Roberto R. Trevino
Teaching Mexican
American History
W
hen 1 was teaching high school in the 1970s I could always
count on getting the right answer when I asked my students
to identify Cesar Chavez, Today when I ask teens the same
question I get a lot of blank stares—and once someone blurted out,
"Oh, isn't he that famous boxer (referring to the hugely popular former
champion from Mexico, Julio Cesar Chavez)!" A generation removed
from the Chicano civil rights era, many of our high school students
today have no idea who the really heroic Cesar was—the labor organizer and champion of justice for farm v^forkers. Moreover, younger
students today. Latinos and non-Latinos alike, have little if any exposure to the history ofthe largest Latino group in the United States,
Mexican Americans.
Given the growing importance of Mexican Americans and other
Latinos in our country today and in its future, it behooves all of us to
better understand their history as part of our common historical experience. I tell students in my classes that what I vi'ant most for them
to take away from my courses is enough knowledge about Mexican
Americans in relation to other Americans so that they can better understand a television newscast or newspaper story dealing with Mexican
American issues. I want them to know how ethnic Mexicans have experienced life in the United States in the past so that they can better understand what makes today's Mexican Americans "tick." In that
spirit 1 want to discuss some central themes in Mexican American history that secondary and college teachers might incorporate into their
teaching ofthe history ofthe American West: land loss, migration, and
the Chicano movement.
There is no issue more important for understanding the Mexican
American experience than land loss. Had Mexican Americans retained
control ofthe millions of acres of land they lost to Anglo-Americans af
ter the war with Mexico ended in 1848, we might all be living in a very
different kind of United States today. After all, in the mid-nineteenth
century, land not only was the greatest source of wealth but also rooted
in it, of course, were social status and the economic power and political influence to maintain it over generations. Uke many ofthe less
savory aspects of American history, there has been a tendency to gloss
over this sensitive, yet vital, aspect of history. How can we more fully
explain to students how Mexican Americans became and largely have
remained economically and politically powerless throughout their history if we do not treat dispossession as something more than "the fortunes of war," as too often has been the case?
i8 OAH Magazine of History * November 2005
This is not a call for teachers to embrace an uncritical historical revisionism for the sake of political correctness—it is simply a challenge
to engage students in more substantive discussions of important issues
based on critical use of readily available scholarship and other strategies.
Chicano historical studies {produced mostly, but not only, by Mexican
Americans) have matured past the point of simphstic "us versus them"
interpretations ofthe past (i). Unlike thirty years ago when ! was desperately looking for any materials in order to teach a high school survey course in Mexican American history, today teachers can count on a
sophisticated and increasingly diverse body of historical scholarship to
deepen their understanding of any number of issues in Mexican American history. Take my earlier question about Mexican Americans' enduring
powerlessness. No one has deah with that query more convincingly (and
even-handedly) than Albert Camarillo in his book Chicanos in a Changing Society (1979). Giving race due consideration while also establishing
the importance of economic factors and other developments that shaped
post-Mexican War California, Camarillo convincingly explains how it
came to be that generations of Mexican Americans became "stuck" in
a lower social status. With equal sophistication, David Montejano's Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas (1987) significantly revamped
our understanding of Mexican Americans in Texas, His book offers a
race/class analysis that paints a more complicated picture of what it has
been like to be Mexican in Texas, including why some Mexican Americans were more successful in some parts ofthe state than in others and
how changing economic developments as well as shifting racial attitudes
molded those experiences.
I am not suggesting high school teachers assign these books to
their students, although excerpts may ceriainly be appropriate for advanced classes. But these are classics in Chicano history and should
be essential summer reading for teachers who can master their arguments and distill them for students as a segue into class discussions.
