DUTY%OF%CARE%
%
In%general,%everyone%owes%a%duty%of%care%not%to%act%in%a%way%that%will%create%an%unreasonable%risk%of%harm%to%others.%USE%THIS%FOR%MOST%
INSTANCES%OF%POTENTIAL%NEG.%Otherwise,%people%do%not%have%a%duty%to%act%affirmatively%to%prevent%the%harm%to%others%except%if%1)%D%
created%the%risk;%2)%D%has%a%special%relationships%w/someone%(can%extend%to%protecting%vs.%third%parties).%%
%
0. No#Duty#to#Rescue/Did#D#Have#a#Duty#to#Affirmatively#Act#to#Prevent#Harm#to#P?%
b. Ask,%does%D%have%a%duty%to%take%affirmative%steps%to%aid%P?%
%.
In#general,#D#has#no#duty#affirmatively#act#to#aid#others.#Buch#v.#Amory#Manufacturing#Co.:%P#(child)#trespasses#
onto#D's#mill.#D#tells#P#to#leave#but#P#doesn't#understand#English#+#stays.#D#doesn't#force#him#to#leave#even#
though#machinery#is#obvious#danger#to#P.#P#has#hand#crushed#in#machine.#D#not#liable#b/c#no#duty#to#make#P#
leave.%
c.
Ask,%is%D%a%doctor%or%professional?%
%.
Doctor#has#no#duty#to#treat#patients.%Hurley#v.#Eddingfield:#D#(P's#family#doctor)#not#liable#when#D#sent#for#P#+#
told#him#he#was#very#ill#+#offered#fee.#W/o#any#reason#D#refused#to#treat#him#+#P#died.%
%.
Policy:#Bill#says#1)#AngloNSaxons#value#freedom,#including#freedom#of#contract;#2)#Doctor’s#
professional#oath#doesn’t#require#him#to#help#everyone;#3)#Lincense#is#meant#to#ensure#standards#
not#force#someone#to#practice.%
1. Counterargument:#P#had#a#detrimental#reliance#on#D#as#family#doctor#+#maybe#only#
available#doctor.#No#equal#bargaining#power.#%
d. Ask,%did%D%encourage%P%to%do%the%act%that%lead%to%the%harm?%%
%.
If#D#not#legally#responsible#for#putting#P#in#dangerous#situation,#D#has#no#duty#to#aid#P.#Yania#v.#Bigan:%P#(strip#
mine#owner)#urges#D#(strip#mine#owner)#to#jump#into#D's#cut#+#D#is#harmed.#D#not#liable#for#watching#P#drown#
b/c#D#not#neg.#to#talk#an#adult#into#doing#something#dangerous.%
%.
Note:#Teacher#says#that#taunting#someone#does#not#impose#a#duty#to#rescue.#Only#have#a#duty#to#
rescue#if#take#advantage#of#someone#w/weak#mental#faculties.#Yania#v.#Bigan%
e. Did%D%voluntarily%begin%helping%P?%
%.
One#who,#being#under#no#duty#to#do#so,#takes#charge#of#P#who#is#helpless#adequately#to#aid#or#protect#himself#
is#subject#to#liability#to#the#other#for#any#bodily#harm#caused#by#%
%.
Failure#of#D#to#use#reasonable#care#to#secure#safety#of#P#while#within#actor's#charge#OR#%
i.
D's#discontinuing#aid#or#protection#if#by#so#doing#he#leaves#P#in#a#worse#position#than#when#D#took#
charge#of#him.%Second#Restatement#Section#324.%
1. Policy:#Want#to#discourage#inept#Good#Samaritan#who#starts#to#rescue#D#+#then#
abandons#them#from#preventing#a#real#Good#Samaritan#from#helping#them.%
2. Note:#Bill#says#this#can#extend#to#not#just#helping#individual#but#to#neutralizing#a#
dangerous#situation#(like#in#Montgomery#where#D#established#a#duty#when#he#put#down#
flashers#+#flares#but#failed#to#completely#neutralize#the#danger).#%
f.
Did%D%create%the%danger%to%P?#
#.
When#D's#prior#conduct,#even#if#not#tortious,#creates#a#continuing#risk#of#physical#harm#of#type#characteristic#of#
conduct,#D#has#duty#to#exercise#reasonable#care#to#prevent#or#minimize#the#harm.%Third#Restatement#Section#
39.#
#.
Application:%D%who%creates%a%risk%has%a%duty%to%take%reasonable%steps%to%minimize%the%harm.#
Montgomery#v.#National#Convoy#&#Trucking#Co.:#D's#trucks#stalled#w/o#neg.#on#icy#highway#+#
blocked#it.#P#ran#into#D's#trucks.#D#liable#b/c#could#have#prevented#the#accident.#D#put#flares#+#
markers#in#back#of#truck#to#warn#off#others,#which#shows#recognized#duty#but#did#not#put#flare#at#
top#of#hill#where#P#could#have#seen#the#flares#+#stopped#in#time.#
1.
