Chapter 40
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
1. Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology.
40.1 Physical laws and the environment constrain animal size and shape
2. What is convergent evolution (convergence)? Give an example of it.
3. Describe how an animal’s size and shape effects how it exchanges materials with the environment.
40.2 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
4. List the hierarchical level of organization of an animal.
5. List the six types of connective tissue and state their main function
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
6. List the three types of muscle tissue and where they are generally located.
a.
b.
c.
7. What are organs?
8. List two animal phyla that do not have organs.
a.
b.
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40.3 Animals use the chemical energy in food to sustain form and function
9. Describe how useable energy makes its way into an
animal.
10. List the ways that energy is used/lost by an animal.
11. What is metabolic rate?
12. List 3 ways that metabolic rate can be measured.
a.
b.
c.
13. In which lab did we measure metabolic rate? Which
method did we use?
14. List and describe the two bioenergetic “strategies”.
a.
b.
15. What is the relationship between the following and why (current hypothesis):
a. Size of animal and metabolic rate (per gram)
b. Activity and metabolic rate.
16. How come an endotherm’s base-level metabolic rate needs to be measured differently from that of an
ectotherm?
17. If a mouse and a small lizard of the same mass (both at rest) were placed in respirometers under
identical environmental condition, which animal would consume oxygen at a higher rate? Explain.
18.
Why are alligators not capable of intense activity for periods of more than 1 hour?
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19. Which must eat a larger proportion of its weight in food each day: a house cat or an African lion?
Explain.
40.4 Many animals regulate their internal environment within relatively narrow limits
20. What is homeostasis? *Important Concept*
21. Give two examples of homeostasis in animals.
a.
b.
22. What is negative feedback?
23. Give an example of something that is regulated by negative feedback.
24. What is positive feedback?
25. Give an example of something that is regulated by positive feedback.
40.5 Thermoregulation contributes to homeostasis and involves anatomy, physiology, and behavior
26. What is thermoregulation?
27. Why is it important to keep body temperature within limits?
28. From where do ectotherms get their heat?
29. From where do endotherms get their heat?
30. List two advantages that endotherms have over ectotherms.
a.
b.
31. List one advantage that ectotherms have over endotherms.
32. Can ectotherms have stable body temperatures? Explain.
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33. Explain the roles each of the following has in insulation/heat exchange and give an example of a type of
organism that uses it:
a. Hair
b. Feathers
c. Blubber
d. Blood
e. Countercurrent heat exchange
f.
Sweat glands
g. Panting
h. Non-shivering thermogenesis
i.
Brown fat
34. What is torpor and what is its adaptive value?
35. Describe each of the following metabolic adjustments and give an example of an organism that uses it.
a. Hibernation
b. Estivation
c. Daily torpor
1.
2.
Chapter 41
Animal Nutrition
Give an example of each of the following:
a.
Herbivore
b.
Carnivore
c.
Omnivore
d.
Piscivore
e.
Sanguivore
f.
Detritivore
List the four main feeding mechanisms in animals and give an example of each
a.
b.
c.
d.
41.1 Homeostatic mechanisms manage an animal’s energy budget]
3.
What is biosynthesis and where does the energy come from to perform it?
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4. Explain what happens when one’s glucose levels fall below the homeostatic set point? Include
information about the hormones and glands involved.
5. Explain what happens when one’s glucose levels rise above the homeostatic set point? Include
information about the hormones and glands involved.
6. What are some long-term health problems associated with overnourishment?
7. From an evolutionary perspective, explain why humans crave foods that cause weight-gain.
41.2 An animal’s diet must supply carbon skeletons and essential nutrients
8. What are essential nutrients?
9. Contrast malnourishment with undernourishment.
10. Amino Acids
a.
What are essential amino acids?
b.
Where do the others come from?
c.
What are they used to make?
11. Fatty Acids.
a.
What are essential fatty acids?
b.
Where do the others come from?
c.
What are they used to make?
12. What are vitamins?
13. Choose 1 water-soluble vitamin.
a.
List it:
b.
AP Biology
Describe one of its major functions
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14. Choose 1 fat-soluble vitamin.
a.
List it:
b.
Describe one of its major functions
15. Compare and contrast vitamins and minerals (1 similarity, 1 difference).
16. Look at Table 41.2 to identify the mineral(s) associated with the following statements (write them in):
a.
Used in nerve function
b.
Component of thyroid hormones
c.
Component of nucleotides
d.
Component of hemoglobin
41.3 The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination.
17. Give a brief definition for each of the following:
a.
Ingestion
b.
Digestion
c.
Absorption
d.
Elimination
41.4 Each organ of the mammalian digestive system has specialized food-processing functions
18. Trace the pathway of meal from the mouth through the small intestine. Include: organs/structure names
(esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, oral cavity), enzyme action (describe what is broken
down within each structure), and other pertinent biological action.
