Modern Cell Theory
Cellular Form and Function
• All living organisms are composed of cells.
•
•
•
•
– the simplest structural and functional unit of life.
– cells are alive
Concepts of cellular structure
Cell surface
Membrane transport
Cytoplasm
• An organism’s structure and functions are due to the
activities of its cells.
• Cells come only from preexisting cells
– i.e., all life traces its ancestry to the same original cells
• Cells of all species have many fundamental similarities in
chemical composition and metabolic mechanisms.
3-1
3-2
Generalized Cell Structures
Cell Shapes, Size, Cell Surface Area, and Volume
•
20 m
Growth
Three principle parts of a cell
1. Plasma membrane = cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm = everything between the membrane
and the nucleus
- cytosol = intracellular fluid
- organelles = structures with specific functions
3. Nucleus = genetic material of cell
20 m
10 m
10 m
Large cell
Diameter
= 20 mm
Surface area = 20 mm  20 mm  6 = 2,400 mm2
Volume
= 20 mm  20 mm  20 mm = 8,000 mm3
Small cell
Diameter
= 10 mm
Surface area = 10 mm  10 mm  6 = 600 mm2
Volume
= 10 mm  10 mm  10 mm = 1,000 mm3
Effect of cell growth:
Diameter (D) increased by a factor of 2
Surface area increased by a factor of 4 (= D2)
Volume increased by a factor of 8 (= D3)
3-3
2.-4
Plasma Membrane
Extracellular fluid
Peripheral
protein
Glycolipid
Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate
chains
Extracellular
face of
membrane
Phospholipid
bilayer
Channel
Peripheral
protein
Cholesterol
Transmembrane
protein
Intracellular fluid
Proteins of
cytoskeleton
Intracellular
face of
membrane
Figure 3.6b
(b)
Not all cells contain all of these organelles.
3-6
2.-5
1
Membrane Protein Functions
Cell Surface - Second Messenger System
A messenger binds to a receptor
1
Chemical
messenger
Breakdown
products
First
messenger
Receptor
Ions
Adenylate cyclase
CAM of
another cell
G
G
Pi
ATP
2 Receptor releases
G protein,
3
Pi
G protein
binds to an enzyme,
adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic
AMP (cAMP), the
cAMP
second messenger. (second
messenger)
4 cAMP
activates a
cytoplasmic
enzyme called
a kinase.
Inactive
kinase
Activated
kinase
(c) Ion Channel
(a) Receptor
(b) Enzyme
(d) Gated ion channel(e) Cell-identity marker
(f) Cell-adhesion
A channel protein A gated channel
A receptor that
An enzyme that
A glycoprotein
molecule (CAM)
that is constantly that opens and
binds to chemical breaks down
acting as a cellA cell-adhesion
open and allows
messengers such a chemical
closes to allow
identity marker
molecule (CAM)
ions to pass
as hormones sent messenger and
ions through
distinguishing the that binds one
into and out of
by other cells
terminates its
only at certain
body’s own cells
cell to another
the cell
effect
times
from foreign cells
5 Kinases add
phosphate groups (Pi)
to other enzymes. This activates
some enzymes or
deactivates others, leading
to varied metabolic effects
in the cell.
Pi
Inactive
enzymes
Activated
enzymes
3-7
Figure 3.8
3-8
Various metabolic effects
Cell surface - Cilia
Cell Surface
• Cilia – respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of the brain, efferent
ductules of testes
– Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
– unique in everyone
• Flagella
• Functions
–
–
–
–
protection
immunity to infection
defense against cancer
transplant compatibility
• Cilia and flagella composed of Microfilaments.
- cell adhesion
- fertilization
Mucus
Saline
layer
Epithelial
cells
1
2
3
Power stroke
3-9
(a)
Figure 3.12a
(b)
4
5
6
7
Recovery stroke
Figure 3.12b
3-10
How things get in the cell
The Selective Permeable Membrane!!
– Permeable to some molecules but not all
– Filtration (coffee filter)
– Diffusion and Osmosis
– transmembrane proteins act as specific
channels for some particles
• Diffusion- • Dye placed in water
• Molecules move from a
high concentration to
region of lower conc.
• Equilibrium reached in
the far right cylinder
– Protein carriers
– Vesicles can transport in and out
2.-11
2.-12
2
Diffusion Rates
• Factors affecting diffusion rate through a
membrane
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– temperature
– molecular weight - larger molecules move slower
– steepness of concentrated gradient
– membrane surface area
– membrane permeability 3-14
Osmosis
Osmosis: The movement of water across
a semi-permeable membrane
• Movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of high
water conc. to area of lower water conc.
