Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky - Dwight Farris' ePortfolio

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

December 18, 2008

Research Paper

Dwight Farris

University of Arizona South

University of Arizona

ETCV 510 Learning Theory In Instructional Design

Dr. Rosemary Rosser

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Lev Vygotsky

(1896-1934).

Vygotsky was born in Russia in the same year as Piaget. Vygotsky was not trained in science but received a law degree from the Moscow University. He went on to study literature and linguistics and became his Ph.D. for a book he wrote on the psychology of art (Vasta,R., Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995).

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To understand Vygotsky´s theory, it is important to look at the political environment of that time. Vygotsky began to work in psychology shortly after the

Russian revolution, where the Marxism replaced the rule of the czar. The new philosophy of the Marxist emphasized socialism and collectivism. Individuals were expected to sacrifice their personal goals and achievements for the improvement of the larger society. Sharing and co-operation was encouraged, and the success of any individual was seen as reflecting the success of the culture. Marxists also placed a heavy emphasis on history, believing that any culture could be understood only through examination of the ideas and events that had shaped it (Vasta,R., Haith, M.M.,

Miller,S.A., 1995).

When the Cold War ended, Vygotsky's works were revealed. Vygotsky has written several articles and books on the subject of his theories and psychology, including Thought and Language(1934). His research in how children solve their problems that surpassed their level of development led Vygotsky to create the Zone of

Proximal Development theory. That is one reason why Vygotsky's developmental psychology has influenced education profoundly in Russia.

Vygotsky incorporates these elements in his model of human development that has been terme d as a sociocultural approach. For him, the individual‘s development is a result of his or her culture. Development, in Vygotsky´s theory, applies mainly to mental development, such as thought, language and reasoning process. These abilities were understood to develop through social interactions with others (especially parents) and therefore represented the shared knowledge of the culture.

He states:

Every function in the child‘s cultural development appears twice: first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of ideas. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57).

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Mental abilities and processes similarly were viewed in terms of the historical sequence of events that produced them. Whereas Piaget believed that all children‘s cognitive process follows a very similar pattern of stages, Vygotsky saw intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared

(Vasta,R., Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995). Culture makes two sorts of contributions to the child‘s intellectual development. First, children acquire much of their thinking

(knowledge) from it. Second, children acquire the processes or means of their thinking

(tools of intellectual adaptation) from the surrounding culture. Therefore, culture provides the children with the means to, what to think and how to think.

Vygotsky viewed cognitive developments as a result of a dialectical process, where the child learns through shared problem solving experiences with someone else, such as parents, teacher, siblings or a peer. Originally, the person interacting with the child undertakes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the child. Although these interactions can take many forms, Vygotsky stresses language dialogue. It is primarily through their speech that adults are assumed to transmit to children the rich body of knowledge that exists in their culture. As learning processes, the child‘s own language comes to help as his or her primary tool of intellectual transformation. Children can eventually use their own i nternal speech to direct their own behavior in much the same way that their parents‘ speech once directed it. This transition reflects the Vygotsky´s theme of development as a process of internalization. Bodies of knowledge and tools of thought at first exist outside the child, in the culture of the environment. Development consists of gradual internalization, primarily through language, to form cultural adaptation (Rogoff, 1990).

As highlighted in the introduction; the major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All

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December 18, 2008 the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57). A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the

ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For examples, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are used for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".

Vygotsky's theory is complementary to the work of Bandura on social learning and a key component of situated learning theory.

Because Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those of Bruner and Piaget .

A comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget can be found at http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/vygotsky.html

Scope/Application:

This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch, 1985).

Example:

Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

Principles:

1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

References :

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Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian

Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

Relevant Web Sites:

For more about Vygotsky and his work, see: http://www.kolar.org/vygotsky http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky http://mathforum.org/mathed/vygotsky.html

The second aspect of Vygotsky´s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the ― zone of proximal development‖. ZPD refers to the gap between what a given child can achieve alone, their ´potential development as determined by independent problem solving´, and what they can achieve ‗through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers‘ (Wood, D., Wood, H., 1966).