As for student readings, short primary documents work best for the
nineteenth century. A well-chosen letter, diary entry, or newspaper article really can turn students on to history! Students are much more apt
to feel the effects of Mexican American land loss when they read about
it in the words of someone who experienced it than when they read or
hear it second-hand. Consequently, they are more "primed" for discussion than they might otherwise be. Here again, we are fortunate to have
good published sources from which to choose appropriate short readings of actual voices from the past. David Weber's collection of primary
documents. Foreigners in Their Native Land (1973), has been around for
Map of U,S, Territorial Growth, 1830, All ofthe territory in orange was part of Mexico in 1830, (I mage courtesy of Images of American Political History,
<http://teachpol,tcnj.edu/amer_poLhist/_browse_maps,htm>,)
many years and is still very useful. More recently the volume Major
Prohlems in Mexican American History (1999), edited by Zaragosa Vargas, is also an excellent resource.
Along with land loss it is vital to understand the role migration
has played in Mexican American history. Here the central point is that,
although we are a nation of immigrants, not all immigrant experiences
are the same, and we should not expect to understand Mexican immigration and incorporation into the United States by thinking of it
in terms ofthe traditional European model. Indeed, some ofthe differences would seem obvious—no ocean separates the countries, and
Mexicans were first incorporated through wars—or as the saying goes,
"The border crossed us; we did not cross the border." Furthermore,
racism has dogged Mexican immigrants (and native-bom) far longer
and more virulently than it did any European group that at some given
time suffered from American anti-immigrant hysteria and nativism.
Still, most historians and the general public alike mistakenly continue
to try to make sense of Mexican immigration by comparing it to the
European experience.
In the absence of a full-blown survey of Mexican immigration,
teachers can get good insights into this issue from the book by George
Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American (1993), and also from his journal article, "Race, Nation, and Culture in Recent Immigration Studies"
(2), To spice up the topic for students, teachers can use excerpts from
interviews conducted by the pioneering Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio in the early twentieth century. His volume. The Lift Story of
the Mexican Immigrant (1931), offers excellent vignettes told not only
by immigrants but also by native-born Mexican Americans (3). Many
Mexican American students will easily relate to these narratives given
their own experiences or those of relatives and friends, and because of
the current prominence of the immigration issue. Tensions between
native-bom and immigrants swirl uncomfortably around us today, as
they have historically, and they are present in any school as well. When
approached with sensitivity and engaging short readings, the study of
Mexican American immigration history offers a golden opportunity to
educate all our students about an important contemporary issue.
The topic of immigration from Mexico overlaps with internal migration by native-born Mexican Americans, The pattern of leaving
school early in spring and registering late in fall because of migrant
farm work is a well-known aspect ofthe Mexican American experience,
but it is something we usually hear about only in a negative light—in
talking about Mexican American poverty, family instability, and educational underachievement. What about the many stories of triumph that
arise from that same setting.' It is important for students to leam about
the harsh realities of oppression Mexican American have faced, but it
is also important that they hear other equally real stories of success.
In practically any Mexican American community today, there are men
and women who have left behind the migrant stream or other forms
of poverty and built very successful and enviable lives. Teachers should
invite some of those everyday heroes into their classrooms to share
their experiences, or assign students to conduct oral history interviews
in their own communities.
Students can also explore the migrant world through a number
of published accounts suitable for them. One engrossing story is the
highly acclaimed short novel (published in bilingual format), y no se
lo trago la tierra/And ihe Earth Did Not Part {1971), by Tomas Rivera.
More recently, Elva Trevino Hart has poignantly revealed some ofthe
struggles of migrant women through her highly accessible autobiography. Barefoot Heart (1999), As for instructors' readings, historian Sarah
Deutsch significantly enriched our understanding of how gender has
functioned in Mexican American migration and cultural preservation.
OAH Magazine of History • November 200$ 19
Teachers can use her book. No Separate Refuge (1987), to dispel some
phies of Cesar Chavez, the memoirs of Jose Angel Gutierrez and Reies
of the stereotypes about gender roles in Mexican American culture
Lopez Tijerina, the collected speeches of Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales,
and to leam about women's adaptive roles that were crucial in sustainand case studies about different activist organizations and the youth
ing a "regional community" based on labor migration in New Mexico
movement. These are books viritten by people who were intimately inand southern Colorado, Lastly, teachers who want to learn more about
volved in the fight for Chicano civil rights. They give us unique, firstwomen in Mexican American history should look to the work of Vicki
hand perspectives into a critical era in Mexican American history {5).
