Gender Past Question
Gender concepts
Gender
1. Outline what is meant by the term gender. (2 marks) (Jan 07)
AO1 Two marks for an appropriate definition of the term.
Possible answer: Gender refers to the social role/cultural attributes (AO1, 1) associated with masculinity and femininity (AO1, 1).
2. Explain the difference between sex and gender. (3 marks) June 08
AO1 One mark for knowledge of each term.
Possible answer: Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females (AO1, 1). Gender refers to the social/cultural
attributes associated with the two sexes (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for an appropriate difference.
Possible answer: Although gender can change, sex does not (AO2, 1).
Up to 3 marks may be credited for candidates who provide valid differences.
3. Distinguish between the terms sex and gender. (3 marks) June 04
AO1 One mark for identification of each term. For example, sex refers to the biological differences between males and females (AO1,
1). Gender refers to the social role/cultural attributes associated with the two sexes (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for distinction between the terms. For example, where gender can change, sex does not (AO2, 1).
Alternatively credit candidates who provide three valid distinction points.
Androgyny
4. Explain what is meant by androgyny. In your answer, give an example of how a person might show androgynous behaviour. (3 marks) Jan 04
& Jan 07 & Jan 06
AO1 One mark for brief recognition of the term. AO2 One mark for explanation of the term plus one mark for an appropriate example.
Example: Androgyny is a term used to describe an individual who possesses traits regarded as both typically masculine and feminine
(AO1, 1). They have no problem in accepting their sexual identity but accept masculine and feminine traits that form their personality
(AO2, 1) for example, a female may be affectionate and caring as a mother, but also forceful and ambitious within her work-role (AO2,
1).
AO1 One mark for definition of the term.
Possible answer: Androgyny is used to describe an individual who possesses traits/attitudes/ behaviours regarded as both typically
masculine and feminine.
AO2 Two marks for an appropriate example.
For example: a woman may be aggressive in her work-role (AO2, 1) but sympathetic as a mother (AO2, 1).
AO1 One mark for definition of the term but brief or slightly muddled account.
Two marks for definition and elaboration of the term.
Androgyny is used to describe an individual who possesses a balance of masculine and feminine traits/attitudes/behaviours.
AO2 One mark for any relevant example, eg a man may be forceful within his work-role, but also empathic and caring as a father
(AO2, 1).
Gender role / Stereotypes
9 (i) State what is meant by a sex-role stereotype. (1 mark) June 06
AO1 One mark for correct identification of the term, eg a belief about what is considered appropriate and typical behaviour for males
and females.
9 (ii) Briefly describe how the birthday card above (Figure 2) might influence a five-year-old girl’s understanding of gender roles. (2 marks)June
06
AO1 Two marks for an appropriate description, eg a girl of five years may identify with the female stereotype in the card (AO1, 1) and
believe that this is how she/other females should behave as a girl (AO1, 1).
Credit references to male stereotypes who do not behave in this way.
10. Outline what is meant by the term sex-role stereotype. (2 marks) Jan 04
AO1 Two marks for recognition of the term.
Example: A sex-role stereotype is a belief about what is typical and appropriate behaviour for males and females (AO1, 1). This forms
an over-simplified expectation of behaviour from members of that group (AO1, 1).
Credit outline that may be implicit in relevant example.
11. Using an example, outline what is meant by a sex-role stereotype. (3 marks) June 07
AO1 Two marks for recognition of the term.
Possible answer: A sex-role stereotype is a belief/attitude/view (AO1, 1) about what is typical and appropriate behaviour for males or
females (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example.
For example, the role of a male is to work and provide for his family (AO2, 1).
12. In preparation for a careers interview, a class of students were asked to provide at least one trait that would characterise their personality.
Persons A, B and C described themselves as .forceful., .sympathetic. and .intelligent. respectively.
In your answer book, identify which trait is stereotypically
(i) masculine;
(ii) feminine. (2 marks) June 04
AO2 Two marks for each trait correctly identified.
(i) forceful
(ii) sympathetic.
13. Give one example of a sex-role stereotype associated with
(i) men;
(ii) women. (2 marks) Jan 03
AO2 One mark each for a stereotype about men and women. Accept any plausible example. The importance is that each statement
demonstrates a stereotype rather than a statement of fact.
Examples: Men better at driving (than women), more aggressive, good at DIY
Females are caring, good with children, cannot read maps.