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Vygotsky refers to what children can do on their own as the ‗level of actual development‘. In his view, it is the level of actual development that a standard IQ test measure. Such a measure is undoubtedly important, but it is also incomplete. Two children might have the same level of actual development, in the sense of being able to solve the same number of problems on some standardized test. Given appropriate help from an adult, still, one child might be able to solve an additional dozen problems while the other child might be able to solve only two or three more. What the child can do with the help is referred to as the ‗level of potential development‘ (Vasta, R., Haith,

M.M., Miller, S.A., 1995).

The full development during the ZPD depends upon full social interaction and the more the child takes advantages of an adult‘s assistance, the broader is its ‗Zone of Proximal

Development‘.

In 1976 Wood, Bruner and Ross inve nt the term ‗scaffolding‘ to describe tutorial interaction between an adult and a child. The metaphor was used to explore the nature of aid provided by an adult for children learning how to carry out a task they could not perform alone. Burner‘s ideas of spiral curriculum and scaffolding are related.

A parallel has been drawn between the notion of scaffolding and ZPD theories of

Vygotsky (Hobsbaum,A., Peters,S., Sylva,K., 1996). If adults wish to provide learning opportunities, they must evaluate the c hild‘s present developmental level and estimate the ‗length‘ of the ZDP. But, the child must be able to make use of the help of others; it needs the competence to benefit from the give-and-take activities and conversations with others (Bruner, 1983). Vygotsky acknowledged the maturational limits of the ZPD, but most psychological research has emphasized the role of the environment: parents and other adults who are ‗expert‘ models and guides for a young learner.

It is interesting here to go back to the chapter of Kellers Plan and look at the role of proctors and compare it to the role of adults in the ZPD. In the PSI courses the proctors have the job to assist the students with their problems they have in a given course so they can carry on within the course.

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For Vygotsky, language has a particular role in learning and development by acquiring a language, a child is provided the means to think in new ways and gains a new cognitive tool for making sense of the world. Language is used by children as an additional device in solving problems, to overcome impulsive action, to plan a solution before trying it out and to control their own behavior (Jones, 1995). Nevertheless, the main purpose of language for children is social. They use the language to obtain the help of others and to solve problems. The child, in it process of development, begins to practice the same forms of behavior that other formerly practice with respect to the child. The significance of such behavior is only understood in a social context.

The language is also crucial and interrelated with the action, providing an additional tool used both to reflect on and direct behavior. Vygotsy´s work is therefore viewed as particularly relevant to those who are concerned with the use of language.

Both Piaget and Vygotsky viewed pre-school children in problem solving situations talking to themselves. When Piaget labeled the self directed behavior as egocentric and believed it only minimum relevant to children‘s cognitive growth, Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech. He argued that private speech grows out of the children‘s interaction with parents and other adults and through such interactions, they begin to use their parent‘s instructional comments to direct their own behavior.

The socio-cultural aspects in Vygotsy´s theories are interesting when analyzing the learner in the information age society. How do we educate the child raised in a world of instant information, where interactive technologies have led them to believe they can act on the world with the press of a button?

Theory

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky is best known for being an educational psychologist with a sociocultural theory. This theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step changes in children's thought and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture(Woolfolk, 1998). Basically Vygotsky's theory suggests that development depends on interaction with people and the tools that the

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December 18, 2008 culture provides to help form their own view of the world. There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another. The first one is imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another. The second way is by instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. The final way that cultural tools are passed to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill (Tomasello, et al.,

1993).

His theory combines the social environment and cognition. Children will acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a culture by interacting with a more knowledgeable person. Vygotsky believed that social interaction will lead to ongoing changes in a child's thought and behavior. These thoughts and behaviors would vary between cultures (Berk, 1994).

The sociocultural theory consists of several elements to help implement it. The chart to the left outines the core priciples of Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory of development. Consider private speech, where children speak to themselves to plan or guide their own behavior. This is most common among preschoolers, who have not yet learned proper social skills but rather explore the idea of it. Children often use private speech when a task becomes to difficult and the child doesn't know how to proceed.

Private speech helps the child accomplish a task. Vygotsky believed private speech changes with age, by becoming softer or being just a whisper.

Comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget: Vygotsky's ideas and theories are often compared to Jean Piaget, especially his cognitive- developmental theory. They had a conflict explaining that development concepts should not be taught until children are in the appropriate developmental stage. Opposing Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, Piaget believed that the most important source of cognition is the children themselves. But Vygotsky argued that the social environment could help the child's cognitive development. The social environment is an important factor which helps the

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December 18, 2008 child culturally adapt to new situations when needed. Both Vygotsky and Piaget had the common goal of finding out how children master ideas and then translate them into speech.

Piaget found that children act independently on the physical world to discover what it has to offer. Vygotsky, on the other hand, wrote in Thought and Language that human mental activity is the result of social learning. As children master tasks they will engage in cooperative dialogues with others, which led Vygotsky to believe that acquisition of language is the most influential moment in a child's life.

Piaget emphasized universal cognitive change and Vygotsky's theory leads us to expect highly variable development , depending on the child's cultural experiences to the environment. Piaget's theory emphasized the natural line, while Vygotsky favored the cultural line of development.

Vygotsky and Social Cognition

Definition

The social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child's learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture--including the culture of family environment--in which he or she is enmeshed.

Discussion

1. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intellectual development. First , through culture children acquire much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second , the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what

Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think.

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2. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer.

3. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the child.

4. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture.

5. As learning progresses, the child's own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to direct their own behavior.

6. Internalization refers to the process of learning--and thereby internalizing-a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought that first exist outside the child. This happens primarily through language.

7. A difference exists between what child can do on her own and what the child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal development.

8. Since much of what a child learns comes form the culture around her and much of the child's problem solving is mediated through an adult's help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the processes by which children acquire new skills.

9. Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as parents and more competent peers, contribute significantly to a child's intellectual development.

How Vygotsky Impacts Learning:

Curriculum --Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks.

Instruction --With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding--where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child's level of performance--is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.

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Assessment --Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development. What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what they can do with help is their level of potential development. Two children might have the same level of actual development, but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might be able to solve many more problems than the other. Assessment methods must target both the level of actual development and the level of potential development.

The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky: an analysis

Vygotsky's investigations of child development and educational psychology were influenced by his own Marxism – a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of one's social origins and place in the scheme of production. Vygotsky's works, consisting of more than one hundred books and articles, were not published until after his death in

1934. Just two years later they were suppressed. This suppression endured for two decades during which time his works were held in a secret library that could only be accessed by permission of the Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs — commonly known as the NKVD. Despite this prolonged attempt to suppress his ideas, Vygotsky's work survived and, particularly after the Cold War, came to wield considerable influence in the field of educational psychology.

I. Theory of Value : What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of education?

Vygotsky's stresses the importance of looking at each child as an individual who learns distinctively. Consequently, the knowledge and skills that are worthwhile learning varies with the individual. The overall goal of education according to Vygotsky is to

"generate and lead development which is the result of social learning through internalization of culture and social relationships." He repeatedly stressed the importance of past experiences and prior knowledge in making sense of new situations or present experiences. Therefore, all new knowledge and newly introduced skills are greatly influenced by each student's culture, especially their family environment.

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Language skills are particularly critical for creating meaning and linking new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge. According to Vygotsky, internalized skills or psychological tools "are used to gain mastery over one's own behavior and cognition."

Primary among these tools is the "development of speech and its relation to thought."

Vygotsky maintained that language plays a central role in cognitive development.

He argued that language was the tool for determining the ways a child learns "how" to think. That is because complex concepts are conveyed to the child through words.

"Learning, according to Vygotsky, always involves some type of external experience being transformed into internal processes through the use of language." It follows that speech and language are the primary tools used to communicate with others, promoting learning. Vygotsky promoted the development of higher level thinking and problem solving in education. If situations are designed to have students utilize critical thinking skills, their thought processes are being challenged and new knowledge gained. The knowledge achieved through experience also serves as a foundation for the behaviors of every individual.