Ruiz, who has done more than any other historian to promote the study
Luckily, many veterans of these civil rights campaigns live and work
of Mexican American women's struggles for equality (4),
among us; they may be the next-door neighbor, a local doctor, social
Those struggles have a long history, of course, but they burst onto
worker, or lawyer, even the teacher or principal down the hall. And, they
the scene most dramatically and successfully in the 1960s and T970S
are often glad to share their experiences with students in classroom
during the Chicano movement, and are captured in a very useful book
presentations or through interviews. In addition, there are good visual
of short documents by Alma M. Garcia, Chicana Feminist Thought: The
and other materials teachers may use. Nothing captures the attention of
Basic Historical Writings {1997). The Ghicano movement is another
today's students as well as a good video. Particularly effective for learnmajor theme secondary teachers should emphasize. Today, too many
ing and teaching about the Chicano movement is the four-part public
high school graduates have a very limited understanding ofthe U.S.
television series. Chicano! History ofthe Mexican American Civil Rights
civil rights era, associating it narrowly with Martin Luther King Jr. and
Movement (1996). This landmark documentary covers the themes of
the black freedom struggle,
land, labor, educational rerather than with the many
form, and political empowindividuals and groups that
erment and never fails to
also fought for equality in
rivet students' attention and
the sixties and seventies,
ignite discussion. There are
sometimes alongside Afriother good films made durcan
Americans—women,
ing the movement years or
gays. Native Americans,
shortly after, including / am
Asians, and of course ChiJoaquin (1969) and Chicano
canas and Ghicanos, This
Park (1988). Although these
is not meant to detract from
may be more difficult to find,
African American history, to
they are worth searching for
rank the importance of any
in university and large pubpeople's history, or to point
lic libraries. Lastly—with
the finger of blame in any
regard to visual materials—
way. It is simply a reminder
teachers, students, and proof our collective responsibilfessional researchers alike
ity to keep Dr. King's dream
will find a gold mine in the
alive by consciously striving
seventy-seven
videotaped
to leam more about each
interviews conducted by
other. Teachers can play a
Chicano activist-professor
powerful role in this by helpJose Angel Gutierrez and
ing today's young people disreposited at the Special Colcover the larger, more inclulections Department of the
sive meaning of civil rights
Library of the University of
history and its connections
Texas at Arlington. This colNot all Mexican Americans lived the lives ofthe peasantry. Posing for the photographer, this
to their own lives.
lection, Tejano Voices, is fully
Mexican American family demonstrates their middle-class status by their dress. Stories of
Mexican-American successes, as well as incidents of oppression, are effective and important
transcribed and digitized
Far-fetched? Idealistic.^
for easy online access. ReI don't think so. When stu- teaching devices, (Image courtesy ofthe Arizona Historical Society.)
searchers can read the trandents learn that Mexican
scripts
or
listen
to
the
actual
voices
of
these
Mexican American men
Americans have suffered and triumphed and done great and not-soand women as they recount their struggles for civil rights (6).
great things—just like other people—they begin to see them in a different, more positive light. In talks I have given about Mexican American
Clearly, there are other important themes in Mexican American
history to high school students over the years, two ofthe most consishistory I could highlight; these three—land loss, migration, and the
tent reactions I have gotten from non-Latinos (and even sometimes
Chicano movement—are ones I have found students really respond
from Mexican Americans) go something like this: "Oh. I didn't know
to and would seem central to understanding the history of Mexican
they'd had it that bad!" And, "Wow. she was pretty brave; that was cool,
Americans, What is most important is not so much the particular topthe way she stood up!" In a time of increasing uneasiness between
ics teachers choose to include but how they are handled. We know that
African Americans and Latinos, it is our responsibility to find common
students' perceptions about a teacher's fairness and sincerity greatly
ground in our shared history.
affect their openness to learning. Dealing with some ofthe themes sugAgain, teachers can enhance their knowledge and teaching of asgested here, especially through discussion sessions, requires ground
pects of Mexican American civil rights history by tapping into the inrules, as well as a genuinely open and respectful atmosphere. Teachcreasing number of published sources related to the Ghicano moveers should expect emotions to surface—not only anger from Mexican
ment. In recent years several books have appeared about some ofthe
American students who confront disturbing information for the first
major figures and organizations of the movement, including biogratime, but also defensiveness or hostility from non-Mexican Americans.