14. Using an example, state what is meant by the term sex role. (2 marks) (Jan 08)
AO1 One mark for the correct identification of the term.
Possible answer: Sex role refers to a part which males and females might expect to play in a given situation (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example.
Possible answer: An example of a male sex role is head of the family (AO2, 1).
15. Jason received a model train set for his fifth birthday.
His sister, Lisa, said, “When I grow up, I want to be a train driver.”
Jason replied, “No, you can’t. Girls don’t drive trains.”
Explain what is meant by a sex-role stereotype. Refer to Jason and Lisa’s conversation in your answer. (4 marks) (Jan 05)
AO1 Two marks for recognition of the term, eg a sex-role stereotype is a belief about what is considered typical behaviour for a male
or female. It is an oversimplified, general attitude of how males and females are expected to behave.
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates aspects of the term identified.
The application to the stimulus material should be detailed to gain two marks. For example,
Jason has observed only boys playing/driving trains and therefore sees this form of behaviour as appropriate for boys and not girls.
What is meant by the term gender role? Give an example. (2 marks) Jan 09
AO1 One mark for correct definition of the term.
Possible answer: A part which a man or woman might expect to play in a given situation (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example, eg the role of the male is to go to work and provide financial security for his family.
Amelia was watching a medical drama on television. It showed a female nurse saving a patient’s life. Amelia said to her mummy, “I am a girl.
When I grow up, I want to be a nurse like the lady on the television.”
Outline what is meant by the term gender role. Refer to the example of Amelia. (2 marks) (Jan 06)
AO1 One mark each for correct definition of the terms.
Possible answer: Role refers to a part which a person might expect to play in a given situation (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the term. Role refers to Amelia stating to her mummy that she
would like to be a nurse/lady on the television when she grows up (AO2, 1).
Cross cultural research
Using an example, outline what is meant by cross-cultural research in relation to gender. (3 marks) June 03
AO1 One mark for brief or slightly inaccurate description. Two marks for accurate and detailed description which must relate to gender.
Example: Cross-cultural research is a method of investigation where two or more cultures are investigated for the purpose of
comparison to consider the universality of gender roles.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example which could be a reference to a specific study such as Mead (1935) or Williams and Best
(1990), or any two cultures.
Identify and briefly describe one reason for conducting cross-cultural research. (3 marks) (Jan 06)
AO1 One mark for identification of a relevant reason.
Two marks for description of the reason but brief or slightly muddled account.
Three marks for clear identification and elaboration of the reason.
Possible answer: Cross-cultural research is useful for investigating the nature/nurture debate (AO1, 1). If behaviour is found to be
similar across different cultures, then these characteristics must be genetically determined (AO1, 1). However, if behaviour is found to
be different, then characteristics are suggested to be due to the environment (AO1, 1).
Explain how the study of cultural diversity helps psychologists understand gender roles/ stereotypes. (3 marks) June 05
AO1 One mark for basic outline. Two marks for outline with brief and/or muddled reference to gender. Three marks for outline with
appropriate reference to gender.
Possible answer: Cultural diversity refers to the difference in values, beliefs and behaviours which exist between groups or
communities of different ethnicity (AO1, 1).
Different groups within society may hold norms and values which differ according to their perception of gender appropriate behaviour
and social roles (AO1, 1). Therefore, cultural diversity may help psychologists to understand the differences in gender roles/behaviours
by comparing males and females in different societies/cultures (AO1, 1).
Credit answers which refer to the role of cultural diversity in relation to nature/nurture.
Outline one strength and one limitation of using cross-cultural research to investigate gender differences. (4 marks) (Jan 05)
AO1 Two marks for an outline of the strength identified.
Two marks for an outline of the limitation identified.
Strength: The importance of discovering innate, universal behaviours (AO1, 1).
If behaviour is found to be similar across different cultures, then these characteristics must be genetically determined (AO1, 1).
Limitation: Researchers may misinterpret an action during their observations (AO1, 1).
This may be due to the researchers. own cultural biases which produce expectations and therefore alter what is .observed. (AO1, 1).
Briefly discuss one strength of using cross-cultural research to study gender. (3 marks) Jan 09
AO1 One mark for identification of a strength.
One further mark for elaboration of the strength.
Likely answers: importance of discovering innate, universal gender behaviours; comparison to Western culture allows for a greater
understanding of cultural diversity, etc.
