar industry (October 1999) Air and Industrial Effluent Discharge Permit Solid Wastes (non hazardous and hazardous) Guidelines for Inland Surface Water, Coastal Ware Quality (April 1992), Irrigation Water Quality (April 1999) have been published in the Government Gazette 113 The following standards are under preparation: • Standards for Effluent Discharge on Land, Underground and into Surface Water Courses not meant for potable water supply. • Standards for Effluent Discharge into the Ocean and Permissible Limits for Discharge of Industrial Waste Water into Sewer Network • Guidelines for Vehicle Emissions With reference to the ISO 14000 family, the first Mauritian standards corresponding to the ISO 14001, 14004, 14011 and 14012 have been published in the Government Gazette. 9.4 CONSTRAINTS TO IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES AND POLICIES ADHERING TO INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS One of the major constraints to effective implementation and progress has been, as mentioned earlier, the fact that the NEC did not meet for two years. Dissemination and communication, with a top-down approach, depends on this primary body and the following observation was made in NEAP 2: “the suspension of NEC meetings has reduced high level leverage to resolve coordination problems” (section 1.3.3 in the National Environmental Action Plan 2 pointing out that there has not been a NEC meeting for two years) Other constraints and impediments relevant to the environment are of a more institutional nature namely lack of co-ordination and communication between Ministries, staffing problems at the Ministry of Environment and the centralised top down approach to decision making which inevitably leads to delays in decision making and implementation. The NEAP 2 also mentions that standards set out by the EPA are in need of an update whilst others need to be prepared. Other regulating laws and powers that impact on the environment are also outdated or in need of consolidation. National Biodiversity Strategies and a related Action Plan have become essential tools for the implementation of a biodiversity programme. The failure to have produced such documents from a draft in 1994 have maintained constraints. A major constraint is now emerging as the result of the considerable reduction in funding assistance. For example, development assistance to SIDS (Small Island Developing States) has fallen from $2.36 billion in the 1994 to $1.96 billion in 1997. 9.5 IN DEPTH ANALYSIS UNDERLYING CAUSALITIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF KEY ISSUES Mauritius, having signed the above conventions and agreements, does not al ck the will nor the academic comprehension to address the problems concerning the national as well as the international environment. However, there is a major weakness at the level of the understanding of processes and organisational requirements for the successful implementation of policies in this field. 114 Another gap in development is the identification of Mauritius as a Small Island Developing State (SIDS). Limited in size and with a vulnerable economy highly dependent upon a narrow resource base, international trade and tourism, the country has limited scope to influence the terms of its trade. Loss of trade preferences and declining donor assistance (from e.g. the UNDP) may entail severe implications for the development of such a state. SIDS argue tha t there should be a compensatory mechanism in proportion to the extent of vulnerability due to e.g. climate change. The declaration of Barbados reaffirmed that SIDS are particularly vulnerable to natural as well as environmental disasters and have limited capacity to respond to such disasters. While such states are among those that contribute the least to global climate change and sea-level rise, they are among those which will suffer most from the adverse effects. Limited fresh water resources, increasing amounts of waste and hazardous substances as well as limited facilities for wastewater management are some of the critical issues for small islands. This is particularly the case for low lying coral based islands, such as Mauritius, where ground water supplies are limited and are protected only by a thin permeable soil. Even where rainfall is abundant, access to clean water has been restricted by the lack of adequate storage facilities. There is great competition for land resources between the tourist sector, agricultural activities and other land users. The same sectors are also the main economic operators of the country and, at the same time together with industry, they are the primary polluters of the marine environment. The expansion of textile manufacturing has also led to environmental hazards through the flow of effluents especially from dye houses into rivers. Government has given fiscal incentives to concerned factories for the setting up of treatment plants and at the same time strict norms are being set up for industrial effluents. Coral sand has been one of the main aggregates used in the construction industry. It is estimated that some 800,000 tons of sand are removed yearly from the lagoons and quarries that are close to the beaches. Studies have been carried out on the possible replacement of coral sand by crushed basalt with the intention of putting a complete ban on the removal of sand from the sea by the year 2001. To this end, a phasing out operation has already started with the collaboration of sand operators many of whom earn their living from this activity. 9.5.1 Waste Water Disposal Utilisation of a total of 850 Mm3 of water can be accounted for: municipal (155), agricultural (460) and hydropower generation (235). Of the municipal demand for water, approximately 3% is consumed by tourism and 5% by industry. 96 115 Standards are being set for the discharge of different types of effluent into the sewerage network, coastal areas, irrigation and running water systems. Hotels and ind ustries are therefore required to treat wastewater before recycling or disposal. Sewerage systems are confined to parts of the Port Louis and Plaines Wilhems districts only, providing service to 18% of the population and 56% of industries. A National Sewerage Master Plan (NSMP) 97 was prepared in 1994. Nine priority projects were identified for a capital investment of Rs 7.3 billion over the period 1993-2013. There has been considerable delay in implementation. Funding to the tune of Rs 5.2 billion has now been secured. Many of the projects are still in the feasibility report or design phase. However work has started or is about to start on two of them: Baie du Tombeau and Montagne Jaquot. 9.5.2 Solid Waste Disposal The collection and disposal of solid wastes from domestic use and industries is organised by local authorities. In the case of certain industries, it is organised privately. Waste and refuse are taken to dumping grounds some distance from built up areas and normally just dumped in an open area. The pollution risks of these dumps are very high not only at the level of the atmosphere but also as waste leachate runs into the aquifers or nearby streams and rivers. Estimates of the quantity of solid wastes to be disposed everyday range around 1000 tonnes. 98 The recycling of plastics, used oils, tyres, cotton fibres and paper for a small market like Mauritius would not be a very viable operation, but some industries have already set up small scale recycling plants for plastics, paper and re-treading plants for used tyres. However, standards and legislation have yet to be worked out for the collection, transportation, storage, processing, disposal and recycling of non- hazardous wastes. For example, the increasing use of plastic bottles has greatly worsened the problem of waste. Recovery of these bottles for eventual recycling locally or to be exported after shredding has yet to be organised. 9.5.3 Transport and Energy The number of registered vehicles has more than doubled over the past decade, being 107,513 in 1989 and 233,415 in 1999. The density of vehicles per kilometre of road increased from 39 in 1980 to 68 and 114 in 1998. 99 About one third of the passengers travel on the Curepipe to Port Louis corridor. Journey times have increased by about 50% over the past five years. This constant increase in the number of vehicles has inevitably led to higher levels of pollution due to vehicle emission and noise. Furthermore, there have been recommendations that the public transport system, which consists of both buses and taxis, should be strengthened and rationalised in order to reduce pollution levels. Specific recommendations to have a special bus lane or a mass light railway transit system between Curepipe and Port Louis have been proposed but this project has not materialised yet. 116 In 1998, transport used 32% of all energy used in the country. In 1998, all gasoline and about 42 % of imported diesel was used in the transportation sector. 100 Several studies have been carried out and recommendations made to make a start on the use of unleaded petrol, but it is a matter of concern that these have unfortunately not been implemented yet. The total primary energy requirement of the country is met from imported fuels (around 70% and the remaining 30% from indigenous sources (hydro, bagasse, fire wood) In 1998, only 7.5% of the electricity requirement of the country was produced by hydro power. Of the remaining 92.5% which was produced as thermal energy, only 14% was produced from bagasse, the bulk being produced from imported diesel, fuel oil, kerosene or coal. Therefore only about 21% of electricity produced comes from local renewable sources, i.e hydro and bagasse. 101 However, although loan facilities and financial incentives are given for the use of solar water heaters, their use has remained at a very low level. 