II. Theory of Knowledge : What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is a mistake? A lie?

According to Davydov and Kerr, it was a momentous occasion in the history of psychology when Vygotsky asserted "...specific functions are not given to a person at birth but are only provided as cultural and social patterns." Vygotsky saw "intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared."

Through observation and study Vygotsky came to understand that people adapted to their surrounding environment based on their interpretations and individual perceptions of it. Thus, humans are not born with knowledge nor are knowledge independent of social context. Rather, one gains knowledge as one develops by way of social interactions with peers and adults. Vygotsky does not make as drastic a distinction between knowledge and belief as some other theorists do. For him, knowledge is obtained through past experiences, social situations, as well as ones general

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December 18, 2008 environment. In similar manner, beliefs are instilled into an individual via culture and parental upbringing.

"Mistakes are crucial in Vygotsky's theory of learning. In the course of development, mistakes are made during the process of "concept formation." They are important in that they impact future learning. From Vygotsky's perspective, "A concept emerges and takes shape in the course of a complex interaction aimed at the solution of a problem...[A] concept is ...an active part of the intellectual process."We see, then that, for Vygotsky, concept formation is a dynamic, ever-changing activity during which "... the child relies on their own perception to make sense of objects that appear to them to be unrelated ... the child creates his or her own subjective relationships between objects and then mistakes his or her egocentric perspective for reality." This stage of development is known, paradoxically, as "incoherent coherence." During this stage, the making of mistakes is an integral part of a child's development. Also at this time, the child's organization schema becomes less egocentric and begins to incorporate additional information gained from experience into his or her thought processes. In this way, mistakes can be corrected and new knowledge gained. Therefore mistakes are developmentally necessary, resulting from the "...role of social interaction in transformation of prior knowledge. Tentatively one might infer that Vygotsky would view a lie as something that occurs as a result of the desire to conform to social norms. For example one might feel one way but report a more socially acceptable reality.

III. Theory of Human Nature : What is a human being? How does it differ from other species? What are the limits of human potential?

According to Marxist theory, "The essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations." Vygotsky would agree that we develop as humans through the ways we interact with those around us. His view of human nature fits with his Marxist ideology. Human beings can only be understood within the context the time period and the part of the world in which they live. Human nature cannot be understood as never-changing and universal, but as

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December 18, 2008 always depending on its specific social and historical formation. This principle does not leave out biological factors. To be human, however, means that you have surpassed a level of functioning that your biological traits would otherwise dictate. Although some animals have the ability to create and use material tools, humans have the ability to utilize psychological tools. In other words, human beings are differentiated by their ability to develop psychological tools that are "used to gain mastery over one's own behavior and cognition" that other forms of life are not capable of developing. Some psychological tools include: "language, different forms of numeration and counting, mnemotechniques, algebraic symbolism, works of art, writing, schemes, diagrams, maps, blueprints, etc."

In his theories, Vygotsky placed great emphasis on the importance of spoken language, arguably the most critical tool that sets us apart from other species. He asserts that "speech is a very powerful psychological tool that lays the foundation for basic structures of thinking later in one's development." Vygotsky further explains that speech is the first psychological tool used by children to communicate with others who share the environment. Naturally, this is continued through adulthood, as speech is a primary tool used for learning. Vygotsky insists that "humans learn best in cooperation with other humans." Vygotsky contended that, unlike animals - who react only to the environment, humans have the capacity to alter the environment for their own purposes.

It is this adaptive capacity that distinguishes humans from lower forms of life. ...The animal can only be trained. It can only acquire new habits. It can through exercises and combinations perfect its intellect, but are not capable of mental development through instruction in the real sense of the word." Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) posits that human potential is theoretically limitless; but the practical limits of human potential depend upon quality social interactions and residential environment. This zone of proximal development is "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." In theory, then, so long as a person has access to a more capable peer, any problem can be solved.

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IV. Theory of Learning : What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?

According to Piaget, learning is what results from both mental and physical maturation plus experience. That is, development preceded learning. In contrast

Vygotsky observed that learning processes lead development. Vygotsky maintained that "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human, psychological functions." In other words, learning is what leads to the development of higher order thinking.

