TEAMS AND TEAMWORK
Project Management and Leadership – 2015
Our PROGRAMME:
1. INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
2. STARTING A PROJECT
3. WORK MOTIVATION
4. COMMUNICATION
5: TEAMS AND TEAMWORK
6: LEADERSHIP
7: SCHEDULING AND TIME MANAGEMENT
8: MONEY AND CONTRACTS
9: QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE IN PROJECTS
10: RISKS AND CRISES
11: PROJECT EXECUTION AND CLOSURE
12: THINKING IN A PROJECT
February 6, 2015
January 15
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February 15
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Ranking of MANAGEMENT SKILLS by CEOs
RANK KEY LEARNING AREA
1
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
8
8
11
11
13
13
15
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Oral and written communication skills
Interpersonal skills
Financial/managerial accounting skills
Ability to think, be analytical, and make decisions
Strategic planning and goal setting
Motivation and commitment to the firm—giving 110 percent
Understanding of economics
Management information systems and computer applications
Thorough knowledge of your business, culture, overall environment
Marketing concept (the customer is king) and skills
Integrity
Knowledge of yourself: setting career objectives
Leadership skills
Understanding of the functional areas of the business
Time management: setting priorities—work smart, not hard
FREQ.
%
25
25
22
20
13
12
11
9
9
9
7
7
6
6
1
13,7
13,7
12,1
11,0
7,1
6,6
6,0
4,9
4,9
4,9
3,8
3,8
3,3
3,3
0,5
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GROUP members
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Define themselves as members
Are defined by others as members
Identify with one another
Engage in frequent interaction
Participate in a system of interlocking roles
Share common norms
Pursue shared, interdependent goals
Feel that their membership in the group is rewarding
Have a collective perception of unity
Stick together in any confrontation with other groups
(mod. WAGNER & HOLLENBECK 2010, p.170)
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COHESION. The degree to which members of a group feel attached to
their group and are compelled to stay in it.
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TEAMS ARE A SUBSET OF GROUPS
11. The members are HIGHLY INTERDEPENDENT
12. Teams are FORMED USING WORK FLOW GROUPING
13. The members are NOT INTERCHANGEABLE
(mod. WAGNER & HOLLENBECK 2010, p.179)
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A TEAM. A group of people holding themselves collectively
accountable for using complementary skills to achieve a common
purpose.
(UHL-BIEN et al. 2014, p.142)
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TYPES OF TEAMS
WORK TEAMS: teams that do the daily work of an organization
PROBLEM-SOLVING: temporary, established to tackle specific problems
MANAGEMENT: managers from different areas coordinating work teams
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: combinations of work teams and problemsolving teams that create new designs for products or services
VIRTUAL TEAMS: teams that work together from remote locations using IT
(mod. GRIFFIN and MOORHEAD 2014, p.272)
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TEAMWORK occurs when team members live up to their collective
accountability for goal accomplishment.
(UHL-BIEN et al. 2014, p.142)
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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE TEAMWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
FEEDBACK to and from one another
WILLINGNESS to back fellow members up
FEELING AS A GROUP whose success depends on interaction
FOSTERING within-team INTERDEPENDENCE
TEAM LEADERSHIP affects performance of the team.
(MCINTYRE & SALAS 1995 in MUCHINSKY 2006, p.291)
HIGHLIGHTS:
1. PEOPLE SKILLS ARE CRITICAL: WORK ON THEM
2. GROUPS AND TEAMS POSSESS COHESIVENESS
3. TEAMS ARE SMALL, COMPLEMENTARY, INTERDEPENDANT GROUPS
WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES
NEED-BASED: the extent to which employees satisfy important needs
in the workplace (Need for achievement)
COGNITIVE PROCESS: the decisions and choices that employees make
when they allocate their efforts (Equity, Goal-setting)
THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH: emphasizes applying principles of
learning to the work environment (Reinforcement)
JOB-BASED: emphasizes the content of jobs (Job Characteristics)
(mod. JEX 2008, p.235)
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EQUITY THEORY
Employees seek to achieve a balance between Inputs and Outcomes
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ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE
PERCEPTIONS of people in an organization REGARDING FAIRNESS.