9.5.4 The island of Rodrigues The island faces many problems such as the lack of fresh water and soil erosion which has greatly affected and is partly to blame for the steadily declining agricultural system. Presently, about 18 run-on-river diversions, 18 springs and 13 boreholes provide the sources for water supply, mainly for domestic purposes. It is estimated that about 4200 m³ of water are produced per day. Conveyance losses in the transmission and distribution networks are estimated to be 50%, resulting to inadequate and irregular supply of water to the population. The present potable water demand is estimated at 8300 m³ per day. The shortage of water leads to the following interconnected problems: (i) Not enough safe drinking water. (ii) A low number of flushed toilets. Latrines are therefore in very poor sanitary conditions, sometimes causing contamination of the scarce amount of running water available. Efforts have been made over the years to improve the collection and distribution of water but this still remains the major problem on the island. 9.6 AREAS OF POSSIBLE INTERVENTION IN ENVIRONMENT The main challenges that face Mauritius and where intervention would be essential in the years to come are: 1. Pollution of the coastal area due to discharge of contaminated effluents and contaminated stream and river water, coming from agricultural, industrial, domestic and tourist activities. 2. Pollution of the aquifers and rivers by agrochemicals and industrial effluents. 117 3. Solid waste disposal. A comprehensive plan to cover the whole of the island is still not available. The increasing use of plastics is a real threat. 4. Sewerage. Again a comprehensive plan to cover the whole island is extremely costly and probably not feasible. 5. Atmospheric pollution caused by an increasing fleet of vehicles and industries. 6. Increasing pressure for the release of agricultural land for residential or commercial use 7. Soil erosion in Rodrigues 8. Further provision of safe drinking water in Rodrigues. 9.7 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS FOR THE M ARITIME AND FISHERIES S ECTOR The IMO is the UN system’s regulatory agency for the maritime sector, and its global mandate is safer shipping and cleaner oceans, which is pursued by adopting international maritime rules and standards that are then implemented and enforced by Governments in the exercise of flag, port and coastal state jurisdiction. IMO’s rules and standards are accepted by Governments and the global shipping industry- which carries over 90% of the world’s trade- because they provide a single, universal framework governing maritime operations. Mauritius has so far ratified the following International IMO Conventions: • • • • • • • • • • • • The International Convention on Load Lines (Load Lines 66) The International Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic(1967) The International Convention on Tonnage measurement (Tonnage 69) The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR 79) The International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (Fund 71 and the Protocol 92) The International Convention for Prevention of Collision at sea (COLREG 72) The International Convention for the Prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL 73/78) International Convention on Safety of life at sea (SOLAS 74) The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC 76/92) The International Convention on Standard of Training Certification and Watch keeping for seafarers (STCW 78) The International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Responses and Cooperation (OPRC 90) The International Convention on Maritime Satellite Organisation (INMRSART 94/98) The following conventions related to the protection of the fisheries sector have also been signed: • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 118 • • • • Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks Agreement to Promote Compliance with Internationa l Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on High Seas Indian Ocean Tuna Commission The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 9.8 GOVERNMENT AND UN INTERVENTION Many countries especially developing ones cannot yet give full and complete effect to these IMO’s instruments because of lack of human and institutional resources. Because of this and as mandated by the Convention that created it, the organisation has established an Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme (ITCP) the sole purpose of which is to assist countries in building up their human and institutional capabilities for uniform and effective compliance with the Organisation’s regulatory framework. In accordance with the Needs Assessment report carried out by the IMO Regional Coordinator for Eastern and Southern Africa, the Government of Mauritius is committed to maintaining safer shipping and protection of the environment. The GEF is the principal sponsor of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Planning Project for the protection of the environmental integrity of the coastal and marine ecosystems of a large, biologically rich and relatively pristine part of the western Indian Ocean. The project will achieve this objective by helping the small island states of Comoros, Mauritius, Madagascar and Seychelles ratify and comply with the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC 90). World Bank is implementing the project on behalf of the GEF and the Indian Ocean Commission is the recip ient of the grant on behalf of the beneficiary countries. The planning of the project started in late 1997. The project itself became ‘effective’ in March 1999, when the Project Implementation Plan (Phase I of the project) was approved. 9.9 AREAS OF INTERVENTION IN THE M ARITIME AND FISHERIES SECTOR The following areas of concern for the maritime sector will have to be addressed in the country in order to achieve the desired objectives: Maritime Safety It is government policy to ensure that the ship s calling at the port as well as those registered in the country are in good condition and thus are not a threat to the environment and the cargo carried as well as the crew. This will be achieved by: 1. long term training of ship surveyors/inspectors 2. short term courses for the retraining of serving surveyors 119 Strengthening of maritime administration 3. train newly recruited maritime officers both women and men at WMU to be more effective in their duties 4. participation at IMO short courses by the serving officers Maritime Legislation 5. Technical assistance in drafting a new merchant shipping act to incorporate ratified international convention and new developments in world shipping 6. Incorporate conditions of service for seamen in the new act and also regulations for fishing vessels 7. Technical assistance in holding a national seminar on ratification of conventions and national legislation 8. Resolve conflict between the Environment Act and the Merchant Shipping Act especially on fines for polluters 9. Participation by at least two officials in a regional seminar on ratification of conventions and national legislation Maritime training 10. There has generally been a lack of training facilities in the maritime sector. The only maritime related training facility has been in the fishing industry and even here it has remained rather inadequate. The following will need to be undertaken: 11. Technical training on assessing the current level of training offered by the sea training school and its compliance with STCW95 12. Technical assistance in retraining the trainers to be able to offer the courses in accordance with the requirement of STCW95 and STCW95-F 13. Technical assistance for an evaluation study to establish possible upgrading of the sea school and the possibility of relocating it to a more spacious area 14. Technical assistance to supply the necessary modern equipment to the school Marine Pollution Mauritius is on the route of very large crude oil carriers making the country vulnerable to pollution by accidental oil spills from ships. In the area of marine pollution, Mauritius is party to most of the international conventions related to control of pollution by ship and other related activities, and recently ratified the 92 protocol of the Fund Convention has not yet been ratified. The following steps should now be taken: 15. Harmonisation of the various pieces of legislation 16. A study of the prevailing currents and the effect they would have in case of marine pollution 17. The provision of technical assistance in updating the sensitive areas atlas prepared in 1989 18. The provision of technical assistance in acquisition of oil spill response equipment able to cover most of the ecologically sensitive areas 19. Technical assistance in implementation of MARPOL Convention 120 10.0 FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION 10.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS The major goals of the World Food Summit held in Rome 1996 were the following: • • • • • • • • Eradication of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition within a decade Creation of general conditions for economic and social progress conducive to food security Eradication of poverty and access to adequate food Sustainable increases in food production Preparedness, prevention and response to food emergencies Optimal investment in human resources, sustainable production capacity and rural development Promotion of trade where it contributes to food security Full participation and empowerment of the population especially women 10.2 GOVERNMENT S TRATEGIES AND POLICIES 10.2.1 Agricultural Policies Food security is not regarded as an issue in Maur itius in the same way as it is in certain poor African or Asian countries with huge populations to feed. Mauritius has made the necessary transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy in the 1980s and has dramatically reduced its dependency on agricultural resources and employment. Agriculture only represents 9% of GDP. The island’s economy has a long history of dependence on a single export crop, namely sugar. The price of this commodity has suffered wide fluctuations on the world market. Sugar has remained central to the economy probably because of the guarantee of an export market negotiated since the early 1950s, first through the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement followed in 1974 by the Sugar Protocol attached to the Lomé Convention which is an arrangement between the ACP country (Africa-Caribbean-Pacific) and the European Union. The Sugar protocol guarantees a market for the bulk of the sugar production and ensures price stability. Sugar plantations occupy around 90% of all agricultural land of the island. A large part of the food requirements of the country, such as flour, rice, edible oils, fish, meat and milk products are imported. However, the value of agricultural exports, sugar, tea, some food crops and fish, by far exceed the value of our food imports. Various diversification plans have been introduced since 1982 to obviate potential hazards of a monocrop economy. In 1995, the Agricultural Research and Extension Unit (AREU) has been set up under the aegis of the Food and Agricultural Re search Council to promote research and provide advisory services to farmers. An Agricultural Products 121 Export Authority has been set up to promote exports of non-sugar products. Government is also at present engaged in a major reform programme of the whole agricultural sector and efforts are being made to modernise, through increasing efficiency and productive capacity, the sugar industry. It is hoped that the average tonnage of 625,000 annually will rise to 700,000 in the years to come. There are some important irrigation projects which are aimed at extending the irrigation network and improving the irrigation system in the North, East and West of the country. The building of a large dam, the Midlands Dam and the rehabilitation of two major feeder canals, by the year 2003 will bring an additional 5000 hectares of land under irrigation. It is estimated that these improvements in irrigation will increase annual sugar production from the present 625,000 to the targeted 700,000 tonnes and food-crop production form 100,000 tonnes to 150,000 tonnes. The FAO (with UNDP financial assistance) prepared a 10 year Development Plan for the fisheries sector for Government in 1998. The Ministry of Fisheries and Co-operatives has since implemented 22 of the projects listed in the 10 year Plan. The Ministry of Agriculture, Food Technology and Natural Resources is at present finalising an Action Plan for Agriculture for the period 2000-2005. The main objectives of Government agricultural policy are as follows: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Increase food crop and livestock production. Maintain self sufficiency in fresh vegetables, poultry and egg, fresh pork and increase self-sufficiency in certain essential commodities like onions and re-establish self sufficiency for potatoes Liberalise markets and support private sector development Optimise the use of water resources through the introduction of improved and water saving irrigation systems and increase in water storage capacity Make optimal use of agricultural lands while maintaining annual sugar production between 625,000-700,000 tonnes. Diversify agricultural production for local consumption and export Ensure national food security through the production of adequate supplies of basic foodstuffs at competitive prices. Intensify research and development activities Extend agricultural production to the region through the establishment of strategic alliances (eg. bilateral agreement between the Governments of Mauritius and Mozambique) Promote agro-based industries Formulate an agricultural training policy Ensure an adequate and regular supply of fish and fish products to meet domestic needs and to generate surplus for export Develop appropriate marketing strategies Conserve/preserve the country’s natural base Facilitate trade in food and agricultural products 122 10.2.2 Incentives to increase agricultural production In the agricultural sector, given that land area cannot be expected to expand substantially, efforts are being directed towards increasing the productivity per unit area. Since the sugar market, especially under the ACP-EU Special Preferential Sugar Agreement, will be far better than that of tea in the years to come, the conversion of tea land into sugar plantations is being encouraged with the introduction of incentives in the form of cash grants, land preparation support and provision of road infrastructure. Two ongoing schemes which have greatly contributed to an increase in productivity of agricultural land are: The Prime Minister’s Derocking Scheme and the Irrigation Plans of the Irrigation Authority. Although these schemes were directed primarily to increasing the productivity of sugar land in the West and the North, they will also benefit the food crops which are being grown in those areas as these food crops are also grown as intercrops on sugar land. Both schemes are highly subsidised by Government and in particular the Irrigation Network and reservoirs that require very heavy investment Another initiative that will improve management and productivity is the consolidation of small farmers’ plots into larger units, known as LAMUs (Land Area Management Unit). LAMUs will reap economies of scale and facilitate the collective use of logistics support form the Farmers Services Centres. In order to encourage agricultural diversification special fiscal concessions are given under the Agricultural Development Certificate Scheme. In 1990, this scheme was modified so that those who produce for the export market become eligible for an even greater range of incentives on similar lines as those in the exp ort manufacturing sector (EPZ). Today, loans are given on concessionary terms by the Development Bank of Mauritius and the State Commercial Bank. Sugar cane growers obtain cuttings from the Government nursery or the sugar estates at a price that is subsidised by Government, whereas growers of potatoes and onions are provided seeds of reliable quality that are also subsidised from the Agricultural Marketing Board, that also ensures the storage and marketing of their produce. Although farmers make probably too much use of pesticides in certain cases, one pest which is proving very difficult to control is the fruit-fly which is harmful to a number of fruit varieties as well as certain vegetables. Although there is a programme of eradication both at the national and a regional level, the latter, supported by the Indian Ocean Commission, those initiatives have not proved to be very effective so far. Certain fruits have become very rare and may well disappear if more rigorous steps are not taken to deal with the problem in a more radical manner. Incentives to improve production in certain areas of the livestock sector are also not proving to be very effective. Deer farming seems to be progressing satisfactorily, but a constant and progressive decline has been noted in the production of beef, goat meat, 123 mutton and milk. In a paper presented at the Workshop on Household Food Security in December 1993102, it was estimated that in the year 2000, whereas Mauritius will be self sufficient in pork and poultry, the self-sufficiency ratio for milk, beef, goat meat and mutton will only be 12%, 12% and 4% respectively. In the fisheries sector, besides fiscal and loan facilities to boats and equipment, fishermen are given an allowance on bad weather days when they cannot go out at sea. They are also provided with life jackets to increase their security at sea. Without these incentives, artisanal fishing may disappear completely. 10.3 FOOD PRODUCTION 10.3.1 Food Production for Domestic Consumption103 and Imports104 The limited area available for agriculture leads to a very intensive form of cultivation with heavy inputs in terms of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides. The area under sugar cane has now stabilised with land lost through conversion to residential or industrial us e being compensated by the conversion of marginal land and a good part of land planted under tea to sugar cropping. In 1994, there were 3,028 hectares under tea compared to 1,109 in 1996 and 688 in 1998. The reason for the decline in tea cultivation was the difficulty of obtaining a good price for tea that was previously exported. Although some tea is imported to satisfy consumer demand, most of the tea consumed is produced locally. In 1992, some 72000 tons of vegetables, pulse and fruits were produced. In 1997, the figure rose to 100,817 tons but declined to 91,618 in 1998. However, there has been a dramatic fall in the production of certain items between 1992 and 1998 namely maize from 1995 tons to 260 tons and groundnuts from 1190 tons to 551 tons respectively. Although Mauritius is close to self-sufficiency in vegetables, the country continues to import some vegetables and quite a substantial proportion of its fruit requirements. Between 1993 and 1998, the value of vegetable and fruit imports have gone up from Rs 470 million to Rs 850 million. In addition, animal and vegetable oils and fats to the value of Rs 594 million were imported in 1998. Flour and rice are the staple foods of Mauritians and in 1998, 63,000 tons of rice were imported for a c.i.f value of Rs 556 million. In the same year, 19,000 tons of wheat flour was imported and 123,000 tons of wheat was imported for flour production, mainly for the local market, leaving a surplus production of 22,000 tons of this flour to be exported. 10.3.2 The Livestock Sector In 1998, beef slaughtered at the Mauritius Meat Authority represented 2,516 tonnes of carcass, out of which 2176 tonnes were from imported cattle. The share of imported live cattle has been rising rapidly to reach 74.8% in 1996 and 86% in 1998. Moreover there is an indication that breeding cattle for milk production is getting even more difficult. The amount of milk produced locally has gone down steadily from 10.5 million litres in 1992 to 5.5 million litres in 1998. The import of “meat and meat preparations” in 1998 came 124 up to Rs 733 million c.i.f, while that of “dairy products and bird’s eggs” stood at Rs 1.038 million c.i.f. In terms of weight both these items have each hovered around 18,000 tonnes over the past 5 years. Goat and mutton imports reached 127 tonnes in 1997 while the amount of sheep meat produced locally decreased from 17.5 tonnes in 1992 to 9.7 tonnes in 1995. The amount of goat meat produced from locally bred animals was 84.8 tonnes in 1992 and has gradually declined to 60.6 tonnes in 1995 whereas imports have expanded from 41.6 to 56.2 tonnes. The local breeding of goat and sheep has therefore decreased steadily whereas that of beef cattle seems to have stagnated, with a production of less than 500 tonnes of carcasses. Non-ruminants, such as pigs and poultry, have reached self-sufficient production levels. Production was, in 1997, 948 tonnes of pork and 20,825 tonnes of poultry but these figures went down to 752 and 18,300 in 1998. 