Note:#Teacher#says#a#narrow#reading#of#case#would#only#find#that#there#is#a#implied#
contract#on#the#highway#b/c#of#bilateral#risk#where#all#drivers#have#implicit#agreed#to#put#
up#flares#on#highway.#
2.
Application:%Drivers%must%provide%"reasonable%assistance"%to%other%persons%involved%in%
an%accident%+%to%exchange%information,%names%+%registration%to%facilitate%subsequent%
resolution%of%any%future%litigation.#California#Vehicle#Code.#
1.
Limited#Modern#Good#Samaritan#Doctrine#
b. In#general,#Good#Samaritan#Doctrine#doesn’t#impose#an#affirmative#duty#on#D#but#rather#is#a#limited#liability#shield#that#
protects#D#who#provides#emergency#care#assistance#from#being#liable#except#for#gross#neg#or#willful#+#wanton#acts.##
c.
Liability#Shield#Approach#
#.
D#who#is#ordinarily#neg.#who#rescues#someone#in#good#faith#will#not#be#liable.#Gross#neg#is#when#D#is#so#
extremely#unreasonable#and#careless#that#D’s#behavior#goes#beyond#mere#neg.#Kan.#Stat.#Ann:#Health#care#
providers#who#provide#emergency#care#or#assistance#in#good#faith#at#scene#of#the#accident#will#not#be#liable#
except#for#gross#neg.#or#willful#+#wanton#acts.#
d. Limited#Imposition#of#Duty#Approach#
i.
c.
Ask,%what%duty%of%care%does%D%owe%to%P%based%on%status?#
#.
Invitees:#D#(owner)#has#duty#to#take#reasonable#care#to#ensure#that#the#premises#are#safe.#
1.
For%slip%and%fall%cases,%D%has%a%duty%to%invitee%P%to%seek%out%+%correct%spills%in%reasonable%
time%after%occurrence.#Peterson#v.#WalNMart#(2001)*:#Court#lets#jury#decide#if#10#minutes#
is#too#long#to#not#clean#up#spilled#fluids#in#busy#store#of#D#when#employees#don't#know#
spill#is#the#store.#
i.
Licensee:##D#has#no#duty#to#ensure#that#the#premises#are#reasonably#safe#but#does#have#a#duty#to#
warn#P#of#traps#(spring#gun,#attractive#nuisance)#+#concealed#dangers#that#D#either#knows#about#or#
has#reason#to#know#about.#
1.
Note:#For#licensee#P,#D#(licensor)#has#no#duty#to#inspect#for#shortNlived#phenomena#
(example:#spilled#fluids).#
ii.
Trespasser:#D#only#has#duty#to#do#no#wrong#to#trespassers.#D#can't#carry#out#a#willful#act#
(intentional#tort)#vs.#trespassing#P#or#use#unnecessary#force#to#eject#trespasser#but#have#no#duty#to#
prevent#P#from#harm.%Buch#v.#Amory.%
1. No%additional%duty%applies%if%trespasser%is%a%child.%Buch#v.#Amory#Manufacturing#Co.:#
Court#compares#how#there#is#no#duty#to#harm#adult#trespasser#about#hidden#dangers#on#
land,#child#also#can't#understand#obvious#dangers.#But#no#greater#duty#to#warn#child#of#
obvious#dangers#than#to#warn#adult#of#hidden#dangers.%
ii.
Ask,%does%D%have%an%attractive%nuisance%on%his%land?%#
1.
Modern#Attractive#Nuisance#Doctrine:#D#is#liable#for#physical#harm#to#infant#trespasser#from#
artificial#conditions#on#his#land#if#1)#Conditions#exists#for#which#D#knows#or#has#reason#to#know#kids#
are#likely#to#trespass;#2)#condition#involves#unreasonable#risk#of#death#or#SBH#to#child;#3)#Child#b/c#
of#age#would#not#realize#condition#or#risks#associated#w/it;#4)#Utility#to#D#of#maintaining#the#
condition#+#burden#to#D#to#eliminate#the#danger#is#slight#compared#to#the#risk;##5)#D#fails#to#exercise#
reasonable#care#to#eliminate#the#danger#or#otherwise#to#protect#the#children.%Second#Restatement#
339.#
2.
Ask,%was%this%an%artificial%condition?#
1.
Most#courts#say#this#only#applies#to#artificial#condition#(something#created#+#made#by#D)#
+#not#natural#conditions.#Franich#v.#Great#Northern#Ry.#(1958)**:#Attractive#nuisance#
includes#railway#turntables#but#not#rivers,#creek,#ponds,#wagons,#plows,#woodpiles.##
2.