According to Vygotsky the two primary means of learning occur through social interaction and language. Language greatly enhances humans' ability to engage in social interactions and share their experiences. "The most important fact uncovered through the ... study of thought and speech is that their relationship undergoes many changes." Initially, a child's new knowledge is interpsychological, meaning it is learned through interaction with others, on the social level. Later, this same knowledge becomes intrapsychological, meaning inside the child, and the new knowledge or skill is mastered on an individual level. The previously mentioned idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is central to Vygotsky's view on how learning takes place. He described this zone as, "the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." Vygotsky maintained that learning occurs just above the student's current level of competence. It follows then, that the copying student will have a higher performance when working with a more capable student. The zone of proximal development works in conjunction with the use of scaffolding. "Scaffolding is a six-step approach to assisting learning and development of individuals within their zone of proximal development." Knowledge, skills and prior experiences, which come from an individual's general knowledge, create the foundation of scaffolding for potential development. At this stage, students interact with adults and/or peers to accomplish a task which could possibly not be completed independently. The use of language and

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December 18, 2008 shared experience is essential to successfully implementing scaffolding as a learning tool.

V. Theory of Transmission : Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?

Vygotsky defined those who are to teach as the "More Knowledgeable Other."

The MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. Traditionally the

MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is not always the case.

Other possibilities for the MKO could be a peer, sibling, a younger person, or even a computer. The key to MKO is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. Teachers or more capable peers can raise the student's competence through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotsky's findings suggest methodological procedures for the classroom. "In Vygotskian perspective, the ideal role of the teacher is that of providing scaffolding (collaborative dialogue) to assist students on tasks within their zones of proximal development."

During scaffolding the first step is to build interest and engage the learner. Once the learner is actively participating, the given task should be simplified by breaking it into smaller subtasks. During this task, the teacher needs to keep the learner focused, while concentrating on the most important ideas of the assignment. One of the most integral steps in scaffolding consists of keeping the learner from becoming frustrated. The final task associated with scaffolding involves the teacher modeling possible ways of completing tasks, which the learner can then imitate and eventually internalize.

Vygotsky recommended a social context wherein a more competent learner would be paired with a less competent one, so that the former can elevate the latter's competence. This social context promotes sustained achievement and cognitive growth for less competent students." Accordingly, students need to work together to construct their learning, teach each other so to speak, in a socio-cultural environment. In-class opportunities for collaboration on difficult problem-solving tasks will offer support to

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December 18, 2008 students who are struggling with the material. By interacting with more capable students who continue to mediate transactions between the struggling students and the content, all students will benefit.

The implications of Vygotsky's theories and observations for educators are several and significant. In Vygotsky's view, the teacher has the collaborative "task of guiding and directing the child's activity." Children can then solve novel problems "on the basis of a model he [sic] has been shown in class." In other words, children learn by solving problems with the help of the teacher, who models processes for them and his or her peers, in a classroom environment that is directed by the teacher. In essence,

"the child imitates the teacher through a process of re-creating previous classroom collaboration." It is important to note that the teacher does not control the class with rule and structure; rather, the teacher collaborates with the students and provides support and direction. Assignments and activities that can be accurately completed by a student without assistance indicate that the student has previously mastered the necessary prior knowledge. In the majority of classrooms this would be the conclusion of a unit; however, this is Vygotsky's entry point. However, as previously mentioned, the teacher must carefully group the student that "can potentially develop in collaboration with a more capable person."

During this research, there were limited references to Vygotsky's specific views on curriculum content. One exception involves the teaching of writing to preschoolers.

According to Garton and Pratt, Vygotsky argued for shifting the teaching of writing to preschool. They explain that Vygotsky differentiated between two forms of speech: spoken and written. Vygotsky, as cited by Garton and Pratt, asserts that a child develops an understanding that spoken speech can be symbolized in writing by progressing from "drawing things to drawing speech." Vygotsky suggested then that the preschool curriculum should be designed so that it was organized to "ease child's transition from drawing things to drawing speech."

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Learning to master tools and technologies should also be included in the curriculum. "Students should be taught how to use tools such as the computer, resource books, and graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future. In this way, students will benefit as these tools and technologies influence the individual's thinking (along with the development of language).