membrane
– Water moves through the phospholipid
bilayer
– Transmembrane proteins can function as
water channels (Aquaporins)
2.-15
2.-16
Attraction of water to solute particles
forms hydration spheres
Aquaporins - channel proteins
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specialized for passage of water
2.-17
3
Osmolarity
Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic Pressure:
amount of pressure
required to stop osmosis
(amt of hydrostatic
pressure)
• Hydrostatic pressure:
physical pressure
generated by a liquid
• One osmole - 1 mole of dissolved particles
– 1M NaCl (1 mole Na+ ions + 1 mole Cl- ions) thus 1M
NaCl = 2 osm/L
Osmotic
pressure
Hydrostatic
pressure
• Osmolarity – number of osmoles of solute per liter
of solution (i.e., number of solutes/l solution)
• Osmolality – number of osmoles of solute per
kilogram of water (i.e., number of solutes/kg of H20)
(b) 30 minutes later
• Physiological solutions are expressed in
milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)
Figure 3.15b
3-19
Tonicity
– blood plasma = 300 mOsm/L
– osmolality similar to osmolarity at concentration
of body fluids
3-20
Effects of Tonicity on RBCs
• Tonicity - ability of a solution to affect fluid volume and
pressure in a cell
– depends on concentration and permeability of solute
• Hypotonic solution
– has a lower concentration of solutes than intracellular fluid (ICF)
• high water concentration
– Cells lyse
• Hypertonic solution
– has a higher concentration of solutes
• low water concentration
(a) Hypotonic
– Cells crenate
(b) Isotonic
(c) Hypertonic
• Isotonic solution
– concentrations in cell and ICF equal
– no changes in cell volume or shape
3-21
1. Simple diffusion
2. Diffusion through a channel
3. Carrier Mediated Transport uses a transporter
protein.
3-22
Membrane Carriers (proteins)
• Uniport
– carries one solute at a time
• Symport (Cotransport)
– carries > 2 osolutes simultaneously in same direction
• Antiport (Countertransport)
– carries >2 or more solutes in opposite directions
– e.g., sodium-potassium pump
• carriers employ two methods of transport
– facilitated diffusion
– active transport
3-24
2.-23
4
Diffusion Through Membrane Channels
Facilitated Transport: Glucose example
Filtration and osmosis
• Glucose binds to transport
protein
• Transport protein changes
shape
• Glucose moves down
the concentration
• gradient
• Each membrane channel specific for ions (e.g., K+, Na+,
or Ca+2)
• Channels may be open or gated
2.-25
2.-26
Transport Across the Plasma Membrane
Active Transport
- So far -
• Movement of stuff
against its concentration
gradient
– Requires energy
from ATP
Enables movement into cell
against a concentration
gradient
2.-27
2.-28
Transport Vesicles (another way of getting things in and out)
• Vesicles are round sacs of membrane that surround
stuff (Requires ATP)
• Endocytosis = vesicles bringing something into cell
• Exocytosis = vesicles release something from cell
Endocytosis:
1)receptor-mediated
endocytosis
2)Phagocytosis
3)Pinocytosis – droplets of
extracellular fluid
2.-29
2. Cytoplasm = everything between
membrane and nucleus
1. cytosol = intracellular fluid
2. organelles = special structures with
specific functions
2.-30
5
2. Cell Organelles
1. Cytosol = Intracellular fluid
• 55% of cell volume
• 75-90% water
– organic molecules (carbs, lipids, sugars,
proteins, enzymes), ATP, waste
products, and ions
• Dissolved (solutes)
• Site of many important chemical reactions
• Some organelles lack membranes others are surrounded
by one or two phospho-lipid bilayer membranes
2.-31
Cytoskeleton
2.-32
The Cytoskeletonal Filaments
• Network of protein
filaments throughout
the cytosol
• Functions:
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate
filaments
– support and shape
– organization of cell
contents
– cell & organelle
movement
3. Microtubules
Fig 2.6
2.-33
Centrosome
1. Centrioles
2. Pericentriolar
material
• Found near
nucleus
• Important site
during mitosis
• Microtrubule
formation!
2.-35
2.-34
Ribosomes – Protein Makers
• Sites where protein is made!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Tiny packages of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– synthesize proteins (plasma membrane & for
export)
1.
Free ribosomes are loose in cytosol
– synthesize proteins used inside the cell
2. On Surface of Endoplasmic Reticulum
(mitochondria, synthesize mitochondrial proteins)
2.-36
6
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Network of membranes forming flattened sacs (Cisterns)
2 types:
• Rough ER
– continuous with nuclear envelope & covered with
ribosomes
– synthesizes, processes & packages proteins for
export
• Smooth ER -- no attached ribosomes
– synthesizes phospholipids, steroids and fats
– detoxifies harmful substances (alcohol)
2.-37
2.-38
Packaging by Golgi Complex
Golgi Complex
• Flattened curved
membranous sacs
(cisterns)
• Modify, sort,
packages proteins
produced by rough
ER
2.-39
2.-40
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes & Proteasomes
• Membranous vesicles
– formed in Golgi
Complex
– digestive enzymes
• Functions
– digest foreign
substances
– autophagy
• recycle own
organelles
• Membranous vesicles
– small
– contain enzymes
– Peroxisomes: – oxidize toxic chemicals
– Proteosomes: break down proteins
(metabolic breakdown)
-
2.-41
2.-42
7
Mitochondria
Nucleolus
• Double membrane bound
organelle
Nucleus
• Function
– generation of ATP!!!!!!!
(Adenosine triphosphate)
– Cellular respiration
• Can self-replicate
2.-43
Function: Directs all cell activities
• Double membrane (aka: nuclear envelope)
• Contains our genetic stuff: chromosomes (DNA)
– Nucleolus: where ribosomes are produced
2.-44
8