Some#courts#say#P#can#recover#under#attractive#nuisance#doctrine#if#P#is#attracted#to#land#
by#natural#source#but#harmed#by#artificial#nuisance.#Maalouf#v.#Swiss#Confederation#
(2002)*:#P#(12#year#old)#recovers#when#goes#sledding#on#D's#hill#+#hit#by#guy#wire#that#
was#used#to#prop#up#nearby#tree.#Nuisance#was#placed#on#hill#by#D#but#natural#condition#
of#hill#was#what#attracted#child.#
3.
Alternative#view:#Some#courts#reject#attractive#nuisance#rule#as#being#potentially#too#broad.#Twist#
v.#Winona#&#St.#Petter#R.#R.#(1888):#Court#questions#attractive#nuisance#b/c#no#limit#to#objects#that#
can#be#made#attractive#playthings#by#youthful#ingenuity.##
4.
Policy:#attempt#to#mitigate#the#harshness#of#old#categories.#
Modern#Rule#for#the#Duty#an#Owner#Owes#to#a#Visitor#
#.
Approach#One:#No#distinction#btw#I/L/T.#Instead,#D#(owner)#has#duty#in#management#of#his#property#to#act#as#
reasonable#man#in#view#of#the#probability#of#injury#to#others.#Rowland#v.#Christian:%D#liable#when#invited#P#to#
house#+#P#harmed#when#using#bathroom#+#handle#on#water#faucet#broke.##
#.
Bill%says%that%Rowland%Test%is%if%owner%of%land%1)%Was%aware%of%concealed%danger%(or%should%have%
been%aware);%2)%took%no%precautions;%3)%danger%presented%an%unreasonable%risk;%4)%Knew%P%would%
come%into%contact%w/danger,%then%failure%to%warn%P%of%warn%or%to%repair%is%neg.#This#is#like#ordinary#
care/RP#standard.#
i.
Might#still#consider#P's#status#as#trespasser,#licensee#or#invitee#as#it#relates#to#foreseeability#or#
burden#of#protecting#them.#Think#about#if#underlying#reason#for#the#distinction#is#valid#in#that#
context.%Example:%Maybe#D#not#liable#for#not#putting#up#fence#to#stop#them#if#too#expensive.#But#
maybe#D#liable#for#no#warning#business#guest#for#danger#b/c#D#knows#they#are#knowing#but#not#
warning#to#trespasser#b/c#not#foreseeable#that#they#are#coming.##
1.
Policy:##1)#Teacher#says#this#is#about#adopting#a#standard%which#is#more#flexible#although#
more#costly#to#administer.#Rule%(like#old#categories)#are#more#rigid#but#easer#to#apply;#2)#
In#modern#times#not#dealing#w/acres#+#acres#of#land#so#easier#to#control#the#land;#3)#Old#
categories#made#more#sense#in#the#feudal#area.##
2.
Policy:#Rowland#court#instead#says#to#consider:#1)#closeness#of#connection#btw#injury#+#
D's#conduct;#2)#moral#blame#attached#to#D's#conduct;#3)#policy#of#preventing#future#
harm;#4)#availability#of#insurance#don't#have#relationship#to#CL#rules.#
i.
Approach#Two:#Some#courts#have#abolished#I/L#distinction,#but#kept#limited#duty#to#trespassers.#
ii.
Approach#Three:#Some#courts#still#follow#old#I/L/T#distinction.#
iii.
Recreational#Land#Statutes#
#.
Statutes#function#as#an#exception#for#the#land#owner’s#general#duty#of#care#to#limit#liability#for#
nonpaying,#uninvited#recreational#users#to#that#owed#to#trespasser#under#CL.%California#"premises#
guest#statute".#
1.
4.
Note:#Teacher#says#even#under#Rowland#rule#D#probably#wouldn't#have#a#duty#b/c#it#is#
not#foreseeable#that#recreational#user#would#be#harmed#on#land.##
i.
Other#statutes#also#limit#liability#even#for#invited#recreational#uses#of#land#where#D#owns#no#duty#to#
"keep#premises#safe#for#entry#or#use#by#others#for#sport#+#recreational#activities#or#to#give#warning#
of#any#hazardous#condition#of#the#land.”%N.J.#State#Ann.#(see#full#text#pg#604):#
1.
Policy:#The#term#"sport#+#recreational#activities"#should#be#"liberally#
construed"#to#encourage#owners#to#let#people#use#land.#
Does#D#Have#a#Duty#to#Act#Affirmatively#to#Prevent#a#Third#Party#From#Causing#Harm#to#P?#
b. General#Rule:#D#has#no#duty#to#control#the#conduct#of#a#third#person#unless#there#is#1)#a#special#relationship#btw#D#+#third#
person#OR#2)#there#is#a#special#relation#btw#D#+#other#person.%Second#Restatement#315.#
c.