In sum, Vygotsky's findings suggest that the curriculum should generally challenge and stretch learner's competence. The curriculum should provide many opportunities to apply previous skills, knowledge and experiences, with "authentic activities connected to real-life environment." "Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks."

VI. Theory of Society : What is society? What institutions are involved in the educational process?

According to Vygotsky, "society is the bearer of the cultural heritage without which the development of mind is impossible." This 'society' allows the learner to develop cognitively through social interactions. As a result, the use of language makes it possible for a child to communicate and share the environment from within their society.

"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)." Perhaps Vygotsky was comfortable generalizing about 'society' in this way because he was living in post-revolutionary times. The revolution had been accomplished in Russia, and the "New Soviet Man", was emerging in the Soviet Union, and the dictatorship of the proletariat" was at hand.

So far as the institutions involved in the educational process are concerned, Moll reports that Vygotsky "considered school the best laboratory of human psychology." He noted: "At first glance, it may be easily seen that no special educational environment is needed, that education may be accomplished in any environment whatsoever. ... It is

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December 18, 2008 not very hard to conclude that no sort of artificial educational environment has to be created, that life educates better than any school. ... This view is wrong, however."

For Vygotsky, society (and therefore social interaction) happens in schools.

"Schools are incorporated into the larger society and have that as their context, so that some of their activity settings are determined by this larger contextuality." "For

Vygotsky the classroom is also a social organization that is representative of the larger social community ... it is the social organization ... that is the agent for change in the individual. This statement was not meant to "imply that informal education was not important." Rather, as we stated before, for Vygotsky informal education is used by children through speech and language to develop higher mental functions. He stressed that "children's learning begins long before they attend school. ... Any learning a child encounters in school always has a previous history."

VII. Theory of Opportunity : Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?

Vygotsky repeatedly asserts that it is within the "social environment" that learning takes place. Since no individual is able to escape their social surroundings, all within a society are inadvertently being educated.

Vygotsky writes:

"...In this sense, education in every country and in every epoch has always been social in nature. Indeed, by its very essence it could hardly exist as anti-social in anyway. Both in the seminary and in the old high school, in the military schools and in the schools for the daughters of the nobility ... it was never the teacher or the tutor who did the teaching, but the particular social environment in the school which was created for each individual instance."

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Every person is socialized in the society in which they are enveloped.

Socialization is the process of cultural transmission, both unintentional and deliberate.

According to Vygotsky, this process is central to education. We have already established that Vygotsky was a Marxist and, so far as we know, a supporter of the revolution; and further that socialization, education, and schooling are in a symbiotic relationship. So it seems likely that he would have favored reform of the entire socialization and educational process up to and including schooling, in order to create

"The New Soviet Man."

Schooling, while similar to education, involves formalized teaching by a specialist in a specific place designated for instruction, such as a traditional school. Vygotsky's

Russia of the late 1920's and early 1930's was populated by millions of illiterate peasants and workers, and it is difficult to imagine that he would have regarded them as unworthy of the opportunities that schooling affords. Indeed, Vygotsky probably understood his theories to be, in part, a response to the need to solve the urgent and practical problems of schooling the new socialist state. When referring to the education of children with disabilities, Vygotsky pointed out that "changes in the context of education may have profound consequences for the developmental processes." He went on to say that children with disabilities should be included in the general education classroom, and not be separated into self-contained classrooms, because he felt that those children who were educated separately from "normal" children "would proceed in a totally different, and not beneficial, manner". If he were alive today, Vygotsky would call this the model of full inclusion. Vygotsky also "considered the capacity to teach and to benefit from instruction a fundamental attribute of human beings". He noted that "a child whose development is impeded by a disability is not simply a child less developed than his peers; rather, he has developed differently." Given this, one can see that

Vygotsky thought all children should be schooled side-by-side in a regular education classroom.

VIII. Theory of Consensus : Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved?

Whose opinion takes precedence?