10.3.3 The Fisheries Sector The Experimental station at the Albion Fisheries Research Centre is mainly involved in research work to support fish production. The Centre also carries out marine shrimp culture to produce post- larvae for the benefit of private farmers engaged in shrimp production. A Marine Conservation Centre has also been built as an extension of the Research Centre. It provides laboratory facilities for chemistry, bacteriology, ecology and physical oceanography. The main types of fishing in Mauritius are: (a) Artisanal fishing in the lagoon and off- lagoon, including sport fishing and amateur fishing. The total yield here is about 2500 tonnes every year (b) Bank fishing (Saya de Malha and Nazareth banks, the Caragados Chagos Shoals, and the Chagos banks. In 1995, there were 16 bank fishing vessels with a catch of 6700 tonnes which is considered to be the maximum sustainable yield for that type of fishing. (c) Industrial tuna fishing. Tuna production from the Mauritian owned purse seines reached 9500 tonnes in 1992 but fell to 6700 tonnes in 1995. The Tuna factory in Port Louis does not normally obtain enough tuna from local fishing. For example in 1995, the factory had to resort to increased imports so that it could reach a processing value of 21,711 tonnes most of it being sold on the European market. Aquaculture produces marine shrimps, fresh water fish, fresh water prawn and fish in barachois. This production has risen from 68 tonnes in 1991 to 162 tonnes in 1996. TABLE 5 : FISHERIES STATISTICS 1992-1996 (wet weight equivalent in metric tons) SOURCE 1992 1993 Coastal fishing 2725 2533 a High seas 13677 16307 Barachois/Ponds 86 83 TOTAL 16488 18923 125 1994 2613 14678 135 17426 1995 2393 12618 170 15181 1996 2566 8280 164 11010 1998 2179 7656* 9835 * includes barachois/ponds a fishing from the banks and tuna fishing, including fish caught by foreign vessels. SOURCE: Annual Digest of Statistics, 1996. CSO Economic & Social Indicators, MEDRC, No 305, Sept 1999. In a sense, Mauritius can be said to be self sufficient in the fisheries sector, since the revenue from the export of fish and fish preparations almost matches the value of imports of fish and fish preparations. TABLE 6: VALUE OF FISH AND FISH PREPARATIONS Year Exports Imports 1993 384 375 1994 514 488 (in Rs million) 1995 1996 640 719 635 755 1998 939 1129 SOURCE: Annual Digest of Statistics, 1996. CSO. Economic and Social Indicators, MEPD No 298, June 1999. 10.4 M AJOR CONSTRAINTS AND DEVELOPMENT GAPS 10.4.1 Agricultural self-sufficiency The food products about which it would be realistic to talk of self-sufficiency besides sugar and tea are fish, pork and poultry. In reference to fish, there is some concern over the year to year fluctuations in catches, which reached a peak of 18,923 tonnes in 1993, then dropped to 11,010 tonnes in 1996, then increased to 12,361 tonnes in 1997 to finally decrease to 9,835 tonnes in 1998. It has become necessary to investigate furt her fishing possibilities in the banks and the high seas and there is also a need for higher levels of investment and greater professionalism in this sector. At the level of livestock and vegetable production, more vigorous measures can be taken to increase production but it is unlikely that self-sufficiency can be attained in those commodities. Food security at the national level depends on both local production and on imports. Essential food items such as rice and flour, edible oils, pulses, meat and dairy products are all imported. Although export earnings on food items more than offset the import bill for food items, the overall balance of trade situation is a matter of constant concern. The balance of visible trade over the last five years has deteriorated from a negative value of Rs 6,797 million in 1993 to Rs 13,155 million in 1997 and Rs 10,177 million in 1998. However, the overall balance of payment has been positive for 5 of the out of the 6 years. The foreign exchange reserve which represents about 20 weeks of our import bill, has been hovering around that value for some time after having been going up steadily over the past couple of decades, in particular in the 1980s. Flour and rice, the staple food of Mauritius, are quite heavily subsidised by Government. The 1999-2000 Budget has earmarked a sum of Rs 355 million for this item. The 126 recurrent budget has also made a provision of Rs 55 million for incentives for agricultural livestock and fruit production in addition to subsidies to various parastatal bodies. The prices of some main food items are fixed and they include rice, flour, sugar, oil, onions and bread. The substantial depreciation of the rupee by some 48% against the pound sterling over the past 5 years and around 42% against the dollar, has led to substantial price increases, particularly of imported goods. In the face of such price increases and further liberalisation of prices, the Government has recently passed a Consumer Protection Bill through Parliament for greater control of prices. 10.4.2 Employment generation in agriculture The Rome Declaration following the World Food Summit called for social and economic policies that will promote full participation and empowerment of the population, especially women, an equitable distribution of income, access to health care and education, and opportunities for youth. The Declaration also called for employment generation measures which would both reduce poverty levels and enhance food security levels. From a situation of mere fric tional unemployment a few years ago, the country is beginning to experience the first signs of real unemployment. The share of employment in agriculture has been declining very rapidly as the economy has moved towards exportoriented industrialisation. But this has not necessarily led to a decline in production levels especially in sugar where there has been a reduction of the work force as a result of mechanisation and rationalisation of production processes. The problem is more acute in the vegetable and food sector where there are persistent complaints from producers that they cannot find agricultural workers. There is an aversion to agricultural work which is probably derived from a combination of factors such as low status attached to agricultural work, present wage structures and the absence of any promotional career structure in agriculture. Much of the research work in the agricultural sector has for a long time been limited to the sugar sector. The newly created Agricultural Research and Extension Unit has been entrusted with the responsibility of carrying out research in the non-sugar sector. Because of its geographic location and the varied climatic conditions, Mauritius can produce a wide range of crops and livestock. 10.4.3 Health and Safe Nutrition Issues Food security also means good nutritional status as pointed out at the World Food Summit. In 1995, a survey on nutrition was carried out on children aged 0 to 7 years and adults aged 25 to 50 years on the same lines as the one carried out in 1985. 105 A comparison of the findings indicated a net improvement in the nutritional status of children and adults. A National Plan of Action was adopted by Government earlier in 1994 that made a number of recommendations relating to breastfeeding practices, 127 anaemia and ways of improving nutritional standards generally. It also proposed the setting up of a Nutritional Council by the Ministry of Health, which has not been implemented yet. It is a well-known fact that health problems of the adult population of Mauritius are associated with high rates of diabetes and cardio- vascular diseases. Non-communicable diseases can only be addressed properly with a preventive strategy rather than a curative one. Healthy food habits right from childhood, would be one of the major elements of such a strategy. Rapid industrialisation has led to the expansion of a market for fast food, preserved and frozen food. It has become important to regulate hygienic standards of such types of food sold to the public. The new Food Act has been passed in January 2000 with that aim of strengthening food safety and products control systems and educating people in the food trade in appropriate food handling practices. 10.4.4 Occasional Food Shortage Problems There is no real shortage of food in the country. Temporary shortages of imported products due to a late order or late arrival of a ship do occur occasionally but do not last long. The only shortage that may last for longer periods which can extend to 2 to 3 months is that of locally grown vegetables after a severe cyclone hits the country. Prices generally soar over such periods of severe scarcity but go back to normal as soon as production levels resume. The recent expansion of the agro-industrial sector that produces canned or frozen foods has to some extent alleviated this problem of acute shortage after cyclones. The current drought, the worst that the country has known for the past century or so is a subject of very great concern. It is very important that research be carried out on climatic changes and their possible effects on the island in the years to come. Measures must be taken to improve the water management system and to adopt water saving devices both at the level of industries and households. 10.4.5 Women in agricultural activities The problem of food security is more serious on the island of Rodrigues where a vicious circle of deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, droughts and overfishing in the lagoons has led to a fall in both agricultural output and in fish yield. The resulting fall in income from agricultural activities led the government to provide relief work for men in labour intensive public works. This disengaged men from peasant agricultural activities and agricultural output decreased even more. As a result of this, women now constitute the backbone of subsistence agriculture in Rodrigues. The continued engagement of women in peasant farming activities has become even more important to maintain a certain level of food security on the island. 