Ask,%did%D%create%a%risk%or%harm%to%P%or%merely%fail%to%intervene%to%prevent%the%harm?#
%.
D#has#a#duty#to#prevent#harm#when#does#something#would#be#foreseeably#lead#to#unreasonable#risk#of#harm#
to#P#by#inviting#other#people#to#be#dangerous.#This#is#malfeasance#not#nonfeasance.#Weirum#v.#RKO#General#
Inc.#(1975):#D#(disk#jockey)#liable#when#made#a#contest#where#people#drove#around#trying#to#find#+#first#one#
got#prizes.#Two#teenage#drivers#got#in#race#to#be#first#to#meet#him#+#killed#P.#Here,#court#sees#difference#btw#if#
someone#was#harmed#in#normal#course#of#business#(like#at#a#department#store#sale#where#"haste#involved#in#
purchase#of#the#commodity#is#an#incidental#+#unavoidable#result#of#scarcity#of#commodity#itself”)#+#contest#
which#creates#"competitive#scramble"#on#the#public#streets.%
%.
Policy:#Way#mitigate#this#is#that#WalNMart#gives#out#numbers#to#people#waiting#in#line#so#that#they#
don't#all#rush#for#items#+#this#makes#whole#situation#less#dangerous.#%
d.
Ask,%is%D%the%landlord%of%tenant%P?%
%.
There#is#a#special#relationship#btw#the#landlord#+#the#tenant#that#imposes#duty#on#D#to#take#reasonable#
measures#to#minimize#the#risk#to#his#tenants#from#harm#by#thirdNparty.%Kline#v.#1500#Massachusetts#Avenue#
Apartment#Corp.:#P#(tenant)#was#injured#when#she#was#assaulted#+#robbed#in#common#hallway#of#D's#
apartment#building.#When#P#harmed,#no#doorman,#no#employees#in#lobby#+#entrance#unlocked.#D#had#notice#
about#increasing#number#of#robberies#(another#tenant#attacked#2#months#before)#+#P#had#asked#D#to#secure#
the#apartment,#so#D#liable.%
%.
Bill%says%rule%is%if%1)%LL%has%notice%of%repeated%crimes;%2)%crimes%occurred%in%area%under%LL’s%exclusive%
control;%3)%LL%has%reason%to%expect%more%crimes;%4)%LL%is%in%a%uniquely%advantageous%position%to%
guard%vs.%the%risk%of%harm%vs.%third%party,%then%LL%has%duty%of%care.%
1. Policy:#It#is#allocatively%efficient%+#landlord#is#CCC%to#take#precautions#for#benefit#of#all#the#tenants.#
Also#avoids#the#freeholder%issue#of#tenants#taking#advantage#of#other#tenant's#protection#measures.#
Landlord#is#also#best#way#to#spread%the%lost%b/c#can#pass##the#costs#along#to#the#tenants.#%
1. Counterargument:#P#was#month#to#month#tenant#+#knew#about#the#dangers#+#reduced#
safety.#P#could#move#away#if#she#wanted#to.#MACKINNON,#Dissenting.%
#
BREACH%OF%DUTY%
Did%D%breach%his%duty%of%care%to%P?%
ORDINARY%PRUDENT%PERSON%STANDARD%
1. ORDINARY%PRUDENT%PERSON%STANDARD:%The%D%is%negligent%if%he%does%not%follow%the%general%standard%of%care%that%an%average%
person%of%ordinary%prudence%would%follow%in%the%same%or%similar%circumstances.%In%general,%the%standard%is%objective%and%usually%
does%not%make%allowances%for%particular%characteristics%of%D.%
2. Does%D%have%special%features%that%effect%how%we%should%judge%the%reasonable%person%standard?%
3. Is%D%stupid?#
a. No%individualization%for%D’s%specific%mental%attributes%(intelligence,%carelessness,%so%on).%Vaughan#v.#Menlove:##D#(idiot#
farm)#liable#(neg)#when#places#hay#rick#in#place#it#is#likely#to#catch#fire#despite#warnings#+#fire#burns#P’s#property.##
i. Policy:##It#would#be#too#much#variation#to#different#standards#for#different#ppl.#Also,#social#welfare#depends#on#
having#stupid#person#come#up#to#level#of#certain#average#of#conduct.#
4. Is%D%a%child?#
a. Ask,%how%old%is%D?#
i. If%D%is%under%5,%in%most%courts%D%is%incapable%of%neg.%RTT:%LPH%§10#
ii. For%other%children,%a%child%is%not%held%to%adult%standard.%A%child%is%held%to%the%standard%of%a%reasonably%
careful%person%of%the%same%age,%intelligence,%and%experience.#Roberts#v.#Ring.,#RTT:%LPH%§10#
b. Is%D%being%charged%w/neg.%or%contributory%neg?%
i. Minority%view%is%that%standard%of%care%for%children%is%reasonable%adult%standard%for%neg.%+%reasonable%child%
standard%for%contributor%neg.#Roberts#v.#Ring.#%
1. Majority%view%is%symmetrical%rule%for%contributory%neg.%+%neg.%%
c.