AO2 One mark for analysis and evaluation. This may be in the form of justification, illustration or counter-criticism.
With reference to the study of gender, briefly explain one ethical issue that might arise when conducting cross-cultural research. (2 marks) Jan
08
AO1 One mark for identification of a plausible ethical issue in relation to cross-cultural research.
AO2 One mark for explanation of the issue in relation to gender/cross-cultural research.
Likely answers: invasion of privacy, eg Mead; cultural bias, eg ethnocentrism on part of researcher/researcher uses own values in
interpreting gender differences.
Nature nurture
5. Explain the difference between nature and nurture in relation to gender. (3 marks) June 03
AO1 Correct identification of the terms nature and nurture, nature relating to innate factors, nurture relating to environmental factors.
AO2 Correct application of the terms to gender, explaining whether gender differences between men and women, such as sex roles,
are the product of biological rather than social or cultural factors.
6. In relation to gender, describe what is meant by nature and nurture. (4 marks) (Jan 08)
AO1 Two marks each for correct description of the terms in relation to gender.
Possible answer: Nature refers to the belief that gender differences in behaviour are innate (AO1, 1) and determined by genetic and
biological factors (AO1, 1). Nurture refers to the idea that gender differences are learned (AO1, 1) and a result of social learning and
cultural factors, i.e. the environment (AO1, 1).
Credit candidates who provide a good description of one term (up to three marks). Credit evidence of candidates’ knowledge of the
debate. Maximum 2 marks if no reference to gender.
7. Billy is having a conversation with his sister, Sadie. Billy says that he is much better than her at playing football because he is a boy. Sadie
disagrees. She says, .It.s nothing to do with you being a boy. It.s because you go to football training every Saturday morning..
State what is meant by nature and nurture in relation to gender. Refer to Billy and Sadie.s conversation in your answer. (4 marks) June 06
AO1 One mark each for correct identification of the terms in relation to gender. For example, nature refers to the belief that gender
differences in behaviour are determined by genetic and hormonal factors (AO1, 1). Nurture refers to the idea that gender differences
are a result of social and cultural factors, ie the environment (AO1, 1).
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates aspects of the terms identified.
The application to the stimulus material should be detailed to gain two marks. For example, Billy thinks he is good at football because
of nature . he is a boy. However, Sadie thinks Billy is good at football because he goes to football training every Saturday morning .
nurture.
8. Hayley and Charlotte were discussing their friend Joe, who is very good at mending cars. Hayley commented, “I think boys are naturally good
at that sort of thing.” State what is meant by nature and nurture in relation to gender. Refer to the example of Joe in your answer. (4 marks) June
05
AO1 One mark each for correct identification of the terms in relation to gender.
Possible answer: Nature refers to the belief that gender differences in behaviour are determined by hormonal and genetic factors
(AO1, 1). Nurture refers to the idea that gender differences are a result of social and cultural factors – the environment (AO1, 1).
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates aspects of the terms identified.
The application to the stimulus material should be detailed to gain two marks. For example, Hayley thinks Joe is very good at mending
cars as a result of nature – he is a boy/male. However, Joe may have acquired his ability to mend cars as a result of nurture – the
acquisition of the skill.
‘Nature’ can be credited in terms of inheritance as well as the biological fact of Joe being a male.
Mix
A primary school teacher asked her pupils to write a short story about themselves and what they wanted to do in the future.
One girl wrote, “My name is Tanya and I am a girl. I like to help my mummy with the cooking. When I grow up I am going to have two children
and stay at home and cook meals for them.”
Outline what is meant by the terms identity and role. With reference to the girl’s story, give an example of gender identity and a gender role. (4
marks) June 03
AO1 One mark for each correct outline of the terms. Role refers to a part which a person might expect to play. Identity refers to the
sense someone has of what kind of person he/she is.
AO2 Correct application of stimulus to the terms. Gender identity is reference to Tanya being a girl. Role is reference to that of carer or
reference to domestic role (cooking).
Hassan is four years old. His nursery teacher has noticed that he likes to play with building blocks and construction toys. When Hassan was
asked by his nursery teacher what he would like to be when he grows up, Hassan replies, “I want to be a builder ’cos
I’m a big, strong boy.”
