The following document is an example lab report for you to use in constructing your own reports. Please examine the report requirements as specified in your lab manual and compare them with the format and content of the following document. A Color Shifting Equilibrium of Cobalt by Ken Overway for CHEM XXX, 6/12/2008 Abstract Transition metal complexes are typically colorful because the differences between the d-orbital energy levels match the energy of visible radiation. This makes studying some of their chemical properties easy using spectroscopic methods. In this experiment the equilibrium between two cobalt complexes was studied Comment [I1]: Why is this interesting? as a function of temperature in order to determine thermodynamic properties of the reaction. The Comment [I2]: the thesis or hypothesis sentence quantitative results confirmed that the reaction was endothermic and increases entropy, as expected by inspecting the balanced reaction. Several experimental parameters were varied and studied in order to explain variations in the experimental results. This experiment can employ digital data collection and was utilized as a General Chemistry II lab. Comment [I3]: a brief summary of the results Introduction Transition metal complexes are typically very colorful because the differences between the d-orbital 7 Comment [I4]: start with why this topic is interesting and include background information energy levels match the energy of visible radiation. Cobalt(II) is a d transition metal that changes color when involved in the following reaction Co(H2O)62+(aq) + 4 Cl-(aq) CoCl42-(aq) + 6 H2O(l) (1) Comment [I5]: eqns/rxns are centered and numbered where the octahedral aqua complex appears pink and the tetrahedral chloride complex appears blue. Crystal Field Theory explains the color change as a result of two effects that change the orbital splitting energy. The largest effect is the conversion from the octahedral to the tetrahedral complex, attenuating the splitting energy to 4/9 of its original value. A secondary consideration is the displacement of a relatively weak-field ligand (H2O) with a very weak-field ligand (Cl-) (1). The color observed is the complementary color of the absorbed color, so if [Co(H2O)6]2+ has a larger splitting energy, its absorbed wavelength will be bluer and its Comment [I6]: Background info from assigned readings should be included. Superscript the reference numbers or use italicized parenthetical notations (as seen in this document) observed wavelength will be redder compared [CoCl4]2-. The reaction under investigation is also temperature complex and removing heat shifts it to the pink complex Absorbance dependent. Adding heat shifts the reaction to the blue color absorbed 2.5 color observed 2 1.5 1 0.5 (Figure 1), making it possible to measure some 0 thermodynamic parameters of this reaction, namely entropy and enthalpy. The equilibrium constant is related to the 2 400 500 600 Wavelength / nm 700 800 T=68.4 ºC T=65.3 ºC T=59.8 ºC T=46.1 ºC T=35.3 ºC T=30.1 ºC T=24.8 ºC T=20.2 ºC T=17.1 ºC T=8.4 ºC Figure 1. Spectral scans of the hexaaqua (520 nm) and tetrachloro (600-700 nm) complexes of cobalt. Comment [I7]: Notice the figure citation and figure caption format. Figures and tables are presented and numbered in the order that they are mentioned in the text.. Notice the figure caption label. Figure 1 is bolded ans the cation text is not. Gibb’s Free Energy of the reaction via -Grxn = RT ln Keq (2) Since G is very temperature dependent, it can be replaced by enthalpy and entropy G = H - TS (3) Substituting equations 2 into 1 and dividing both sides by RT yields a linear equation. ln K eq y ΔH 1 ΔS R T R (4) m x b By measuring the Keq as a function of temperature, equation 4 yields the H and S from the slope and yintercept. Others who have studied this reaction have only focused on it as an example of Le Chatelier’s Principle in a purely qualitative manner (2-4). These studies have students setup a series of test tubes, to Comment [I8]: more background information which they add various reagents that directly affect the concentration of the reaction species and observe which way the reaction shifts. From these qualitative observations students can draw make conclusions about whether the reaction is exothermic, antropic, etc. While these experiments are interesting, they do not involve the use of complicate data collection equipment or require much data processing – both of which are highly valued skills that our laboratory program seeks to develop. The purpose of this experiment is to quantitatively determine the entropy and enthalpy of the cobalt