Consists of
DISTRIBUTIVE justice – equality of outcomes
PROCEDURAL – fairness of procedures
INTERACTIONAL – respect and dignity
INFORMATIONAL – availability of information to do the job
RULES OF LEVENTHAL (1980)
Procedures and policies in an organization should be
ACCURATE
BASED ON prevailing ETHICS
CONSISTENTLY APPLIED TO EVERYONE
CORRECTABLE
FREE FROM BIAS
REPRESENTATIVE of all concerns
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JUSTICE – TRUST – WORK
TASK
FOCUS
JUSTICE
time
TRUST
RELATIONSHIP
FOCUS
(mod. WAGNER & HOLLENBECK 2010, p.165)
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SIZE DOES MATTER
fewer physical
constraints
SMALLER
TEAM
SIZE
fewer social
distractions
decreased
production
blocking
fewer
coordination
requirements
fewer
group-maintenance
activities
less behavioral
masking
less social loafing
less diffusion of
responsibility
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INCREASED
TEAM
PRODUCTIVITY
(mod. WAGNER & HOLLENBECK 2010, p.183-184)
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CULTURE: ALL or NOTHING
EFFECTIVE—highly homogeneous or heterogeneous teams
STRUGGLING—teams with moderate levels of heterogeneity
1. All come from different cultures: no culture dominates, the members
construct a unique hybrid culture (+)
2. All come from the same culture except one – the hybrid culture closely
resembles the shared culture, and the lone member from a different
culture adapts (+)
3. One subset of group members share a dominant culture and the
others do not share this culture, a struggle will ensue, and the team
often fails to arrive at a hybrid culture (-)
(mod. WAGNER & HOLLENBECK 2010, p.186)
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HIGHLIGHTS:
4. TRUST INCREASES TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
5. THE SMALLER THE TEAM, THE BETTER IT CAN PERFORM (3-6>7-9)
6. HIGHLY HOMOGENEOUS OR HETEROGENEOUS TEAMS ARE EFFECTIVE
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT processes
1. DEVELOP HR Plan: identify, document project roles, responsibilities,
required skills, reporting relationships; create a staffing management plan
2. ACQUIRE project team: confirm human resource availability and obtain
the team necessary to complete project assignments
3. DEVELOP project team: improve the competencies, team interaction,
and the overall team environment to enhance project performance
4. MANAGE project team: track team member performance, provide
feedback, resolve issues, manage changes to optimize performance
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HOW TO DEVELOP THE HR PLAN
1. STUDY and USE Organizational Theory
2. USE organization charts and position descriptions
3. NETWORK
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Organization charts and Position descriptions
Names
R
C
I
R
Activities
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R – responsible
A – accountable
C – consult
I – inform
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ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
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Output: HUMAN RESOURCE PLAN
HRP—a part of PM plan—provides guidance on how project HR
should be defined, staffed, managed, controlled, and eventually
released.
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CONTENTS of HR Plan
• Roles and responsibilities
Role
Authority – the right to apply resources, make decisions, and sign approvals
Responsibility – the work expected to be performed
Competency – the skill and capacity required to complete activities
• Project organization charts
• Staffing management plan (when and how HR requirements will be met).
Staff acquisition – where HR comes from? Location(s)? Costs?
Resource calendars
Staff release plan (NB: smooth transitions!)
Training needs, Recognition and rewards, Compliance, Safety
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An example of a RESOURCE HISTOGRAM
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HOW TO ACQUIRE
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Pre-Assignment
Negotiation
Acquisition
Virtual Teams
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Outputs of ACQUIRE
• Project staff assignments
The documentation can include a project team directory, memos to team
members, and names inserted into other parts of the project management
plan, such as project organization charts and schedules
• Resource calendars
Resource calendars document the time periods that each project team
member can work on the project (NB: schedule conflicts, vacation time,
commitments to other projects, etc.)