Is%D%doing%an%activity%that%is%normally%done%by%adults?#
i.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
In%about%half%of%courts,%minors%who%engage%in%potentially%dangerous%activities%normally%reserved%for%adults%
are%held%to%an%adult%standard%of%care.#Daniel#v.#Evans:#D#(19#year#old)#held#to#adult#standard#for#motorcycle#
accident.#[pg#183].##
1.
Note:#Teacher#says#about#half#of#jurisdictions#+#RTS#follow#this.#What#is#an#adult#activity#depends#on#
region#+#context.#
2.
Note:#Bill#says#licensing#is#a#strong#indicator#that#the#activity#falls#under#this#umbrella.#
d. Is%D%doing%a%dangerous%activity?#
i. In%other%courts,%minor%D%is%held%to%adult%standard%of%care%in%any%dangerous%activity%whether%or%not%it%is%adult.#
Robinson#v.#Lindsay*:#Snowmobiling#is#dangerous#even#if#kids#do#it,#so#minor#held#to#adult#standard.##
Is%D%insane?%
a.
Majority%rule:%Insanity%not%considered%in%determining%RP’s%standard.#Third#Restatement:#An#actor's#mental#or#emotional#
disability#is#not#considered#in#determining#whether#conduct#is#neg.#unless#actor#is#a#child.#Some#courts#follow#this,#some#
don't.%
i. Exception:%If%D%has%unforeseeable%mental/physical%incapacity%where%the%insanity%affects%D’s%ability%to%
understand%or%appreciate%the%duty%of%care%the%rests%on%her,%D%is%not%neg.%Breunig#v.#American#Family#
Insurance#Co:#Crazy#D#+#flying#car.#The#risk#of#D’s#episode#was#foreseeable,#so#no#insanity#defense.%%
a.
Note:#Teacher#says#if#D#has#sudden#incapacity#(could#be#delusion#or#physical#thing#like#a#
heart#attack)#w/o#warning,#then#not#D.#Ask,%what%would%a%RP%do,%knowing%about%this%
risk?#
b.
Minority%rule:%Insanity%is%considered%similarly%to%physical%disability.%%
Is%D%disabled%physically?%
a.
D%w/physical%disabilities%is%held%to%the%standard%of%what%is%reasonable%for%"person%similarly%afflicted."%%Fletcher#v.#City#of#
Aberdeen:#P#(blind)#falls#in#construction#hole#+#D#(city)#liable#b/c#breached#duty#toward#him#by#not#using#a#degree#of#
protection#that#would#have#put#a#blind#person#on#notice#of#danger.##
b. What%standard%of%care%is%expected?#
i. "Conduct%of%actor%w/physical%disability%is%neg.%only%if%it%does%not%conform%to%that%of%a%reasonably%careful%
person%w/same%disability.”#RST:#LPH#§11(a).#
c.
Was%the%physical%disability%foreseeable?#
i. Courts%consider%if%disability%has%struck%beforehand%or%could%reasonably%have%been%foreseen%If%it%is%not%
reasonable%foreseeable,%physically%disabled%D%is%probably%not%liable.%Hammontree#v.#Jenner:##D#not#liable#
when#epileptic#car#accident#b/c#D#had#history#of#epilepsy#but#no#episodes#in#12#yr#so#accident#no#foreseeable.##
ii. Policy:#If#didn’t#individualize#standard#for#people#w/disabilities,#would#be#SL#(like#for#old#people).#We#don’t#
want#to#prevent#people#w/disabilities#from#engaging#in#reasonable#activity.##
Is%D%intoxicated?%
a.
Normally,%voluntarily%intoxicated%person%is%held%to%standard%of%the%reasonable%sober%person.%Robinson#v.#Pioche:#D#(city)#
liable#when#drunk#P#falls#into#hole#in#street.#Court#considers#that#in#a#public#area#ordinary#prudent#person#would#take#into#
account#that#possibility#that#drunk#people#might#walk#though,#so#some#precautions#are#necessary.##
i. Exception:%If%unforeseeable%emergency%forces%intoxicated%person%to%act%or%if%person%did%not%decide%to%drink%
on%his%own,%drunk%P%not%held%to%standard%of%sober%RP.%%
ii. Policy:#Drinking#is#voluntary,#so#no#extra#protection#is#needed#for#those#who#choose#to#indulge#in#it.#%
1.