reaction by studying the equilibrium as a function of temperature. Comment [I9]: thesis or hypothesis section Experimental Chemicals needed for this experiment include cobalt chloride hexahydrate and concentrated hydrochloric acid. A single spectrophotometer is required to measure the absorbance a cobalt solution. Volumetric glassware, a hotplate, and appropriate 1 cm glass or plastic cuvettes were used to prepare, heat, and measure the solutions. Comment [I10]: chemicals and minor equipment listed Two different spectrophotometers where employed in this study for purposes of comparison. One experimental setup was composed of a Milton Roy Spectronic 20D+ for absorbance measurements and a Tenma 72-6870 Data Logger for the temperature measurements. A thermocouple (Fluke general purpose bead probe 80PK-1) was modified with banana plugs for compatibility with the Data Logger. The wire-like thermocouple was needed in order to conveniently monitor the temperature of the cobalt solution while the 3 Comment [I11]: notice the very specific name for the instrument used cuvette was within the spectrophotometer. If digital data acquisition is desired, a data cable for the Spectronic 20D+ and the data cable that is provided with the Tenma Data Logger need to be interfaced with a computer. The authors used customized software constructed with Visual Basic to accomplish this. One serial channel on the computer collected absorbance data from the Spectronic 20D+ while another serial channel collected the temperature. The Vernier setup, described below, was found to be much simpler and easier to use as the software and interfacing needs are provided. The second spectrophotometer used was a Vernier Colorimeter, a thermocouple, and a LabPro unit. The Logger Pro 3.0 software provided with the LabPro unit was able to collect both absorbance and temperature using a single interface. Part I. The Calibration Curve A calibration curve of standards from 0.1 mM to 3 mM Co was prepared from a 15.33 mM stock solution of Co in a concentrated HCl solution (0.1050 g of CoCl2•6 H2O in a 25mL volumetric flask) in order to facilitate the determination of the concentration of the tetrachloro complex during the temperature trials. It is assumed that the approximately 12 M HCl is sufficient to shift the equilibrium of reaction 1 to Comment [I12]: procedures can be separated into sections if you find this organization helpful Comment [I13]: an approximate range for the calibration standards is sufficient (more details in the calib. curve graph or a table) Comment [I14]: the calculated concentration is listed along with how it was made Comment [I15]: referencing a previous chemical reaction the tetrachloro complex. While this assumption is not perfect, the validity of this assumption is irrelevant since there are no literature values to make proper comparisons. These solutions were all prepared in the hood using volumetric glassware. Absorbance measurements at 653 nm (one of the available wavelengths of the Vernier Colorimeter) were made at room temperature using one of the spectrophotometers. A linear fit of the absorbance vs. concentration data was used to determine the concentration of the tetrachloro complex in the temperature trials. Part II. The Temperature Trials A 12.0 mM Co solution was prepared in 6 M HCl (0.0802 g of CoCl2•6 H2O in 25 mL volumetric flask). The 6 M HCl provided the necessary balance between the tetrachloro and hexaaqua complexes of cobalt in order to observe a dramatic color shift from 0 °C to 100 °C. Standardization of the 6 M HCl is discussed later. Temperature trials involved heating the cobalt solution to 80 or 90 °C by placing a cuvette containing the cobalt solution into a water bath. The temperature was monitored using the thermocouple. A razor blade was used to cut a square hole in the cuvette cap of the plastic cuvette in order to insert the thermocouple wire. The wire was bent such that it did not block the light path through the middle of the 4 Comment [I16]: list the wavelength or other important instrumental parameters cuvette. When the solution reached 80 ºC or more it was wiped down with lens paper and placed into the spectrophotometer, where absorbance was also measured at 653 nm along with the temperature as the solution cooled to room temperature. The cooling from 70 ºC to near room temperature takes about 20 minutes, so data collection could be accomplished without a computer if the absorbance and temperature were written down at certain intervals without regard to consistent sampling rate. Overheating the plastic disposable cuvettes in the hot water bath lead to warping