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19. From the small intestine, ingested material can go down one of two pathways: 1) into the bloodstream or
2) into the large intestine.
a.
Explain how nutrients are transported from the lumen (tube) of the small intestine to the
bloodstream.
b.
c.
d.
Once the nutrients are in the bloodstream, their first stop is the liver (by way of the
_________________ vein. Explain what the liver does with these nutrients.
Describe the pathway that the nutrients take through the body after they leave the liver.
The materials that are not absorbed into the bloodstream pass from the small intestine
into the large intestine. Describe what occurs in the large intestine.
20. In which part of the digestive system are bacteria normally found? List 2 benefits these bacteria provide.
a.
b.
41.5 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems are often associated with diet
21. Contrast the dentition of mammalian herbivores and carnivores.
22. How does the dentition of omnivores generally compare with herbivores and carnivores?
23. Name 2 adaptations that snakes may have for feeding.
a.
b.
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24. Compared with an adult frog, a tadpole has a much longer intestine relative to its body size. What does
this suggest about the diets of these two stages in a frog’s life history?
Chapter 42
Circulation and Gas Exchange
42.1 Circulatory systems reflect phylogeny
1. Name two phyla of animals that transport nutrients to their cells by diffusion alone.
a.
b.
2. Why don’t these phyla need a circulatory system?
3. What are the three basic components of circulatory systems (open and closed)
a.
b.
c.
4. Describe the differences between open and closed circulatory systems
5. Name 2 phyla that have open circulatory systems
a.
b.
6. Name 3 phyla that have closed circulatory systems
a.
b.
c.
7. List 2 advantages associated with open circulatory systems.
a.
b.
8. What is the main advantage associated with closed circulatory systems.
9. Put the following terms in the same order as the blood flows through them (it is a loop): vein, artery,
venule, arteriole, capillary, heart
10. What is the general difference between arteries and veins?
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11. Fill in the following information about vertebrate circulatory systems
Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
# of heart
chambers
# of
ventricles
Complete
septum
separating
ventricles?
# of circuits
and their
names
# of arteries
leading to
systemic
circuit
Mammals
42.2 Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart
12. Refer to Figure 42.5 and identify each
labeled section:
1._______________________
2._______________________
3._______________________
4._______________________
5._______________________
6._______________________
7._______________________
8._______________________
9._______________________
10.______________________
11.______________________
13. What is the difference between the systole and diastole phases of the cardiac cycle?
14. What is the function of the heart valves?
15. Put the following in the same order as blood flows through/past
it: left atrioventricular valve, right atrioventricular valve, left
semilunar valve, right semilunar valve, left ventricle, right
ventricle, left atrium, right atrium, pulmonary arteries,
pulmonary veins, vena cava, aorta.
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16. What does the sinoatrial (SA) node do?
17. What does the atrioventricular (AV) node do? Why is this important?
18. Explain how electrical impulses spread through the heart (the pathway).
42.3 Physical principles govern blood circulation
19. Relate the composition of the walls of the following structures to their function:
a. Capillaries
b. Veins
c. Arteries
20. Describe the circulatory challenges that giraffes face when reaching up to eat leaves on high
branches. Explain how these challenges are different when the animal bends down to take a drink.
21. List three ways that substances can move from the capillaries into the interstitial fluid
a.
b.
c.
22. What drives fluids out of the capillaries into the interstitial fluid?
23. What pulls fluids back into the capillaries from the interstitial fluid?
24. What occurs in the lymphatic system?
25. From where does fluid enter the lymphatic system?
26. Where is the fluid in the lymphatic system returned to the circulatory system?
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42.4 Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma
27. Blood composition. Describe the following elements of blood and their primary functions.
Blood Element
Description
Primary Function
a. Plasma
b. Erythrocytes
c. Leukocytes
d. Platelets
28. Describe how blood cells are produced.
29. What are pluripotent stem cells?
30. What is the relationship between atherosclerosis and high blood pressure? What are the long term
risks associated with these conditions?
42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
31. Explain how countercurrent exchange maximizes the ability of fish gills to extract dissolved O 2 from
water (a drawing may help).
32. List two advantages that air breathing animals have over ones that need to extract O2 from the
water.
a.
b.
33. Explain how insects breathe.
34. Why are lungs associated with circulatory systems?
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42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs
35. What is positive pressure breathing and what type of animal uses it?
36. Negative pressure breathing
a. What types of animals use it?
b. What is the main muscle involved in it?
37. What advantage do air sacs give birds during ventilation?
38. Breathing control
a. How does an increase in the CO2 concentration in the blood affect the pH of the
cerebrospinal fluid?
b. Explain how this is used to regulate respiration rate.