Counterargument:#Alcoholism#not#voluntary.%
iii. Would%voluntarily%intoxicated%P%be%considered%contributory%neg?%
1.
Voluntarily%intoxicated%P%may%be%contributory%neg.%However,%D%as%a%reasonable%person%should%
take%into%account%the%possibility%that%he%may%have%to%interact%w/intoxicated%person%so%some%
precautions%may%be%necessary.#Robinson#v.#Pioche.%
Is%D%rich?%
a.
RP%standard%does%not%vary%by%wealth%+%there%is%no%special%standard%of%care%for%rich%D.#Denver#+#Rio#G#R.R.#v.#Peterson:##
Rich#warehouseman.%
i. Policy:#Does#policy#allow#rich#D#to#get#away#w/more#since#they#can#afford#to#pay#damages#+#hence#tacitly#
approves#unreasonable#behavior?#Or#should#allow#lower#standard#for#improvised#people#who#can’t#really#be#
sued?%
Is%D%old?%
a.
No%individualization%for%old%age/infirmities%except%as%it%relates%to%whether%D%should%do%conduct%at%all.%Roberts#v.#Ring:#
Old#P#liable#when#driving#poorly#+#hits#P#(child).#%
i. Policy:#This#makes#sort#of#SL#for#old#people.#Could#instead#ask#what#person#w/D’s#physical#attributes#would#
have#done#in#the#situation.#As#rule#stands,#maybe#hindering#elderly#from#engaging#in#what#may#be#reasonable#
behavior.##
CALCULUS%OF%RISK%
1. CALCULUS%OF%RISK:%%One%way%to%show%that%D%breached%his%duty%of%care%is%if%the%calculus%of%risk%demonstrates%that%a%reasonable%
person%would%not%have%acted%as%the%defendant%did.%In%general,%this%standard%can%help%determine%whether%society%would%be%better%
off%if%everyone%acted%in%way%that%D%acted.%
2. Evolution%of%the%Calculus%of%Risk%Based%on%Social%Welfare%
a.
Ask,%would%a%RP%have%foreseen%the%harm?%%
i.
Old%Rule%is%that%D%must%guard%against%all%risks%that%are%even%remotely%foreseeable.%Bolton#v.#Stone#(first#court#
opinion):#Questions#if#D#(cricket#court)#would#have#foreseen#that#P#would#be#hit#by#ball.%
b. Ask,%was%the%risk%substantially%serious%+%likely%to%occur?%
i.
Modern%Standard:%is%that%D%must%only%guard%against%risks%that%are%serious%and%likely%to%occur.%Stone#v.#Bolton#
(second#court#opinion):#Note#that#court#considers#seriousness#of#harm#+#how#likely#it#is#P#would#be#hit.#%
3. Hand%Formula/Economic%Efficiency%Standard%
a.
Ask,%is%it%in%the%best%interests%of%society%to%have%D%take%different,%better%precautions?#
i.
The%Hand%Formula%(B<PL)%can%indicate%if%D%acted%unreasonably.%Under%the%Hand%formula,%if%the%burden%of%
taking%precautions%is%lower%than%the%probability%of%the%accident%happening%multiplied%by%the%seriousness%of%
the%loss,%than%D%has%breached%the%duty%of%care.%United#States#v.#Carroll#Towing#Co.:%Barge#accident.#Neg.#to#
not#have#bargee#b/c#low#burden#of#cost#vs.#high#probability#of#accident#during#working#hours#+#high#damages;#
Eckert#v.#Long#Island#R.R.:%No#neg.#to#run#onto#tracks#to#save#child's#life#b/c#of#calculus#of#risk#under#Terry#says#
human#life#is#worth#the#risk.%
1. Burden%of%taking%precautions%
2. Probability%of%the%accident%happening%
3. Seriousness%of%the%loss%
4.
Note:#Basic#idea#is#that#if#costs#of#avoiding#injury#are#less#than#the#costs#should#the#injury#happen,#
you#are#neg.#for#not#taking#precaution.%%
5.
Policy:%We#don't#want#to#prevent#all#accidents,#only#those#where#"net#cost#of#taking#precaution#is#
less#than#the#cost#of#the#accident.%
4. Times%When%D%did%not%breach%of%care%under%Calculus%of%Risk%
a.
Ask,%did%D%create%a%reasonable%risk?%
i.
Liability%is%not%automatic%even%if%harm%occurs,%but%is%based%on%whether%D%was%neg.%based%on%balancing%of%
social%interests.#Osborne#v.#Montgomery:#D#drives#car#+#P#(bike#rider#runs#into#it)#but#D#not#neg.#so#not#liable.#%
1. Policy:#Injuries#are#an#inescapable#result#of#living#in#society#+#D#can#impose#risks#on#others#when#
doing#activities#but#not#necessarily#liable#unless#neg.#Car#driver#might#have#acted#reasonably#given#
the#circumstances.%
b. Was%the%probability%of%the%accident%occurring%really%low?%
i.