of the cuvette, which made it impossible to insert it into the Vernier colorimeter sample chamber. It was found that if temperatures are kept below 80 ºC this problem is avoided. Glass cuvettes used with the Spectronic 20D+ do not suffer this problem and can be heated to higher temperatures. Comment [I17]: experimental complications should be described The raw data files generated were named “calibcurveComp?.txt” and a series of filed named “TTcomp2BhotNS0611A.txt” (see lab notebook for the cipher rules for these files). The entire dataset was processed in “CobaltKeqDataSetJune2007.v2.xls”. Comment [I18]: data file names are listed Results Comment [I19]: Describe each of the figures and tables in stepwise order. Do not discuss the interpretation – save that for the discussion. You should describe the reasons why or the process that led up to each of the figures and tables. 1.400 High quality calibration curves can be obtained using 0.99 and slopes near 400 M-1cm-1, depending on the sensitivity of the instrument (as seen in Figure 2). The tetrachloro complex 1.200 Absorbance either of the spectrophotometers, yielding R2 values of at least 0.800 0.600 0.400 0.200 concentration reaches its maximum at high temperatures and the 0.000 absorbance attenuates with decreasing temperature. Since the total cobalt concentration is known in the temperature trials and the concentration of the tetrachloro complex can be determined y = 349.02x + 0.0086 R2 = 0.9992 1.000 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 Concentration of Co (M) Figure 2. A typical calibration curve of Co in a 12 M HCl solution, using the Vernier Colorimeter in this case. using the calibration curve, the hexaaqua complex concentration -8 is determined by the difference. Using the equilibrium constant the chloride concentration of the temperature trial solvent, the ln Keq expression for reaction 1, the cobalt complex concentrations, and y = -5732.8x + 8.0787 R2 = 0.998 -9 -10 value of the equilibrium constant can be determined as a function of temperature. When this data is plotted as ln Keq vs 1/T according the equation 4, Figure 3 results. The slope yields the enthalpy of the reaction and the y-intercept yields the entropy of the reaction. 5 -11 0.0029 0.003 0.0031 0.0032 0.0033 1/Tem perature (1/K) Figure 3. Plotting ln Keq vs. 1/T to determine H and S, where the slope = -H/R and S/R (where R = 8.3145 J/K mol), yielding in this case H = 47,665 J/mol and S = 67.17 J/K mol. This experiment was developed using both types of spectrophotometers mentioned and employed in a second semester General Chemistry laboratory section using the Vernier equipment. Table 1 contains the accumulated results comparing the experimentally varied factors. Table 1. Comparison of results using 2-sample t-statistics -1 Condition Spectronic 20D+ Vernier Colorimeter Enthalpy /J mol Std. Avg. Dev. 35,610 380 34,700 3,500 Comment [I20]: All tables need captions. -1 -1 Entropy /J K mol Std. Avg. Dev. 15.04 0.84 14 11 N 2 2 tcalc (H) tcalc (S) tcrit @ 95% conf. 0.37 0.17 4.30 CoCl2•6 H2O Co(NO3)2•6 H2O 46,000 45,600 2500 2700 61.6 61.9 7.1 8.0 6 7 0.28 0.07 2.20 stirring – yes stirring – no 46,000 45,700 1500 2800 62.3 61.6 4.3 8.1 3 10 0.17 0.13 2.20 5.66 M HCl 6.96 M HCl 79,100 45,400 6100 2400 157 61.1 18 6.6 9 16 19.79 19.14 2.07 cold to room temp. 62,000 11,000 115 37 4 5.94 5.97 2.10 hot to room temp. 45,400 2,400 61.1 ± 6.6 16 NOTE: N is the number of replicates, tcalc is the result of a 2-sample t-statistic, and tcrit is the critical value Discussion Individual trials (see Figure 3) show that the solution is extremely well behaved, producing a highly precise measurement. When comparing consistency between trials, the relative standard deviation can still remain under 5% when experimental conditions are identical. A number of conditions were considered including spectrophotometer type, the stock cobalt compound (either cobalt nitrate or cobalt chloride), stirring, HCl solvent concentration, and direction of temperature change. Examining Table 1 reveals that both spectrometer types yield the same results within 95% confidence. It is also not surprising that the source of the cobalt compound is irrelevant given the insignificance of the concentration compared to the chloride in the solvent. Stirring had no effect on the numerical results and shortened the cooling time only marginally while complicating the experimental setup with the purchase of small stir bars and placing the spectrophotometer on top of a stir plate. It was also a concern that the heat dumped into the spectrophotometer chamber may cause instrumental drift. Monitoring the absorbance of a hot water cuvette in a room temperature spectrophotometer showed this was not a significant factor. 