• PM plan updates
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6.2.2015
• Interpersonal skills
• Training
• Team-building activities
• Ground rules
• Co-location
• Recognition and rewards
HOW TO DEVELOP TEAMS
Interpersonal skills
Training
Team-building activities
GROUND RULES
Co-location
Recognition and rewards
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STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT
FORMING: the team meets and learns about the project, roles and
responsibilities. Team members tend to be independent
STORMING: the team begins to address the project work, technical
decisions, and the PM approach. The environment can become
destructive.
NORMING: team members begin to work together and adjust work
habits and behaviors that support the team. The team begins to trust
each other
PERFORMING: members are interdependent and work smoothly
ADJOURNING – the team completes the work and moves on
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HOW TO MANAGE HR
Observation and conversation
Project performance appraisals
Conflict Management
Issue log
Interpersonal skills
Leadership
Influencing
Effective decision making
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HIGHLIGHTS FROM HRM
7. OFTEN YOU WILL NOT ACQUIRE, BUT WORK WITH PRESENT TEAMS
8. ESTABLISH GROUND RULES AT THE START
9. YOUR TEAM CAN BREAK BEFORE PERFORMING
ON THE DARK SIDE: SOCIAL LOAFING
Is identified in groups or teams in which certain individuals withhold
effort or contributions to the collective outcome.
FREE RIDING.
THE “SUCKER” EFFECT. Rather than be a “sucker” who contributes
more than others, people reduce their effort to match the low level
they expect from others.
FELT DISPENSABILITY.
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ON THE DARK SIDE: GROUPTHINK
Illusion of invulnerability > excessive optimism > risks
A collective effort to rationalize > to discount warnings of failure
Unquestioned belief in the group’s inherent morality
Stereotyped views of a weak or ignorant adversary
Pressure on members going against group stereotypes
Self-censorship of members who go along to get along
A shared sense of unanimity
Self-appointed members who protect the group from adverse
information that might shatter their shared complacency about the
effectiveness and morality of their decision.
(JANIS 1972 in STRENTZ 2012, p.249-250)
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REMEDIES for GROUPTHINK
1. Each member must respect the others’ competence
2. Rank must be ignored
3. The group’s priority – a critical appraisal to achieve a solid solution
not group cohesion to achieve unanimity
4. A minority view should accompany the final decision
5. A good leader must be mature and secure enough to suspect not
reward unanimity
6. Loyal group members rock the boat.
ON THE DARK SIDE: CONFLICTS
CONFLICTS ARE A WAY OF LIFE IN A PROJECT STRUCTURE and can
generally occur at any level in the organization, usually as a result of
conflicting objectives.
The project manager is often described as A CONFLICT MANAGER
(mod. KERZNER 2009, p.295-296)
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Common TYPES OF CONFLICTS involve
Administrative procedures
Costs
Equipment and facilities
Manpower resources
Personality clashes (damaging)
Priorities
Responsibilities
Scheduling (frequent)
Technical opinions and trade-offs (can be beneficial) (mod. KERZNER 2009, p.297-298)
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COMMON APPROACHES TO CONFLICT
• WITHDRAWING/AVOIDING. Retreat from an actual or potential conflict situation
• SMOOTHING/ACCOMMODATING. Emphasize areas of agreement
• COMPROMISING. Search for solutions that bring some satisfaction to all parties
• FORCING. Push your viewpoint at the expense of others (only win-lose)
• COLLABORATING. Incorporate multiple viewpoints from differing perspectives
• CONFRONTING/PROBLEM SOLVING. Treat conflict as a problem to be solved by
examining alternatives (requires a give-and-take attitude and open dialogue)
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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Value the process as much as the outcome
Accept that her truth is her reality
Rapport matters
Be present and available
Find common ground for more success
Be aware that this isn’t the participant’s best moment
Silence is golden
Be curious
Fear rules the world
Look to the future
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HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE DARK SIDE:
10. FREE RIDING HAPPENS OFTEN IN GROUPS, IF NOT PREVENTED
11. GROUPTHINK—THE UGLY COUSIN OF COHESION—IS DANGEROUS
12. CONFLICTS WILL HAPPEN: ENJOY, MANAGE AND LEARN!