128 Many women in Mauritius also are engaged in food production on a household level, for instance in kitchen gardens. These activities should be promoted and given support as these kitchen gardens provide an important source of household nutrition. There has also been an increased desire on the part of many women to further expand into small- scale poultry and livestock rearing for household purposes, as well as for local marketing. Many of these activities are being supported by the Women’s Unit of AREU and the Young Farmers Service Organisation in Belle Mare but require further efforts and strengthening. Although the female participation rate in the formal sector of agriculture has been decreasing, a considerable number of women, especially in Rodrigues are still engaged in important agricultural production activities. The role and importance of these women engaged in this sector should be given more recognition and support. Women’s triple burden must be recognised and addressed in order to increase efficiency in agricultural production. Women peasants and fisherfolk face major obstacles such as lack of access to technical know-how, credit facilities and to other support services at the level of their household responsibilities. Extension services need to become gender sensitised in order to integrate gender planning into agricultural and fisheries development. Also, there should be increased support given to women who are interested in being involved in agro-processing activities and marketing. 10.5 K EY ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED IN FOOD S ECURITY AND NUTRITION 1. Water management and deforestation are two areas which should be very closely monitored as it would seem that Mauritius may have already begun to suffer from the effects of global warming. 2. The fisheries sector has very great potential to become an important economic sector of the country in the years to come. It is therefore essential that there be more clear conservation policies for lagoons as well as for the high seas. Effective exploration and monitoring of the high seas can only be done through regional cooperation between the islands of the region. Regional co-operation would also have the merit of enlarging markets and of allowing the pooling of necessary resources such as fishing vessels, expensive detection equipment and highly trained technicians. Aquaculture on land is another area which should be seriously investigated. 3. Biotechnology was introduced in 1986 with the setting up of the first tissue culture laboratory in Mauritius and this is another area which has great potential. Plant tissue culture was introduced as part of the country strategy to increase crop diversity and crop productivity in order to increase domestic food production. It is now felt that there is a need to make an assessment of the present contribution of biotechnology to agriculture, evaluate the priorities of the country and develop a strategy on how best the targets can be achieved. The main areas of biotechnology in Mauritius would be plant micro-propagation, diagnosis of plant diseases, crop breeding, animal production and animal health, treatment/use of agricultural wastes. It is felt that so far biotechnology has not produced the expected result on 129 agriculture due to a number of constraints, mainly financial and administrative. There is a need for essential equipment as well as an appropriate infrastructure compatible with active progress in biotechnology. There is also at present no clear training strategy in this field. The establishment of a regional and international biotechnology research network would be beneficial to Mauritius and other countries of the region. 4. Genetic engineering, leading to the production of transgenic foods, has in recent years been a matter of great concern to the Ministry of Agriculture. A global approach has been adopted in this context and genetically engineered organisms are assessed for their impacts not only on human health but also on the environment and biodiversity. Some work has been achieved in this area and there is now a need for the development of clear guidelines for evaluating transgenic crops. 5. Local production of beef and milk accounts for less than 5% of total consumption and for goat and mutton it is only 2%. There is a need to seriously rethink this sector and ways must be found to increase the herd size, to encourage a new breed of professional farmers, to improve quality of products at the same time as rendering livestock farms that are environmentally friendly. Deer farming, which will have important export potential once EU standards are met, must be further developed. 6. There have been important developments in agro-industrial production, especially with the new policy of delocalisation which has allowed strategic alliances with certain countries of the region, notably Mozambique which may in the long run represent important sources of primary agricultural produce for Mauritian agroindustries. Further developments would however require new improved technologies for agricultural production and expertise in domestic and export marketing. 7. Mauritius, being such a small island, is likely to only be able to develop its agricultural sector through greater regional co-operation. Mauritius is a member of the IOR, COMESA and of SADC. A bilateral agreement exists between Mozambique and Mauritius which covers at present a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) over an area of 100,000 hectares and the rehabilitation of two sugar estates. There are possibilities now for the country to make use of resources of the region to produce selected agricultural products for the Mauritian market. The introduction of an appropriate legal framework as well as the harmonisation of certain food and sanitation related existing laws and regulations would however be necessary before these new developments can start. 8. Crop protection necessitates more research efforts. Pest and disease control is at present considered to be one of the major problems encountered by planters. It is essential that there be continuous monitoring and judicious use of pesticides, fungicides, and weed killers, which are not detrimental to the environment. 130 9. Conservation of agricultural produce is a very important issue in a small island with a small market. More effort should be directed to the introduction of more cost-effective new technologies for the conservation of agricultural produce. 10. Finally training and capacity building in the field of agriculture has become essential for the further development of this sector. A recent survey has shown that 80% of the members of the farming community are above the age of 40 years and a large proportion of them have studied only up to the primary level and have never had any formal training in agriculture. Agricultural training and education are presently being provided on a piecemeal basis by a number of institutions including the Ministry of Education through the schools, the Mauritius Institute of Education through teacher training, the University of Mauritius, the Mauritius Sugar Research Institute, the Agricultural Research and Extension Unit, the Farmers Services Centre, the Robert Antoine Sugar Industry Training Centre. 11. Although a great deal is being done, there is a serious lack of co-ordination and clearly defined overall training strategy for this sector. There is at present no provision for the training of young school leavers or school drop outs, or for adult farmers except for occasional talks or lectures by the extension services. A training needs analysis will have to be undertaken in order to identify and prioritise the training needs especially of the non-sugar sector. Also, agricultural services and training policies must take into account the special constraints and needs of women farmers, especially small peasants, and women in Rodrigues who are involved in the fisheries sector. 131 11. 0 CONCLUSION Key Issues and Strategic Focus for the UN system The aim of the CCA was to provide a holistic and analytical summary of the current level of national development through a common set of indicators including basic demographic, cultural, political and socio-economic information. These indicators have been assessed in the light of the priorities and mandates of the UN system organisations and the internationally-agreed goals set by the various world conferences held during the 1990s as well as with reference to existing national policy objectives of the country. It has been impossible to present a thorough and complete analysis of the state of development of Mauritius in a few chapters, given the complexity of the numerous issues that have been addressed. The aim of the exercise was essentially to make an objective assessment of progress achieved in the main socio-economic sectors and to identify areas where more needs to be done. The major critical issues have been identified and analysed and some suggestions made with regard to future government and international organisation intervention. From the overall country assessment, it is clearly apparent that Mauritius has moved a long way from preoccupation about the satisfaction of lower le vel basic needs of the population. The country is no longer engaged in a struggle against grinding poverty, starvation, disease or human destruction resulting from armed conflict which continue to plague so many countries of the world. The last few decades have seen a period of rapid transition and dramatic structural transformation of the social fabric as well as significant expansion of educational and occupational opportunities. Economic progress has brought gains but there have been costs as well. For a number of reasons, some areas and some groups