42.7 Respiratory pigments bind and transport gases
39. Gas always moves from a region of (higher or lower) partial pressure to a region of (higher or lower)
partial pressure.
Which has a higher partial
Which has a higher partial
O2 moves
CO2 moves
pressure of O2 (PO2)
pressure of CO2 (PCO2)
into/toward
into/toward
air in alveoli
vs.
blood in pulmonary arteries
air in alveoli
vs.
blood in pulmonary arteries
blood entering tissue capillaries
vs.
interstitial fluid
blood entering tissue capillaries
vs.
interstitial fluid
40. Hemoglobin
a. # of subunits = __
b. Element at its center = ______
c. How does cooperative O2 binding deliver O2 to very active tissues?
d. How does the Bohr shift help deliver O2 to very active tissues?
41. List the 3 ways CO2 is carried around in the blood and the % that each carries.
a.
b.
c.
42. Write a chemical equation that shows the fate of CO2 as it enters a RBC.
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43. Describe 3 adaptations that enable Weddell seals to stay underwater much longer than humans can.
a.
b.
c.
Chapter 43
The Immune System
1. Innate immunity
a. When does an organism acquire this immunity?
b. How specific is this immunity?
c. List the 3 major defenses this type of immunity offers
i.
ii.
iii.
d. What are the key players involved?
2. Acquired immunity
a. When does an organism acquire this type of immunity?
b. How specific is this immunity?
c. List the 2 types of acquired immune responses
i.
ii.
d. List the key players involved.
3. (Innate immunity or Acquired immunity) occurs more rapidly than (innate immunity or acquired
immunity), which can days to kick into gear.[circle the correct answers.]
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43.1 Innate immunity provides broad defenses against infection
4. In the table below, list the external defenses of innate immunity and a brief description of what they
do.
Type of external
How they defend
defense
5. Lysozyme
a. Is found in the ________________________________________________________
b. Its mechanism of defense is _____________________________________________
6. Phagocytes
a. What do they do to invading microbes?
b. How are they able to distinguish between cells that belong in the body and microbes that
have invaded it?
c. Which organelle (within the phagocyte) is involved in microbial destruction?
d. Give an example of how a microbe has evolved to defend itself against phagocytes.
e. Fill in the following table
Type of white
blood cell (WBC)
Neutorphil
Macrophage
(derived from
monocytes)
Eosinophil
Main function(s)
Dendritic Cell
7. Give a brief description of what the following protein groups do to prevent the spread of infection
within the body:
a. Complement system –
b. Interferon –
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8. Inflammatory response
a. Describe the role(s) of the following elements of the inflammatory response
i. Mast cells –
ii. Histamine –
iii. Chemokines –
b. What causes the common signs of inflammation – redness, swelling, and heat – and how
do these help protect the body against infection?
c. Give a brief description of what is occurring in the figures below.
Step 1:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 2:
9. What do natural killer cells do (and how do they do it)?
10. Define apoptosis
43.2 In acquired immunity, lymphocytes provide specific defenses against infection
11. Once the innate defenses have been activated, the acquired immune system joins the fight. Explain how
the following are involved in this process:
a.
Cytokines –
b.
Antigens
i.
Give two examples of antigens
1.
2.
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ii.
What is an epitope?
12. Name the two types of lymphocytes involved in acquired immunity:
a.
b.
13. B cell receptor
a. In the box on the right, draw a B cell receptor, and label the
following: light chains, heavy chains, disulfide bridges,
variable (V) regions, constant (C) regions, antigen-binding
sites, transmembrane region, and cytoplasmic tails.
b. How does the structure of a secreted antibody differ?
14. T cell receptor
a. Draw a T cell receptor and label the following: α chain, β
chain, disulfide bridge, variable (V) region, constant (C)
region, antigen binding site, transmembrane region, and
cytoplasmic tails.
b. What is the major difference in the types of antigens
bound by B cell receptors and T cell receptors?
B cell receptor
T cell receptor
15. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
a. Define MHC
b. Describe its role in antigen presentation
c. Class I MHC
i. What types of cells present (have) these?
ii. What is “wrong” with cells presenting these along with antigens?
iii. What types of cells recognize these displayed antigens?
d. Class II MHC
i. What types of cells present (have) these?
ii. How do the cells acquire these antigens?
iii. What types of cells recognize these displayed antigens?
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e. What is the significance of MHC molecules in organ transplant?
16. All lymphocytes are made by ________________ in the _____________.
a. T-cells (T-lymphocytes) mature in the _______________.
b. B-cells (B-lymphocytes) mature in the ________________.
17. How many different epitopes can a single B-cell or a single T-cell bind to? _______
18. Briefly describe the antigen-binding diversity of B-cells and T-cells within a human.
a. How much is there?
b. How does it originate (look at figure 43.11)? They discuss the variable region of the light
chain of the B cell receptor, but it applies to the heavy chain and to the T cell receptors, too.
c. What is the result?