6 Also, notice the format of the table. The top and bottom of the table receive thick lines. There is another slightly less thick line separating the headings from the numbers. The rest of the rows do not have borders. Comment [I21]: notice the numbers are formatted to the correct number of significant figures As expected, the HCl concentration of the solvent in the temperature trials had a significant effect on the results, both visually and mathematically. Since the term is raised to the 4th power in the equilibrium constant expression it needs to be accurately determined. Two different concentrations were prepared for the purpose of comparison. Each solvent was standardized using a sodium carbonate standard. The results using the HCl solvent near 5.66 M HCl produce enthalpy and entropy values that were larger in magnitude than the 6.96 M HCl solvent and was visually pinker, as expected from the Le Chatelier’s principle. This same elevation of thermodynamic parameters occurred with the cold and hot temperature trials where the initial cold solution was also pinker than the hot solution. The final parameter examined was the direction of the temperature change. Heating the cobalt solution and allowing it to cool to room temperature produced data sets that covered a larger temperature range, produced more consistent results, and were preferred to the cold trials, which used an ice bath to cool the cuvette and then allowed it to warm to room temperature in the spectrophotometer. The cold trials were more difficult to execute than the hot trials due to cuvette fogging. In order to prevent fogging, dry nitrogen gas was blown into the sample chamber of the spectrophotometer. This was successful at preventing the fogging, but the cold trials were abandoned when the experiment was conducted in the General Chemistry lab since they would have required the purchase and preparation of several drying tubes and the use of the nitrogen gas lines in the hoods. The extra experimental complications in the cold trials did not yield commensurate quality data sets. HCl solvent concentrations should be increased for cold trials if they are used since the absorbance of the cold 6.96 M HCl solutions begin below the lowest standards of the calibration curve and below the normally acceptable absorbance range of the spectrophotometers used due to detector noise (5). The chemical system under study in this experiment involves high ionic strength values and therefore does not lend itself to comparison to literature values for the thermodynamic quantities at standard state. One could attempt to determine the standard state enthalpies and entropies of formation for the two cobalt complexes, but the calculations necessary would be beyond the intent of this laboratory experiment designed for an introductory chemistry laboratory. 7 Conclusions This experiment provides students with an opportunity to measure thermodynamic parameters of a Comment [I22]: the section is optional – consider using it when you have a large discussion section and would like to summarize the findings visually appealing reaction. It includes building the skills involved in solution preparation, calibration curves, and extensive data processing. Instructors can determine whether students collect data visually or digitally, which then also adds a layer of learning to use computer interfaced equipment and data importation. The chemical requirements are minimal and the standardization of the temperature trial solvent is unnecessary if a common HCl concentration is prepared for the entire laboratory section, which would allow grading based on class averaged values for the enthalpy and entropy. References 1. Miessler, G.L.; Tarr, D.A. Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd ed.; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, 2004, pp 360, 368. 2. Grant, A.W. J. Chem. Educ. 1984, 61, 446. 3. Ophardt, C.E. J. Chem. Educ. 1980, 57, 453. 4. Barrera, N.M.; McCarty,J.L.; Dragojlovic, V. Chem. Educator 2002, 7, 142-145. 5. Skoog, D. A.; Holler, J. F., Nieman, T. A. Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 5th ed.; Harcourt: Philadelphia, 1998, pp 307 – 311. 8 Comment [I23]: The reference section uses the ACS formatting style. The numbering should reflect the order in which the references were used. If you use the References feature of the word processor, it will automatically number the notes. Set the Reference|Style option to one of the ACS styles will result in the use of the proper format.