Calculus%of%risk%only%requires%that%D%take%reasonable%measures%against%foreseeable%problems.%Blyth#v.#
Birmingham#Water#Works:%D#waterworks#not#liable#when#doesn't#account#for#unseasonable#frost#+#P’s#water#
mains#burst#b/c#D#acted#reasonably#given#the#circumstances.%
c.
Ask,%did%D%disregard%a%small%risk%in%order%to%guard%against%a%larger%one?#
i.
A%D%who%fails%to%guard%against%a%small%risk%in%order%to%guard%against%a%larger%one%is%not%neg%because%D%
minimized%the%overall%sum%of%the%relevant%risks.#Cooley#v.#Public#Service#Co.:%P#talking#on#telephone#+#D#
(power#company)'s#power#lines#hanging#over#telephone#lines#+#fall#during#storm,#which#makes#sound#found#in#
telephone#+#scares#P.#D#not#neg.#b/c#couldn't#fix#risk#w/o#increasing#danger#to#ppl.#Walking#on#street#from#
electrocution.#%
1. Policy:#We#might#care#about#the#activity#level#of#D#b/c#increasing#the#activity#level#will#increase##the#
number#of#accidents#even#at#the#same#level#of#care.%
d. Ask,%was%burden%of%taking%precautions%really%low?%
i.
D%who%fails%to%take%small%precaution%to%prevent%danger%breaches%duty%of%care.#Andrews#v.#United#Airlines:%D#
(airline)#could#be#liable#for#briefcase#falling#on#D's#head#b/c#didn’t#take#netting#precaution.%
1. Note:%This#cases#is#unique#to#b/c#as#common#carrier#airline#as#“utmost#duty#of#care.”#%
2. Policy:#This#natural#monopoly#so#we#have#an#higher#standard#of#care#as#an#offset.%
e. Ask,%is%D%a%common%carrier?%
i.
D%has%an%utmost%duty%of%care%but%is%not%an%insurer%of%P.%Given%the%heightened%duty%of%care,%even%a%small%risk%
of%serious%injury%to%passengers%may%form%the%basis%of%liability%if%that%risk%could%be%eliminated%consistent%with%
the%character%and%mode%and%practical%operations%of%the%business.%Andrews%v.%United%Airlines.%%
f.
Policy%Considerations/Issues%w/Hand%Formula#
i.
Incommensurability%of%factors:#Difficulty#of#assigning#value#to#the#different#factors#makes#judging#them#
difficult.%
CUSTOM%
%
1. Custom%is%another%tool%that%that%can%be%used%to%evaluates%whether%D%acted%reasonably.%There%is%a%divergence%about%to%what%
extent%custom%can%establish%the%standard%of%care%with%which%D%must%comply.%
a.
Note:#Custom#is#a#potential#way#to#reduce#the#uncertainty#of#figuring#out#what#reasonable#care#b/c#custom#provides#a#
standard#of#care.#
2. Ask,#did#D#fail#to#adhere#to#industry#custom#+#can#custom#establish#the#duty#of#care#in#this#situation?#
3. Ask,%did%D%follow%industry%custom?%
a. Old#Rule:#Custom#Establishes#Duty#of#Care:#Reasonably%safe%means%whatever%the%"usages,%habits%+%ordinary%risks"%of%
the%industry%is%+%there%will%be%no%independent%nominative%inquiry%into%the%reasonableness%of%this.%Titus#v.#Bradford,#B.#&#
K.#R.#Co.:#D#(railroad)#not#liable#when#P#(brakeman)#dies#during#standard#but#dangerous#industry#practice#of#tying#trains#to#
rail.#
i. Policy:#Absolute#safety#is#unattainable#+#some#jobs#are#just#more#risky#than#others.%
1. Counterargument:#Ppl#don't#have#get#choice#about#where#to#work.%
b. Majority#Rule:#Custom#Is#Evidence#of#Breach#of#Duty#But#Not#Conclusive#Evidence:#The%D’s%confirmation%to%the%custom%is%
evidence%that%D%was%not%negligent%but%does%not%preclude%a%finding%of%negligence.%A%custom%itself%may%be%negligent.%TJ#
Hooper/#RTT:LPH#§#13(a)N(h).%
i. Did%D%fail%to%follow%industry%custom?%
1. D’s%failure%to%confirm%to%the%custom%is%evidence%that%D%was%negligent%but%is%not%conclusive.%D%may%
be%able%to%question%the%intelligence%of%the%custom,%show%that%his%operation%has%diff.%or%less%
serious%risks%or%uses%an%alternative%method.%RTT:LPH#§#13(a)N(b).%
ii. Local%usage%+%general%custom%are%“merely%foxholes”%battlefield%of%law%which%provides%shelter%but%not%
complete%protection%for%D%vs.%charges%of%neg.#Bimberg#v.#Northern#Pacific#Ry.#(1944)*:#Court#allows#wrongful#
death#action#for#trestle#design.#Court#notes#that#years#of#successful#railroad#operation#can#be#evidence#of#due#
care#but#won’t#establish#that#something#is#safe#if#it#is#dangerous.#%
c.