19. How come the antigen receptor molecules
do not recognize “self” as an antigen?
20. On page 907, the authors explain clonal selection and state that it is of fundamental importance to
understanding acquired immunity. In the space below, summarize clonal selection (include information
about memory cells).
21. Distinguish between the primary immune response and the secondary immune response.
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43.3 Humoral and cell- mediated immunity defend against different types of threats
22. Give a brief statement about what each of the following do:
a. Humoral immune response
b. Cell-mediated immune response
23. What is the role of the helper T-cell in the
a. Humoral immune response
b. Cell-mediated immune response
24. Helper T-cells are activated (proliferate and differentiate) when they encounter and recognize a class II
MHC molecule-antigen complex on an antigen-presenting cell.
a. What is a class II MHC molecule-antigen complex?
b. What is an antigen-presenting cell?
c. What is the role of CD4 in this response?
25. Cell-mediated immunity
a. What types of threats does the cell-mediated immunity respond to (i.e. what are the target cells?)?
b. What is a class I MHC molecule-antigen complex?
c. Which cells present the MHC molecule-antigen complex?
d. What is the role of CD8 in this response?
e. Once activated, what does the cytotoxic T-cell do?
26. Humoral immune response
a. What types of threats does humoral immunity respond to?
b. How are the B-cells activated?
c. Once activated, what are the two types of cells that the B-cells differentiate into?
i.
ii.
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d. Plasma cells produce specific antibodies. List and describe the 4 ways that antibodies
inactivate the threat that triggered the immune response.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
27. Active immunity
a. Define it:
b. Give two examples of how it can develop
28. Passive immunity
a. Define it
b. Give two examples of how it is conferred
43.4 The immune system’s ability to distinguish self from non-self limits tissue transplantation
29. Describe the relationship of the ABO blood groups and the antibodies the RBCs harbor.
30. Why do people have antibodies against blood antigens to which they have never been exposed?
31. What is the result if a blood type A person received a transfusion from a blood type B person?
32. People with blood type _______ are considered to be “universal donors”. Why?
33. People with blood type _____ are considered to be “universal recipients”. Why?
34. Describe the differences regarding the dangers of ABO and Rh antigens during pregnancy.
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35. What two precautions are taken to avoid an immune response against a tissue transplant?
a.
b.
43.5 Exaggerated, self-directed, or diminished immune responses can cause disease
36. Allergies
a. What causes an allergic response?
b. Describe how the body reacts to allergens (antigens).
c. How do antihistamines work against allergy symptoms?
d. What is anaphylactic shock?
37. Autoimmune Diseases
a. What are they?
b. List 4 autoimmune diseases and the molecules/cells that the body treats as antigens.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
38. Immunodeficiency Diseases
a. What are they?
b. To what do they leave people susceptible?
c. Which immune cell does HIV infect?
d. Why is this so devastating to the immune system?
e. Name 2 risky behaviors that account for most HIV infections.
i.
ii.
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Chapter 44
Osmoregulation and Excretion
1. Define the following:
a. Osmoregulation –
b. Excretion –
44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes
2. Osmoconformers
a. What are they?
b. Where do they generally live?
3. Osmoregulators
a. What are they?
b. If they live in a hypoosmotic environment, they must [discharge or take in (circle one)] water in
order to be __________________ with the environment.
4. Osmoregulation requires _______________ because they use ___________ ___________ to
manipulate solute concentrations in their body fluids.
5. Name 3 factors that affect the energy cost of osmoregulation.
a.
b.
c.
6. Tilapia are [stenohaline or euryhaline (circle one)] and are exceptional in their abilities to do what?
7. Describe the osmoregulatory problem animals face by living in saltwater.
a. How do most bony fishes tolerate saltwater?
b. How do sharks and their relatives tolerate saltwater?
8. Describe the osmoregulatory problem animals face by living in freshwater.
a. List 3 adaptations fish have to tolerate freshwater.
i.
ii.
iii.
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9. Describe the remarkable adaptations of tardigrades (aka “water bears”).
10. List 4 anatomical and behavioral adaptations that terrestrial animals can have to prevent dehydration.
a.
b.
c.
d.
11. Name 4 ways that terrestrial animals lose water to the environment.
a.
b.
c.
d.
12. Name 2 ways that terrestrial animals gain water
a.
b.
13. What does transport epithelium do?
14. Name 3 vertebrate structures that contain transport epithelium.
a.
b.
c.
15. What two functions do the transport epithelia of the excretory organs perform:
a.
b.
44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat
16. From which macromolecules do nitrogenous wastes arise?
a.
b.