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December 18, 2008

To contemplate Vygotsky's theory of consensus, one must consider his Marxist perspective. Though Marxism is a very broad and diverse theory with many variations, certain commonalities exist. The Encarta Reference Library defines Marxism as "a theory in which class struggle is a central element in the analysis of social change in

Western societies."

Depending on one's views, society can be seen in its natural or normal state as either a society of conflict or a society of consensus. Being a Marxist, Vygotsky would have looked at the world through the same lens as Karl Marx, who "...described all advanced....societies in conflictual terms." However, it should be remembered that

Vygotsky was living in the post-revolutionary Soviet Union. Consequently, at least some of the conflict mentioned above would be ameliorated by revolutionary attempts to build a classless and conflict-free society. Anyway, the primary conflict that Marx saw was based on the "...conflict between the material forces of production and social relations of production." Material forces of production "... can be considered society's capacity to produce ..." and has been somewhat continuous throughout time. Social relations, on the other hand, can be seen as the "...distribution of income generated by the material forces of production" and tend to change only abruptly and violently. As written in Marx's

Communist Manifesto, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Marx added, however, that conflict was normal due to social structures and not due to human nature. Keeping his Marxism in mind, Vygotsky would probably have said that, at least prior to the revolution, people disagree ultimately because they are engaged in class struggle for dominance among competing social groups - classes, genders, races, religions, etc. When conflict theorists such as Marx look at society, they see the social domination of subordinate groups through the power, authority, and coercion of dominant groups. In the conflict view, the most powerful members of dominant groups create the rules for success and opportunity in society, often denying subordinate groups such success and opportunities; this ensures that the powerful continue to monopolize power, privilege, and authority.

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December 18, 2008

Since Vygotsky was involved in mutual consultation with other theorists and was clearly aware of the social context in which learning takes place, one can safely assume he appreciated that the evolution of consensus among experts was central to learning about learning, as well as to learning in general. His theories all were influenced by the other learning theorists of his time.

Consider Vygotsky's evaluation of Piaget's theories and findings. After detailed examination, Vygotsky concluded that Piaget had developed a clinical method that revolutionized the study of children's language and thought. Vygotsky admired Piaget's detailed pictures of children's thinking, his assertion that development occurs in distinct, measurable, and observable stages, his focus on what children have, not what they lack, and his finding that the difference between adults' and children's thinking is qualitative, not quantitative. However, he also believed that there were flaws in Piaget's methods. Vygotsky clearly was willing to work with and learn from others. But he was not intimidated by the official consensus of party ideologues. For example, Vygotsky opposed the Marxist reflexologists (behaviorists), who were politically if not intellectually, ascendant at that time." He did so at great personal risk considering the nature of the Stalinist regime. Also Vygotsky took on the man who had hired him R. N.

Kornilov, director of the Kornilov Institute,. "One year after joining the Institute, Vygotsky saw fit to reject Kornilov's attempt at a compromise solution to the consciousness problem (i.e., "reactology"), subjecting it to...a devastating philosophical criticism."

We see, then, that Vygotsky did not put consensus building above what he regarded as truth seeking. On the other hand, Cole explains that "... it was characteristic of both Vygotsky and his close colleague Luria that they attempted to place their research within the general circle of contemporary scientific ideas influencing psychology. In order to be maximally persuasive, they sought to demonstrate both the correctness of their own approach and the points where it made contact with (and then diverged from) the ideas of their contemporaries." We see, then, that Vygotsky was aware of and sensitive to the professional consensus that he respected.

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December 18, 2008

Unfortunately Vygotsky contracted tuberculosis from his younger brother, whom he was caring for and died in 1934 at the age of 37. Vygotsky's students, family and colleagues have remained loyal to him and have been responsible for continuing his work, publishing his works both in Russia and in the West. Exhorting educators and psychologists to work together (1997) claims Vygotsky work has deep significance for both Russian and Western educational theory and practice. He encourages the West to collaborate with colleagues in Russia, as their focus on constructivism and sociocultural and historical processes offers a valuable addition to the thinking of the West.

Warning that to isolate ourselves and ignore the developments in Russian Education will be to our detriment, Kerr (1997) makes it clear, we still have a lot more to learn from

Vygotsky.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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December 18, 2008

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