have missed the fast train of economic development and have remained locked in a vicious circle of poverty, low motivation and social exclusion. This uneven development is a serious risk to the cohesion and stability of the social fabric of the country. Health indicators also reveal some problem areas. The period of rapid industrialisation coincided with reduced emphasis on preventive, community initiated and community led health programmes as well as on health education programmes. The period of economic boom and successful industrialisation seems to have encouraged higher levels of individualism and undermined traditional channels of community participation in public life through trade unions and political parties. These are essential driving belts to channel any feelings of frustration or dissatisfaction and to transmit views and feelings for effective social dialogue and for the consolidation of democracy. Economic growth rates have slowed down and there have been some setbacks in the recent years, namely, rising cost of labour, erosion in the protected international markets due to increasing competition on the world market. At the level of education, although enrolment rates continue to rise, there are still major problems of regional and gender disparities. On the other hand, the mismatch between the content and level of education and training and the needs of the economy will be one of the major difficulties which will face the country in years to come as more highly educated young people remain excluded 132 from the labour market as a result of the slowing down of growth rates and inappropriate training strategies. There is at the same time an urgent need for upgrading skills to meet the challenges of globalisation and an increasingly competitive world market. The assessment has shown that Government and International agencies have actively been engaged in the formulation of policies and action programmes to meet the commonly agreed objectives reached by the international community at global conferences. However progress in some areas has been slow and there are important gaps which have been highlighted and elaborated upon in the body of the report. At a more general level, a major problem noted is that even if action has been taken in certain areas and recommendations made, there has been hesitation to implement recommendations either due to a lack of political will or difficulties in reaching national consensus on some issues. Some notable examples can be found in the fields of education and governance. A number of good reports with extremely useful recommendations have remained locked in drawers for long periods of time. The UN system should seriously consider ways and means of assisting government in advocacy work to sensitise the population on controversial issues such as the regionalisation in education, health and reproductive rights, governance and the administration of law and order, human rights issues relating to women and children and vulnerable groups. This will help the population to reflect upon certain of these issues and make informed choices. Much of the resistance is sometimes based on lack of information and comprehension of certain issue. National debates and a participatory approach should be encouraged on some of these issues to facilitate dialogue and eventual implementation of programmes. The UN system in Mauritius has very limited capacity both at the level of funding and human resources, to engage in major development projects but there are certain areas where their intervention could have critical impact. UN agencies have been very active in the fields of women and child rights, health and reproductive rights, education and the environment. There is still a great deal of work to be done in those areas and UN support should continue. However some of the problems areas have become more acute and other new problems have emerged requiring urgent attention, notably problems of poverty and social exclusion of some regions, growing inequalities in educational opportunity, pressure on health services, rising abortion rates, law and order issues, electoral reform, public administration constraints, police and prison reforms, decentralisation and participatory democracy. In depth analysis of some of these problems using the broader multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach to human centred development indicates that many of them have cross-cutting causes and implications and can only be addressed with greater inter-agency collaboration. One very fitting example is the problem of educational inequality and low performance in deprived areas. This problem has multi-dimensional causes, linked to a number of issues 133 related to poverty, health problems, environmental constraints, family problems such as domestic violence and alcoholism, weak community networks leading to absence of effective political participation, problems at the level of control agencies such as the police and teachers, discrimination in the labour market etc. The issue of cultural diversity and artistic creativity could also be added to the list of issues impacting on social and educational inequalities. UNESCO has already been involved in some programmes and could be integrated in this interagency collaboration. This is just one good example to show the importance of interagency collaboration and common programmes of action. Another very important finding of the assessment is the problem of the scarcity of data on certain issues, especially those related to poverty and inequalities. The absence of data in such areas does not only make it difficult to formulate appropriate policies but it also makes it difficult to achieve any consensus in the country on the issue. The problem of social exclusion is an interesting case in point. Although some interesting research has been carried out (mentioned in section dealing with Social Development), the lack of reliable and detailed information on the extent and nature of the problem gives rise to varying or indeed contradictory appreciation of the problem. The absence of reliable data on this issue, which has ethnic undertones, continues to provoke considerable interethnic tension. It is urgent that more research be carried out on this problem and this is an area where UN assistance can be valuable, both at the level of funding of research projects and provision of technical assistance. There is a great number of other areas where research is necessary and these have been covered in the specific sections of the report. However there is an inevitable need for prioritising issues. Governance is another priority area which should be supported as it is a fundamental for creating proper conditions for the empowerment of weaker groups of the population, namely women, the poor, the uneducat ed, the excluded, the marginalised, and victims of discrimination. The section on Civil and Political Rights gives details of areas which require urgent attention and these include the decentralisation of local government, electoral reform, the introductio n of an Equal Opportunities Act, reorganisation of public administration and the Police, and the liberalisation of broadcasting services. Civil society will have to be an essential partner not only in the implementation of strategies and programmes of action but should also be encouraged to participate in policy formulation and decision making, especially with regard to issues of national importance. The UN system can have a very important role in supporting and empowering civil society to participate effectively. Advocacy programmes on certain issues can be run with the collaboration of NGOs and civil society. 134 ANNEX 1 Methodology The methodology used for the CCA consisted of a collection and an analysis of official statistics and findings mainly from the following sources: Reports of the Central Statistical Office (CSO) Reports of the various Ministries and Governmental Departments Studies carried out by organisations or individuals relating to various economic aspects of the development process in Mauritius Newspaper articles and comments Academic books on development issues socio- A list of such publications and other written sources, can be found in the references. A few key opinion leaders have also been consulted on specific issues. There was no collection of primary data or field work involved in the exercise. The assessment of the situation was based on existing sources and the author’s own observations. An analysis of the evolution and recent trends was also carried out and key areas of concern were identified. Those key areas were also analysed into greater depth to understand the structural basis of some of the problems facing the country for the moment and the major challenges ahead. The first draft of the CCA was circulated to all UN agencies at the end of September 1998. Comments were received from a number of representatives present and these were incorporated as much as possible into the document. There was a break in the process from the end of 1998 to October, as a substantive UN representative had not been appointed. The process started again in October with the lead Consultant Mrs Nababsing and Professor Nath engaged by UNDP to carry out the economic analysis. This second exercise was also largely based on existing statistics, survey findings and official reports. The second draft of the CCA including the economics chapter, was circulated to UN agencies based locally and in the region. A workshop was held in January to discuss the report. A number of decisions were taken with respect to the formatting of the document These are laid out in detail in the section describing the terms of reference. Comments were sent to the consultant again and were incorporated in the final document which was submitted to the UNDP on 15 March 2000. The next stage would be the circulation of the document to Government Ministries and Departments for their comments before engaging in the UNDAF exercise. ANNEX 2 Contextual Indicators Total Population (000) Age Composition (%) Under 15 years (15-59) years (60-64) years 65 years and above Total Fertility Rate Life