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17. Fill in the following table
Type of
Animals that
Nitrogenous produce this
Waste
waste
Ammonia
Tissue that
excretes the
waste
Relative amount
of water needed
to excrete it
Relative
toxicity
Relative amount of
E required to
produce
Urea
Uric Acid
18. Explain the relationship between the type of nitrogenous waste an organism makes and its mode of
reproduction.
19. Describe an example of an organism that can alter the type of nitrogenous wastes it produces.
44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme
20. List and describe the 4 steps in the excretory process
a.
b.
c.
d.
44.4 Nephrons and associated blood vessels are the functional units of the mammalian kidney
21. What is the main excretory organ of vertebrates?
22. The functional unit of the kidney is the __________________.
23. Filtration:
a. What is the source of energy that moves the fluid from the blood into the lumen of the Bowman’s
capsule?
b. What materials end up as filtrate?
c. Which ones do not end up as filtrate?
d. What distinguishes the two?
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24. Trace the pathway of materials to be excreted from the blood  ureter.
25. Movement of materials
a. Secretion:
i. movement from (interstitial fluid or lumen of nephron) to (interstitial fluid or lumen of
nephron) [circle answers]
ii. destination: back into body or excretion (circle one)
b. Reabsorption:
i. movement from (interstitial fluid or lumen of nephron) to (interstitial fluid or lumen of
nephron) [circle answers]
ii. destination: back into body or excretion (circle one)
26. Briefly summarize the major events that are occurring in the figure to the right at points (1 – 5).
 (1) Proximal Tubule
 (2) Descending limb of the loop of Henle
 (3) Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
 (4) Distal Tubule
 (5) Collecting Duct
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44.5 The mammalian kidney’s ability to conserve water is a key terrestrial adaptation
27. As you descend deeper into the kidney (cortex  inner medulla) describe:
a. What happens to the NaCl concentration of the interstitial fluid.
b. How is this gradient set up?
c. What happens to the NaCl concentration in the
tubule?
d. How is this gradient set up?
e. What happens to the urea concentration of the
interstitial fluid?
f.
How is this gradient set up?
g. What happens to the urea concentration in the tubule?
h. How is this gradient set up?
28. In the diagram (to the right), color the following:
a. Red – active transport arrows
b. Green – passive transport arrows
c. Blue – sections of the nephron tubule that are permeable to H2O but not to NaCl.
d. Yellow – sections of the nephron tubule that are not permeable to H2O but are to NaCl.
29. The filtrate makes three trips from the cortex to the inner medulla. Explain what is accomplished in each
trip with regards to increasing the concentration of urine.
a. Descending loop –
b. Ascending loop –
c. Collecting duct -
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44.6 Diverse adaptations of the vertebrate kidney have evolved in different environments
30. Briefly state how some animals (in each group, listed below) conserve water when producing /
excreting nitrogenous wastes
a. Kangaroo rat –
b. Birds –
c. Reptiles –
d. Frogs Chapter 45
Hormones and the Endocrine System
1. Define hormone include how it is transported and its general actions.
45.1 The endocrine system and the nervous system act individually and together in regulation an
animal’s physiology
2. Endocrine vs. Nervous Systems
a. How are they similar?
b. How are they different (list 2)?
i.
ii.
c. Briefly describe the overlap between these two systems.
3. Explain why, unlike negative feedback, positive feedback is not a common feature of hormonal
pathways that help maintain homeostasis.
45.2 Hormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that
culminate in specific cell responses
4. List the 3 major classes of molecules that function as hormones
a.
b.
c.
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5. Which class(es) of hormone can pass through the cell membrane (and why)?
6. Which class(es) of hormone cannot pass through the cell membrane (and why)?
7. List the three key events in cell signaling and a brief description of each (yes, you have seen this
before).
a. ________________________ b. ________________________ c. ________________________ 8. What determines if a cell is a “target cell” for a particular hormone?
9. True or False (circle one): all target cells respond the same way to the signaling hormone? Defend your
answer using epinephrine as an example.
10. In the spaces below, compare and contrast the two diagrams.
SECRETORY
CELL
Possible class of hormone(s):
SECRETORY
CELL
Hormone solubility:
Hormone
molecule
VIA
BLOOD
Effect(s) that hormone/receptor complex has on
the cell:
Signal receptor
TARGET
CELL
Signal
transduction
pathway
Hormone
molecule
Location of receptor protein:
VIA
BLOOD
TARGET
CELL
Possible class of hormone(s):
OR
Cytoplasmic
response
Hormone solubility:
Location of receptor protein:
Signal
receptor
DNA
Signal
transduction
and response
mRNA
Nuclear
response
DN
A
NUCLEUS
Effect(s) that hormone/receptor complex has on
NUCLEUS
the cell:
Name of most hormone/receptor complexes in
Synthesis of
specific proteins
this class:
11. How is paracrine signaling different than long-distance endocrine signaling by hormones?
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12. Give 4 examples of local regulators and a short description of what they do.
a.
b.
c.
d.