Custom#is#Not#Considered#in#Establishing#Duty#of#Care:#If%something%is%extremely%careless%+%obviously%neg.,%custom%is%
not%relevant%at%all%for%the%standard%of%care.%Mayhew#v.#Sullivan#Mining#Co.%Not#allow#inquiry#into#custom#when#D#(miner)#
puts#hole#in#mine#w/o#guard#rail#or#warning.#
i. Policy:%#Want#to#prevent#easily#preventable#accidents.#
4. Application%of%Custom/General%Issues%to%Consider#
a.
Ask,%did%D%follow%custom%but%was%custom%obvious%neg%according%to%B<PL?%
i. If%D%complies%with%a%custom%which%is%itself%negligent%under%the%Hand%formula,%then%D’s%adherence%to%custom%
will%not%preclude%a%finding%that%D%is%negligent.%"A%whole%calling%may%have%unduly%lagged%in%adoption%of%new%+%
available%devices"%so%court%must%decide%what%is%required%+%will%not%be%bound%by%industry%custom.%TJ#Hooper:%
D#(towing#company)#liable#when#loses#cargo#b/c#don't#have#radio#to#hear#about#storm#despite#lack#of#custom#
about#this.%
1. Note:#As#technology#becomes#more#widely#available#+#cheaper,#it#can#become#neg.#not#to#have#it#
under#B<PL.%
ii. Policy:#This#decision#might#have#a#kind#of#technology%forcing%result#by#encouraging#companies#to#change#so#
avoid#liability#for#being#neg.%
b. Is%D%a%common%carrier?#
i. Common%carriers%have%an%enhanced%duty%of%care%and%are%required%to%do%all%that%human%care,%vigilance%and%
foresight%can%reasonably%do%under%the%circumstances%consistent%w/the%mode%of%travel%+%operations.%
Andrews#v.#United#States:##This#means#that#common#carriers#have#to#take#actions#to#protect#passengers#
against#unreasonable#risk#of#physical#harm#+#give#first#aid.#
c.
Is%D%a%business%that%could%its%internal%rules?%#
i. D's%internal%rules%can%set%the%standard%of%neg.#Lucy#Webb#Hayes#National#Training#School#v.#Perotti#(1969)*:#P#
admitted#to#psychiatric#hospital#+#jumps#through#window.#D#fell#below#own#standard#by#letting#patient#wander#
from#closed#to#open#ward.#Court#says#could#"reasonably#conclude#that"#D's#failure#to#observe#its#own#
standards#was#neg.#
5. Custom%Policy%Discussion%
i.
Benefits:#It#is#predictable%for#companies#to#know#whether#being#neg.#+#also#it#is#administrable#for#legal#system#b/c#
would#give#rule#that#is#easier#to#determine.##
ii.
Drawbacks:%But#issue#is#industry#is#left#to#selfbregulate#+#might#lag.#Also#unilateral%risks%where#someone#is#imposing#
risks#on#you#+#you#don't#know#about#it#until#the#accident#takes#place.##
6. Medical%Custom:%Malpractice/Is%D%a%doctor?%
a.
General%rule%is%that%we%deter%to%custom%in%the%medical%profession%in%order%to%establish%the%standard%of%care%that%the%
doctor%must%meet%in%order%to%avoid%breaching%his%duty%of%care%to%the%patient.%A%doctor%must%use%that%degree%of%skill%+%
learning%which%is%normally%possessed%+%used%by%doctors%in%good%standing%in%a%similar%practice%in%similar%communities%+%
under%similar%circumstances.%Lama#v.#Borras:%
i. Note:#A#doctor#who#does#a#mode#or#form#of#treatment#which#a#reasonable#+#prudent#member#of#medical#
profession#would#undertake#under#same#or#similar#circumstances”#is#not#neg#for#harm#that#happens#to#P.#
b. Ask,%how%can%P%show%that%D%breached%his%duty%of%care?#
i. To%establish%medical%malpractice%P%must%show%that%D%failed%to%follow%the%basic%norms%of%medical%care%in%his%
treatment%of%P%and%that%this%failure%caused%P’s%injury.#Lama#v.#Borras:#P#(patient)#goes#to#D#(neurosurgeon)#for#
herniated#disc.#Before#surgery,#D#does#not#require#P#to#have#absolute#bed#rest#or#"conservative#treatment."#D#