Expectancy at Birth Male Female Gross Domestic Product at market prices (Rs m) GNP per capita Rs (US $) External debt % of GNP (Central Government) Growth rate of GDP at factor cost (%) Domestic Savings (% of GDP) Inflation Rate Share of exports in GDP (%) % of Public Expenditure on Social Services Foreign Direct Investment (million Rs) (million US $) * less than 1% of GDP 1990 1,058.8 1998 1,159.7 29.8 61.9 2.9 5.4 2.3 26.2 65.0 2.8 6.0 2.0 65.6 73.4 39,275 36,775 2,260 15.1 7.3 23.0 13.5 65.2 13.1 - 66.7 74.5 96,939 83,027 3,490 11.2 5.2 24.0 6.8 66.8 20.6 900* 38 Common Country Assessment Indicators Conference Indicators CONFERENCE GOAL INCOME-POVERTY Reduced poverty levels TARGET INDICATORS (Disaggregated by sex) Proportion in % of total income extreme poverty in going to 1990 reduced by ½ in 2015 (WSSD) lowest 20% households highest 20% households ratio of highest 20% to lowest 20% FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION Improved child nutrition Severe/moderate malnutrition among children<5 ½ of 1990 level by 2000 (WSSD/FWCW/WSC/WFS) Increased food security Reduce number of chronically under-nourished by half by 2015 (WFS) HEALTH AND MORTALITY Improved Health Care Universal accessibility of primary health care (ICPD/WSSD/FWCW) Reduction in levels of Universal access to RH HIV/Aids services and information by 2015(ICPD) Reduced infant mortality Reduced child mortality 86/87 91/92 96/97 5.6 6.4 5.9 44.2 43.5 46.2 7.9 6.8 7.8 Survey of 0-7 years old suffering from malnutrition 1985: 24% 1995: 16.6% Daily per capita intake of calorie in 1996: 2952 % of household income spent on food for the poorest quintile: 58.5% Already achieved Cases of aids 95 96 97 98 Male 20 15 22 19 Female 7 9 6 10 Reduction of IMR by 1/3 of 1990 IMR has ranged between 18-22 level and below 35 by 1,000 from 90-98. The target of 12 for by 2015 (ICPD/WSSD/WCW/WSC) the year 2000 will not be achieved MR at ages <5 reduced by 2/3 of MR has stagnated between 20 -22 1990 from 1990-98. The desired target level by 2015(ICPD/WSC) will not be achieved in 2000 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH Improved maternal health Reduction by ½ of 1990 levels and reduced maternal by year 2000 and a further ½ by mortality 2015 (ICPD/WSSD/FWCW/WSC) Increased access to family planning Universal access to safe/reliable Contraceptive prevalence rate contraceptive methods (ICPD) Survey findings of women of 15-44 age in a union using contraceptives: 1985: 80% 1991: 75% CHILD HEALTH AND WELFARE Improved child Universal immunization health against measles (WSC) Reduced labour Maternal mortality rate per 1000 live births 1990: 0.69 1998:0.21 ____________________________ ___________ % of birth attended by skilled health personnel: 98.5 % in 1998 child Elimination labour (WSSD) of % of babies immunized against measles (public services only) child Activity rate(%) (2-14 years) Male Female 1993 : 83.5 1998: 84.6 1990 1995 1998 11.2 3.4 6.8 2.3 5.1 2.0 EDUCATION Increased access to basic Universal access and 100% attendance at primary level for education completion of primary both males and females. education by 2015 (EFA/WCW/WSC/ICPD) % of pupils who start standard 1 and reach standard 6 : 99.8% Increased literacy Adult illiteracy reduced by Adult literacy rate- 1997: 93% 1990 level by 2000 (EFA/WSSD/WCW) GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT Gender Equality in Eliminate disparity in No gender disparity in enrolment Pass Rates education primary and secondary rates CPE(1998) education by 2005 Primary (6-11) 100% Boys: 59.9% (ICPD/WSSD/FWCF) Secondary(12-19) 58% Girls : 69.3% Technical and vocational School Certificate education Boys: 77.1% (1997) Girls :77.7% Males: 17,429 Females: 6.033 Gender Equality in Eliminate discriminatory Female activity rate: 1990: 34.7 1997:38.7% employment practices in employment Percentage of women in higher public sector (FWCW) administrative positions 1990: 26.5% 1995: 28.1% Median salary 1995 1996 Male Rs 3,500 5,611 Women Rs 2,300 3,250 Women’s Equitable access to %of female 1983 1987 1991 1995 Political political institutions members Empowerment (FWCW) elected : 3.2 6.5 3.2 9.7 Parliament 5.6 6.3 5.6 8.7 Municipality 1.9 1.5 1.0 2.8 Village Council EMPLOYMENT AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD Creation of full Universal access to paid employment employment (WSSD) Full employment achieved in the 1980s. Unemployment level has reached 6% in 1997 with higher incidence among women. (13,100 males and 16,700 females) CSO HOUSING AND BASIC HOUSEHOLD AMENITIES AND FACILITIES Adequate shelter for Provision of sufficient living 1983 All space and avoidance of 1990 overcrowding Number of persons per room or (habitat II) average floor areas per person 1.5 Improved access to Universal access to safe safe drinking water drinking water; Full coverage of % of population with drinking water supply access to piped water (by 2025) (WCW/WSSD/UNCED) 1983 96.9 1.2 1990 95.2 (WCW/WSSD/UNCED) Improved access to Universal sanitary waste safe sanitation disposal (WCW/WCS/WSSD/UNCED) ENVIRONMENT Improved Clean and healthy environment environment and reversal of current trends in loss of environmental resources (UNCED) Toilet of which flush toilet 62.8 The Ministry of Environment is monitoring economic activities and setting standards to eventually ensure that there is no further degradation of the environment. A Waster Water Authority and A Solid Waste Management Unit have been set up. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 1.5 metric tons Traditional fuel consumption as % of total 1980: 44% 1995: 38% Average annual rate of deforestation (%) 1980-90: 1.2% 1990-1995: 0% Arable land per capita: 0.08 hectare DRUG CONTROL AND CRIME PREVENTION Improved drug control Measurable results in reducing cultivation, manufacture, trafficking and abuse of illicit drugs by 2008 (UNAD) Improved crime prevention 1983 1990 98.0 99.3 47.5 Eliminate/significantly reduce violence and crime(UNCPCTO) Drug crimes per 100,000 inhabitants in 1994: 168.3 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL COMMITMENTS FOR HUMAN RIGHTS Universal ratification of Acceding to all international Section of the CCA on Human Rights international human human rights instruments and lists rights instruments avoiding the resort to all the International Treaty Obligations reservations, as far as possible. that Mauritius is a party to. The Protection of Human Rights Act has been passed to make provision for the setting up of a National Human Rights Commission. DEMOCRARY AND PARTICIPATION Strengthened democratic Free and fair elections and Elections have been regularly held except institutions and popular democratic government for the few years of the 1970s during the participation (WCHR) State of Emergency There have been some complaints about the absence of free and fair elections for the last general elections. There are some court cases against electoral bribery. The Constitution guarantees freedom of expression, association and assembly. The Public Gathering Act contains certain restrictions to freedom to assembly. The IRA makes strikes virtually illegal. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE Fair administration of Effective legislative framework, Justice law enforcement, prosecutions, legal profession and fair trials in conformity with international standards. Improved framework Existence of legal remedies in of conformity with international remedies standards The Mackay Report has just been submitted with a number of recommendations to reform the Judiciary. The is a right of appeal against any decision even that of the Supreme Court which goes to the Privy Council. ANNEX 3 Terms of Reference Common Country Assessment Background As part of the strive towards harmonisation of the programme cycles of the individual organisations within the Joint Consultative Group on Policy (JCGP), it has been decided to compile a Common country Assessment, hereafter referred to as CCA. The CCA serves as the stepping stone for the preparation of the UNDAF. In addition, the CCA provides input to individual mid-review of the involved UN organisations. The aim of the exercise is to provide a status of national development based on the compilation and review of a common set of indicators reflecting the priorities and mandates of the United Nations system, linked to internationally agreed goals set by the various world conferences held in the 1990s. The System of the United Nations had hired the services of Mrs Vidula Nababsing, Dean of the Faculty of Social Studies and Humanities at the University of Mauritius, from April 1998 for a period of 4 months. A draft report of the CCA was produced in October 1998. However, the then Officer- in-Charge during that period, had requested to wait for the arrival of the new Resident Representative, for the finalisation of the CCA. The first draft of the CCA which was submitted in December 1999 was based on the General Terms of Reference of the CCA where are as follows: 1. An assessment of key development issues and the status of the co-ordinated follow-up to UN conferences and of the implementation of UN conventions and declarations, with a focus on the crosscutting themes. This should also include a summary of the main findings of the assessment, and an analysis of demographic, socio-economic and political development trends, as well as an indication of the geographical incidence of poverty and vulnerability. 2. An in-depth analysis of key areas emerging from the assessment 3. Main conclusions, including a set of key issues which could provide a basis for determining the strategic focus of the United Nations system and the CCA partners for support and advocacy. These priorities should reflect the relevance of crosscutting issues and where possible, be specified in a gender-sensitive way. The CCA allows for the identification of baseline data on the key issues including vulnerability analysis. 