45.3 The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many
functions of the vertebrate endocrine system
13. Label the endocrine glands in the figure to the right.
14. Between which two body systems does the
hypothalamus pass information?
15. Which gland is most closely associated with the
hypothalamus?
16. List the two hormones released by the posterior
pituitary, their actions, and the type of feedback that
controls them.
a.
b.
17. Which gland do you think is called the “master gland”?
________________. Why?
18. Tropic Hormones
a. Discuss the role of tropic hormones in regulation the endocrine system.
b. List 3 tropic hormones produced in the anterior pituitary. State which gland they stimulate, which
hormone is released, and the effect of each hormone.
i.
ii.
iii.
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19. Nontropic Hormones
a. Define.
b. Prolactin
i. Discuss the regulatory role of prolactin in humans.
ii. Compare its role across 3 other vertebrates.
1.
2.
3.
c. Growth hormone
i. Discuss what it does.
ii. What condition results from hypersecretion of GH?
1. in adults
2. in children
iii. What condition results from hyposecretion in children?
iv. What are some societal issues surrounding GH?
45.4 Nonpituitary hormones help regulate metabolism, homeostasis, development, and behavior
20. Thyroid Hormones
a. What controls the secretion of thyroid hormones?
b. Generally, what do T3 and T4 do?
c. What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
d. What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?
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21. Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin
a. What happens to skeletal muscle if Ca2+ levels fall too low?
b. Draw a flowchart of figure 45.11. (*Memorize this*)
c. Explain how vitamin D is important in this process.
22. Insulin and Glucagon
a. In what capacity are the pancreas an exocrine gland?
b. In what capacity are the pancreas an endocrine gland?
c. How do insulin and glucagon interact with each other?
d. Draw a flowchart of figure 45.12. (*Memorize this*)
e. How does insulin lower blood sugar?
f.
How does glucagon raise blood sugar?
g. What is diabetes mellitus?
h. How are Type I and Type II diabetes different from each other?
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i.
In a glucose tolerance test, a person’s blood glucose level is measured periodically following
ingestion of a glucose-containing solution. In a healthy individual, the blood glucose level rises
moderately at first but then falls to near normal within 2-3 hours. Predict the results of this test in
a person with diabetes mellitus. Explain your answer.
23. Adrenal Hormones
a. Adrenal Medulla
i. What two hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete and what do they do?
1.
2.
ii. How is the adrenal medulla stimulated to release hormones?
b. Adrenal Cortex
i. What are the three corticosteroids released by the adrenal cortex and what do they do?
1.
2.
3.
ii. How would a decrease in the number of corticosteroid receptors in the hypothalamus
likely affect levels of corticosteroids in the blood?
24. Gonadal Sex Hormones
a. Male gonads are ________________.
b. Female gonads are ________________.
c. Name the three major classes of steroid hormones produced in the gonads and their main
functions.
i.
ii.
iii.
25. Melatonin
a. Which gland secretes melatonin?
b. What is the main function of melatonin in humans?
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45.5 Invertebrate regulatory systems also involve endocrine and nervous system interactions
26. How does the nervous system contribute to molting in insects?
27. Juvenile hormone is sometimes used commercially as an insecticide. What effects does it have on
insect populations? Explain.
Chapter 46
Animal Reproduction
46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
1. List four modes of asexual reproduction in animals
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. List three advantages of asexual reproduction
a.
b.
c.
3. What is the major advantage of sexual reproduction?
4. Define hermaphroditism
5. Under which circumstance is hermaphroditism advantageous?
6. Sequential hermaphroditism
a. Define
b. Give an example.
c. Under which circumstance is this process advantageous?
46.2 Fertilization depends on mechanisms that help sperm meet eggs of the same species
7. External fertilization
a. Define
b. In what type of environment is this more likely?
c. What advantages do you think this confers on the organisms?
d. Example species
e. Survival rate of offspring?
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8. Internal fertilization
a. Define
b. In what type of environment is this more likely?
c. What advantages do you think this confers on the organisms?
d. Example species
9. What are pheromones and what do they do?
10. What is a cloaca?
46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes: focus on humans
Female Reproductive Anatomy
11. State the main functions of the following:
a. Ovary
b. Follicle
c. Ovulation
d. Fallopian Tube
e. Corpus luteum
f.
Uterus
g. Endometrium
12. Two of the structures listed above secrete hormones. Name them and the hormones they secrete.
a.
b.
13. Arrange the following into the correct sequence for the travel of an unfertilized egg: cervix, fallopian
tube, ovary, uterus, vagina.
Male Reproductive Anatomy
14. State the main functions of the following:
a. Testis
b. Seminiferous tubule
c. Leydig cells
d. Scrotum
e. Epididymis
f.