Outline what is meant by the terms gender identity and gender role. Refer to the comments made by Hassan in your answer. (4 marks) June 07
AO1 One mark each for correct identification of the terms.
Possible answer: Gender identity refers to the sense that males and females have of whether they are masculine or feminine/they can
label their own sex (AO1, 1). Gender role refers to a part which males and females might expect to play in a given situation (AO1, 1).
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the terms.
Gender identity refers to Hassan stating that he is a boy (AO2, 1). Gender role refers to Hassan stating that he wants to be a builder
(AO2, 1).
Below are three definitions often used in the study of gender:
A the sense that someone has of either being male or being female;
B attachment to a male or female model who possesses qualities seen as rewarding;
C a part which a man or woman might expect to play in a given situation.
In your answer book, write down which definition (A, B or C) refers to
(i) gender role;
(ii) gender identity.
Label your answers clearly. (2 marks) June 08
(i) C
(ii) A
Amelia was watching a medical drama on television. It showed a female nurse saving a patient’s life. Amelia said to her mummy, “I am a girl.
When I grow up, I want to be a nurse like the lady on the television.”
Outline what is meant by the terms gender role and gender identity. For each term, refer to the example of Amelia. (4 marks) Jan 06
AO1 One mark each for correct definition of the terms.
Possible answer: Role refers to a part which a person might expect to play in a given situation (AO1, 1).
Identity refers to the sense that someone has of what kind of person they are (AO1, 1).
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates the terms. Role refers to
Amelia stating to her mummy that she would like to be a nurse/lady on the television when she grows up (AO2, 1). Identity refers to
Amelia stating that she is a girl (AO2, 1).
Gender explanations
Biological
Chromosome patterns
Give the typical sex chromosome pattern for the following:
• a male;
• a female. (2 marks) June 05
AO1 One mark each for the correct typical chromosome pattern.
A male – XY
A female – XX
Give one typical sex chromosome pattern. (1 mark) June 07
AO1 One mark for a correct typical sex chromosome pattern.
Likely answers: XY (Male)
XX (Female)
Give one atypical sex chromosome pattern. (1 mark) June 05
One mark for correct atypical sex chromosome pattern.
Possible answer: XXY – Klinefelter’s syndrome (male)
XO – Turner’s syndrome (female)
Identify one atypical sex chromosome pattern and describe the effect that it may have on an individual. (3 marks)Jan 04 & Jan 05
AO1 One mark for correct identification of atypical sex chromosome pattern. Accept name of condition. Two marks for appropriate
description of the effect on behaviour.
Examples: XO [Turner’s syndrome] (AO1, 1). Girls tend to display higher than average verbal ability (AO1, 1) but lower than average
mathematical skills, spatial ability and visual memory (AO1, 1).
Credit may also be given for a description of physical characteristics such as lack of maturation at puberty, webbing of the neck. Social
characteristics such as poor peer relationships, difficulty in social readjustments at school, may also be credited.
Example: XXY (Klinefelter.s syndrome) (AO1, 1). The syndrome may result in poor language skills (AO1, 1). Boys who suffer from this
syndrome may show a passive temperament (AO1, 1). Physical examples include, less body hair, under-developed genitals.
Give two symptoms of Turner’s syndrome. (2 marks) Jan 09
AO2 One mark for each appropriate symptom.
Likely answers: webbed neck; shield chest; short in stature; no ovaries; lack maturation at puberty; higher than average verbal skills;
lower than average spatial ability, etc.
Victoria is five years old and she is different from other girls of her age. She is smaller in height and has a webbed neck. At school, her teachers
have commented that she has good verbal skills but her mathematical skills are poor. Medical tests have revealed that Victoria has a sex
chromosome pattern XO.
(i) Name the atypical sex chromosome syndrome described above. (1 mark)
AO1 One mark for the correct identification of the syndrome.

Turner.s syndrome.
(ii) Identify how Victoria.s sex chromosome pattern differs from that of most girls. (1 mark)
AO1 One mark for the correct identification of the typical sex chromosome pattern for girls, eg most girls have a sex chromosome
pattern XX.
(iii) Explain how studying people like Victoria can contribute to our understanding of gender. (2 marks)
AO2 Two marks for an appropriate explanation.
Possible answer:
By studying people with atypical sex chromosomes and comparing their development with that of people with typical sex
chromosomes (AO2, 1), psychologists are able to make inferences as to what aspects of gender behaviour are genetic (AO2, 1).