4. Data for the CCA indicators, including information showing where the countries stand on the key indicators that correspond to the international conference and convention goals, as well as additional country-relevant indicators and information relating to national priorities and needs. This information is provided both in the annexes and the body of the Report. The CCA draft was circulated to UN agencies in December 1999 for comments. A CCA/UNDAF workshop was held on January 2000 with local UN agencies and those of the region, to finalise the CCA and define the role of Government in the CCA/UNDAF. Suggestions were made by several agencies to review the format of the CCA to facilitate future UN intervention. This gave rise to the country specific terms of reference for the Mauritius CCA. The following decision was taken with regard to the Structure of Chapters: Each chapter would be directly based on the Mauritian acceptance of recommendations of international conferences and declarations and ratified covenants, conventions and treaties. Each chapter would be formatted as follows: 1. Description of all related international instruments adhered to by Mauritius (Conventions ratified, laws passed, treaties signed, conference recommendations accepted etc) 2. Description of Government strategies and policies responding to international instruments 3. Interventions/Actions taken by government, UN and other partners (bilateral and multilateral) to formulate and implement strategies and policies 4. Issues and obstacles which hinder Mauritius from successful formulation or implementation of strategies and policies supporting international instruments 5. An in depth analysis of the sector including underlying causalities and identification of development gaps based on the interventions described in section 3 and 4 6. Key issues which emerge as salient to the development of Mauritius. These should include all potential areas of intervention so as to open the door for government, UN and bilateral discussions for new development interventions. The key issues should be Mauritius specific and forward looking in order for new development strategies to be articulated in the UNDAF. 7. Each chapter should be 5-10 pages maximum 8. Each chapter will include relevant issues related to gender, specificities of Rodrigues island, cultural diversity and human rights. 9. Each chapter will use CSO statistics and all other data sources will be noted including data from fisheries, health etc. 10. Each chapter will complete footnotes and end notes to ensure ease of reference including web site locators 11. Each chapter should include comments received from all the agencies 1 The World Conferences: Development Priorities of the 21 st Century (UN Briefing Papers) 1997. Report on the Needs Assessment Mission to the Republic of Mauritius, 27 Nov-6 Dec 1996, UN High Commission, Centre for Human Rights 3 Report of the Presidential Commission : To Examine and Report upon the Structure and Operation of the Judicial System and Legal Professions of Mauritius. 1998 (President: Lord Mackay of Clashfern) 4 Human Development Report, UNDP, 1999. 5 MEPD Economic Indicators, 1997 2 6 Ministry of Economic Development Web Site. Meade, James et al (1961) The Economic and Social Structure of Mauritius., Methuen, London. 8 UN Resource Mobilisation Target Table for Mauritius, 1997-1999. 9 Lall, S and Wignaraja, G (1998) Mauritius: Dynamising Esport Competitiveness. Commonwealth Secretariat, London. 10 Milner,C and MsKay, A (1996) Real Exchange Rate Measures of Trade Liberalisation: Some Evidence from Mauritius. Jou rnal of African Economies, 5 (1) 11 Imani Report (1999) Study on Implications SADC, Government of Mauritius, Port Louis. 12 Lall and Wignara (op. cit) 13 Vision 2020 (National Long Term Perspective Study, 1997) MEDRC, Port Louis. 14 Les Etats Generaux du Social, Minister of Social Security and National Solidarity, May 1996. 15 Etude Pluridisciplinaire sur l’Exclusion a Maurice, Final Report commissioned by the President of the Republic, State House, Reduit. 1997. 16 Lau Thi Keng, Etudes sur l’accessibilité aux services sociaux. Analysis Research Consultants, Mauritius. 17 Social Fabric Study: Phase II. Mauritius Research Council,1999. 18 Report on Housing Estates in the Sugar Industry. Mauritius Sugar Authority. Phase I (1990). Phase II(1996) 19 Population Ageing and the Elderly, Economic and Social Indicators No 299, (CSO) June 1999 20 Les Assises sur la Toxicomanie, June 1996, Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity. 21 Poverty in Mauritius, Appavoo Associates, Mauritius 1997 22 Social Fabric Study (Phase II) see end note 18. 23 See end note 16. 24 Commission Justice et Paix 1994, Diocese de Port Louis. 25 See end note 18 26 Seen end note 17 27 see end note 22 28 Sen, Amrtya 1992, Inequality Re-examined. Clarendon Press. Oxford. 29 See end note 8. 30 See end note 25 31 see end note 22 32 Household Budget Survey, CSO, 1996-97 33 see note 16 34 see note 16 35 Micro Finance and Anti Poverty Strategies . A donor perspective. A UNCDF working paper. 1997, UNDP. New York. 36 Pulley, R.V (1989) Making the Poor Creditworthy.: A Case Study of the Integrated Development Programme of India., Wold Bank Discussion Paper, 58.Washington DC. 37 See table 3. 38 See end note 3. 39 Report of the Commission on Regional Administration (Chariman: V. Sooben) September 1997. 40 The Reform of the Civil Service. Report of the Standing Committee (Chairman: D. Burrenchobay) March 1999. 41 see end note 3 42 see end note 3 43 Health Statistics Annual, 1998. Ministry of Health and Quality of Life. 44 SSR Medical Centre, University of Mauritius. February 2000. 45 A Survey on the Nutritional Status of Pre-school children in Mauritius. MOH/UNICEF, 1985. 46 A Survey on Nutrition in Mauritius and Rodrigues. MOH/UNICEF/WHO. December 1995. 47 All information relating to population have been obtained from the Family Planning and Demography Yearbook 1998, Ministry of Health. Information on aging population is from source mentioned in endnote 20. 48 See endnote above (48) 49 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey. Ministry of Health, 1985. 7 50 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, MOH/University of Mauritius/Centre for Disease Control(USA)March 1992. 51 See endnote 48. 52 Ibid 53 see endnote 44 54 Digest of Vital and Health Statistics, Island of Rodrigues, 1998. MOH. 55 HIV/AIDS Unit, January 2000, Ministry of Health. 56 Young Women, Work and Aids Related Risk Behaviour in Mauritius, 1994. International Centre for Research on Women. (University of Connecticut/MFPA/University of Mauritius) 57 National Gender Action Plan 1999, MWFWCD 58 Directory of Women Entrepreneurs 1998, MWFWCD. 59 Personal communication from Mary Francois, National Expert, UNDP/ILO Fight Against Exclusion Project in Rodrigues. 60 See end note 4 61 Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment 1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 288, February 1999, CSO. 62 Health, Nutrition and Productivity among EPZ workers. University of Mauritius 1988 63 Labour Force Sample Survey 1995, Economic and Social Indicators, No 241, January 1997,CSO. 64 See endnote 33. 65 Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment 1997, Economic and Social Indicators, No 26 5, February 1998, CSO. 66 See endnote 58 67 see endnote 59. 68 Statistical Profile on Women 1999, MWFWCD. 69 See endnote 48 70 see endnote 44 71 Mauritius Non-Communicable Disease Survey 1998, MOH. (published in January 1999) 72 see endnote 58. 73 See endnote 50,51 74 see endnote 48 75 see endnote 44 76 The Use of Induced Abortion in Mauritius. Mauritius Family Planning Association, July 1993. 77 Profile of villages in Rodrigues Island, Rodrigues Council of Social Services, December 1996. 78 See endnote 18. 79 Bunwaree, S 1998 Equality of Opportunity- a myth in Mauritian education. 80 National Programme of Action for the Survival, Development and Protection of Children, MWFWCD June 1994. 81 Hayden, J Foster care in Mauritius, December 1999. 82 Master Plan for the Year 2000. Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture, June 1991. 83 White Paper on Pre-Primary, Primary and Secondary Education. Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development, September 1997. 84 Mauritius Economic Review 1992-1995, MEPD. 85 Juvenile Justice Admin istration in Mauritius, 26 May 1999. 86 See end note 44 87 see endnotes 46,46. 88 Action Plan for a New Education System in Mauritius, Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development. March 1998. 89 Information in this section has been obtained from the following Reports: (i) Report on Country Level Support to ‘Education for All’, UNDP Office March 1997.(2) UNDP Education Project Part One: Pre Primary, Primary and Secondary Education (3) UNDP Education Project Part Two: Tertiary Education and Training, UNDP April 1998. 90 See endnote 18. 91 Education Statistics 1998, Social and Economic Indicators No 292, April 1999. CSO. Education Statistics 1999, Social and Economic Indicators No 311, November 1999, CSO 92 Ibid. 93 Participation in Tertiary Education. Tert iary Education Commission. 1999. National Environmental Strategies for the Republic of Mauritius: National Environmental Action Plan for the Next Decade (NEAP 2). Environmental Resource Management (ERM, London) July 1999. 95 National Environmental Strategies for the Republic of Mauritius: Environmental Investment Programme.(EIP) (Appendix to NEAP 2) Environmental Resource Management, July 1999. 96 See endnote 93. 97 The Sewerage Master Plan for the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, 1994. Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Postal Services. 98 NEAP 2 (see note 93) 99 Digest of Road Transport and Accident Statistics 1999, CSO 100 Energy Statistics 1990 -98. Economic and Social Indicators, No 312. December 1999, CSO. 101 Ibid 102 Workshop on Household Food Security. Food Policy Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Reduit 1993. 103 All information related to local food production has been obtained from : Agricultural and Fish Production 1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 98, June 1999, CSO) 104 All figures relating to export and import of food products have been obtained from : External Trade, 1998, Economic and Social Indicators, No 290. April 1999, CSO. 105 See endnotes 46 and 47. 94