Seminal vesicle
g. Prostate gland
h. Bulbourethral gland
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15. Arrange the following male ducts in the correct sequence for the travel of sperm: epididymis,
seminiferous tubule, urethra, vas deferens.
16. In human sexual response, what organs undergo vasocongestion
a. In males?
b. In Females?
46.4 In humans and other mammals, a complex interplay of hormones regulates gametogenesis
17. Gametogenesis
a. Define
b. Major process involved: ______________
c. In females it is called: ________________
d. In males it is called: __________________
e. List and describe 3 major ways gametogenesis differs in males and females
Females
Males
Reproductive Cycles of Females
18. List 2 differences between estrous and menstrual cycles.
a.
b.
19. Which phases of meiosis do the developing oocytes progress through at each point below:
a. Female embryo b. Puberty –
c. Fertilization -
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20. Read pp. 976 – 977 and summarize what is
occurring at each of the steps.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
21. Menopause
a. Define
b. What evolutionary advantage might this give to humans?
Hormonal control of the male reproductive system
22. What are androgens?
23. Which cells produce androgens? ______________________________
24. What are the primary sexual characteristics of males?
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25. What are the secondary sexual characteristics of males?
26. Describe the effects of androgens on animals other than humans.
27. FSH and LH get their names from events of the female reproductive cycle, but they also function in
males. How are their functions in females and males similar?
46.5 In humans and other placental mammals, an embryo grows into a newborn in the mother’s
uterus
28. Describe the state of the embryo just before it implants in the uterine lining.
29. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
a. Why does testing for HCG work as a pregnancy test early in pregnancy but not late in
pregnancy?
b. What is the function of HCG in pregnancy?
30. Placenta (see figure 46.16)
a. How does it form?
b. What is its function?
c. Does the developing embryo’s blood mix with the mother’s blood? ________
d. Explain how nutrients and wastes enter and exit the embryo’s system.
31. Labor
a. List the three major groups of hormones involved in labor and what they do.
i.
ii.
iii.
32. What type of feedback system controls labor? ________________________
33. State the immunological enigma (problem) that pregnancy poses.
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Chapter 47
Animal Development
47.1 After fertilization, embryonic development proceeds through cleavage, gastrulation, and
organogenesis
1. What are cytoplasmic determinants and what is their importance?
2. Cell differentiation:
a. What is it?
b. How is it achieved?
3. List the two things that the acrosomal reaction achieves:
a.
b.
4. What does the cortical reaction accomplish?
5. Ca2+
a. What happens to the egg’s Ca2+ concentration after fusion with a sperm?
b. Where was the Ca2+ stored?
c. How does this block polyspermy?
d. What affect does this have on the egg?
6. Acrosomal reaction and cortical reaction in
mammals: Summarize what is occurring in
each of the steps in the figure to the right.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
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7. Describe the importance cell division and cytoplasmic partitioning of the blastula on embryonic
development.
8. What does gastrulation accomplish?
9. List the three germ layers and what they develop into.
a.
b.
c.
10. Organogenesis
a. Define
b. Neural tube
i. From which layer is it derived?
ii. How does it initially form?
iii. What does it develop into?
11. Mammals, birds, and reptiles have homologous extra-embryonic membranes. State the function of
each and label them on the diagrams below.
a. Chorion
b. Amnion
c. Yolk sac
d. Allantois
Early stage of human
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embryo
Bird or reptile egg
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Chapter 48
Nervous Systems
48.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
1. Generally, how does the nervous system of a bilaterally symmetrical animal compare with that of a
radially symmetrical one?
2. What factors that define an animal’s life-style determine the importance of a well-developed central
nervous system?
3. In vertebrates:
a. What comprises the central nervous system (CNS)? _____________________________
b. What comprises the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
4. Sketch 2 neurons that are
attached to each other.
a. Label the following:
dendrite, axon, cell
body, myelin sheath,
synaptic (axonal)
terminals, synapse.
b. Show the direction of
the signal.
5. Glial cells are supporting cells of the nervous system (they do not transmit nervous impulses). Give two
examples of glial cells and what they do.
a.
b.
6. What is the blood-brain barrier?
7. Arrange the following neurons in the correct sequence for information flow during the knee-jerk reflex:
interneuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron.
48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron
8. The resting potential across a neuron’s plasma membrane is approximately ______ milliVolts.
a. What does this mean?
b. At rest [Na+] inside the cell is ___________ than [Na+] outside the cell.
c. At rest [K+] inside the cell is ___________ than [K+] outside the cell.
d. What maintains the concentration gradient?
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9. Neuron membranes have more open _____ channels than _____ channels.