20 OAH Magazine of History * November 200s
especially whites, for whom these kinds
of discussions may trigger a sense of guilt
or isolation. Both kinds of responses are
normal and should be handled openly and
with appropriate sensitivity so that all students can grow intellectually and emotionally.
What I have called for here is not simply to teach particular aspects of Mexican
American history and integrate them into
the history of the American West. I am
challenging teachers to leave their comfort zones in order to really awaken students to the relevance of history now and
in their future. It is a tall order and easier
said than done, I know. But it is also a
golden opportunity for teachers to make
a real difference. G
Endnotes
1. Alex M, Saragoza, "The Significance of Recent
Chicano-Related Historical Writing: An
Appraisal," Ethnic Affairs i (Fall 1987): 24-62,
2. George J, Sanchez, "Race, Nation, and Culture
in Recent Immigration Studies," JoMma/ of
Fr, Antonio Gonzales, Rev, )ames Novarro, and labor organizer Eugene Nelson lead the Minimum Wage March
American Ethnic History 18 (Summer 1999):
staged by striking Texas farm workers in ig66, an event that initiated the Chicano civil rights movement in Texas.
66-84.
(Image courtesy of the Mexican-American Farm Workers Movement Collection, Special Coliections, The Univer3. See also Paul Schuster Tayior. An Americansity of Texas at Arlington Libraries, Arlington, Texas,)
Mexican Frontier. Nueces County. Texas
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1934).
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003,
4. For example, see Vicki Ruiz, From Out ofthe Shadows: Mexican Women in
Meier, Matt S. and Felidano Rivera, Dictionary of Mexican American History.
Twentieth-Century America (New York; Oxford University Press, 1998),
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981.
5. For starters, see lgnacio M. Garcia, Chicanismo: The Forging of a Militant Ethos
Montejano, David. Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1S36-19S6.
Among Mexican Americans (Tucson; University of Arizona Press, 1997);
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987.
F. Arturo Rosales. Chicano'.: History ofthe Mexican American Civil Rights
Rivera, Tomas, Y no se lo trago ia tierra/And the Earth did not Part. Berkeley, CA:
Movement (Houston: Arie Publico Press, 1997); Carlos Munoz |r.. Youth,
Editorial |usta Publications, 1977.
Identity, Power: The Chicano Movement (London: Verso, 1989); [ose Angel
Rosales, F. Arturo, Chicano,': The History ofthe Mexican American Civil Rights
Gutierrez, The Making of a Chicano Militant: LessonsfromCristal (Madison;
Movement. Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1996.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1998); and Rodolfo "Corky" Conzales,
Sanchez, George ], Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity. Culture, and Identity
Message to Aztldn: Selected Writings of Rodolfo "Corky" Conzates (Houston:
in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Arte Publico Press, 2001).
Vargas, Zaragosa, ed. Major Problems in Mexican American History: Documents
6. The Tejano Voices collection is accessible at <http;//libraries,uta,edu/
and Essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Co., 1999.
teianovoices>.
Weber, David J.,ed. Eoreignersin Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican
References and Resources
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A native tejano, Roberto Trevino worked in the Houston Independent School
Martin, Patricia Preciado. Songs My Mother Sang to Me: An Oral History of
Mexican American Women. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992.
District as a high school history teacher and a coordinator in the Migrant
Matovina, Timothy, and Gerald F, Poyo, eds. Presente!: U.S. Latino Catholicsfrom
Education Program. Having received his Ph.D. in United States history
Colonial Origins to the Present. MaryknoU, NY: Orbis, 2000.
from Stanford, he is currently Associate Professor of History and assistant
Meier, Matt S, Encyclopedia of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement.
director ofthe Center for Mexican American Studies at the University of
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.
Texas at Arlington.
Meier, Matt S, and Margo Gutierrez. The Mexican American Experience: An Encydopedia.
OAH Magazine of History • November 2005 21