10. Gated ion channels open and close in response to a stimulus. For each ion channel, state what they
respond to and where they are found:
a. Stretch-gated ion channel –
b. Ligand-gated ion channel –
c. Voltage-gated ion channel 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons
11. Hyperpolarization:
a. What happens to the inner membrane’s charge during hyperpolarization?
b. What event can cause hyperpolarization?
c. If the concentration gradient (of KCl) balances the electrical gradient across a membrane, the
membrane potential would = _____mV.
12. Depolarization
a. What happens to the inner membrane’s charge during depolarization?
b. What event can cause depolarization?
c. If the concentration gradient (of NaCl) balances the electrical gradient across a membrane, the
membrane potential would = _____mV.
13. Describe the relationships between action potential, graded potential, and threshold.
14. Refer to the diagram on the right. Briefly summarize what is occurring in the cell membrane at steps 1 –
5.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
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15. Refer to the diagram at the right. Write a brief statement
that summarizes what is occurring at each step (1-5).
(1)
1
2
(2)
3
(3)
4
(4)
5
(5)
16. What is the refractory period and what causes it?
17. What advantages does myelination offer?
a.
b.
18. Arrange the following from lowest to highest conduction speed: a) myelinated, small-diameter axon; b)
myelinated, large-diameter axon; c) unmyelinated, small-diameter axon.
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48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses
19. Refer to the diagram at the right. Write a
brief statement that summarizes what is
occurring at each step (1-6).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
20. Neurotransmitters
a. Define
b. Give 3 examples of neurotransmitters and state what they do
i.
ii.
iii.
48.5 The vertebrate nervous system is regionally specialized
21. What does cerebrospinal fluid do?
22. What is the structural difference between white matter and gray matter?
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23. Define each of the following:
a. Peripheral nervous system
b. Somatic nervous system
c. Autonomic nervous system
d. Sympathetic nervous system
e. Parasympathetic nervous system
f.
Enteric division
24. Copy the organizational chart in figure 48.21.
25. Which division of your autonomic nervous system would most likely be activated if you were to come to
class and learn that an exam you had forgotten about were scheduled for that day? List 3 physiological
effects that this would trigger.
a.
b.
c.
26. In the diagram below, label the following structures:
cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
pineal gland, cerebrum, and brainstem (midbrain, pons,
medulla oblongata).
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27. State the general function of each of the following structures:
a. Brainstem
i. Medulla oblongata –
ii. Pons –
b. Cerebellum –
c. Diencephalon
i. Thalamus –
ii. Hypothalamus –
d. Cerebrum –
i. Corpus callosum –
48.6 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions
28. Based on Figure 48.28, what can you infer about the relative number of sensory neurons that innervate
the hand and the neck? Explain.
29. If a man with a severed corpus callosum were asked to view a photograph of a familiar face, first in his
left field of vision and then in his right field, why would it be difficult for him to put a name to the face in
either field?
30. What is lateralization?
48.7 CNS injuries and diseases are the focus of much research
31. Choose 2 neurological diseases listed in 48.7 that appear to be directly influenced by neurotransmitter
systems. List them and describe the role of neurotransmitters or neurotransmitter regulation in the
disease.
a.
b.
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Chapter 49
Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
Although fascinating, most of this chapter is beyond the scope of this course (except that you should learn
one example). The movement of muscles, however, is a basic physiological process that I think is within the
scope of what you should know. I have, therefore, restricted the questions to muscles.
49.6 Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting
1. Muscles can only (pull or push)?
2. Put the following structures in order from largest to smallest: myofilaments (actin and myosin),
muscles, muscle fibers (=muscle cells), sarcomeres, myofibrils (= organelles).
3. Draw a single sarcomere that is (label the actin and myosin):
Fully contracted
Completely relaxed
4. Describe what is occurring in each of
the steps in the figure to the right.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
5. Describe the role of calcium (Ca2+) in muscle contraction.
6. What is a motor unit?
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7. What determines the strength of a muscle contraction?
8. How is a muscle contraction sustained over longer periods of time?
9. Muscle fibers can be grouped into 3 categories: slow oxidative, fast oxidative, and fast glycolytic. In the
table below, compare the slow oxidative and fast glycolytic and explain how each of these differences
relate back to their pathways of ATP synthesis.
property
slow oxidative
fast glycolytic
Relate to ATP synthesis pathway
Major pathway for
ATP synthesis
Rate of fatigue
Relative # of
mitochondria
Relative capillary
density
Relative
myoglobin
content
Color
10. In addition to skeletal muscle, vertebrates have cardiac and smooth muscle. State where they are
located.
Type of muscle
Where found
Cardiac muscle
Smooth Muscle
49.7 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity
11. Fill in the following table.
Type of locomotion
Energetic Obstacles
Adaptation to overcome
obstacles
a. Swimming
b. Locomotion on land
c. Flying
12. Put the following in order from highest to lowest regarding energy per kilogram of body mass to move:
flyer, swimmer, runner.
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