Jamie is a four-year-old boy. Unlike his older brother, he has always been very passive and his language development is very slow. His mother
was concerned about his poor speech and took him to the doctor. After a number of tests she has been told that Jamie has an atypical pattern
on the 23rd chromosome pair – XXY.
State how Jamie’s chromosome pattern differs from that of most boys, and explain why psychologists who study gender might be interested in
children like Jamie. (5 marks) June 03
AO1 Recognition of typical chromosome pattern for males as XY.
AO2 One mark for reference to the fact that Jamie has an extra X chromosome. Three marks for the explanation of why psychologists
are interested in this type of research. The explanation should refer to the fact that by studying the development and behaviour of
people with atypical chromosomes (1) and by comparing their development with that of people with typical chromosome patterns (1)
they are able to make inferences as to what aspects of gender behaviour are innate. (1)
Some candidates may speculate that the child has Klinefelter’s syndrome. If the explanation refers to the way in which people with this
syndrome have demonstrated the role of genetic factors in the development of gender this should be credited. However no credit can
be given for description of Klinefelter’s syndrome.
Hormones
(i) Give one effect that testosterone might have on a person’s behaviour. (1 mark) June 08 & Jan 07
AO1 One mark for an appropriate effect.
Likely answers: increased aggression; increased sexual drive; masculinity.
(ii) Give one effect that oestrogen might have on a person’s behaviour. (1 mark)
AO1 One mark for an appropriate effect.
Likely answers: pre-menstrual tension (PMT); mood swings; irritability; crying.
Name one sex hormone and give an example of how this hormone might affect a person.s behaviour. (2 marks) June 06
AO1 One mark for correct identification of a sex hormone, eg testosterone; oestrogen.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example of the effect of this hormone on male or female behaviour.
Possible answers:
Testosterone (AO1, 1). The effect of this hormone may be in terms of increased aggression (AO2, 1).
Oestrogen (AO1, 1). The effect of this hormone may give rise to pre-menstrual tension (PMT) (AO2, 1).
Name one sex hormone and outline the effects that it might have on behaviour. (3 marks) June 04
AO1 One mark for correct identification of a sex hormone. Two marks for describing the
effect of this hormone on male or female behaviour.
Example: Testosterone (AO1, 1). The effect of this hormone may be in terms of increased aggression (AO1, 1) and dominance in
terms of sexual orientation (AO1, 1).
Oestrogen (AO1, 1). The effect of this hormone may give rise to premenstrual tension (PMT) (AO1, 1) which may cause
females to display anti-social behaviours, eg crime (AO1, 1).
Credit may also be given for reference to non-human behaviour.
SLT
A number of students have a disagreement about which of the three definitions
below can be applied to the terms modelling and reinforcement:
sire to be like another person or to be part of a particular social group;
In your answer book, write down the definition which illustrates each of the following:
(i) modelling;
(ii) reinforcement. (2 marks) (Jan 06)
(i) A procedure whereby a person observes another person and then attempts to imitate his or her behaviour.
(ii) The process by which a response is strengthened.
What do social learning theorists mean by the term identification? (2 marks) Jan 03
AO1 One mark for brief or slightly inaccurate definition. Two marks if definition is detailed and accurate.
Example: Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on observed behaviours, values, beliefs and
attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
What do social learning theorists mean by the term modelling? (2 marks) June 03
AO1 One mark for brief or slightly inaccurate answer. Two marks for accurate description.
Example: Modelling refers to behaviour which is observed (1), and, having been observed, can be repeated and imitated (1).
Distinguish between the terms imitation and identification. (3 marks) June 05
AO1 One mark each for the correct identification of the terms.
Possible answer: Imitation refers to copying behaviour (AO1, 1). Identification refers to taking on the behaviour of a role model (AO1, 1).
AO2 One mark for the distinction between these terms.
Possible answer: Imitation usually refers to a single behaviour whereas identification is more permanent and applies to a whole range of
behaviours (AO2, 1).
Credit answers which refer to an appropriate example.
Describe one study in which the social learning theory of gender was investigated.
Indicate in your answer why the study was conducted, the method used, results obtained and conclusion drawn. (5 marks) June 07
AO1 Any appropriate study in which the social learning theory of gender was investigated, eg
Smith and Lloyd (1978); Fagot (1985); Janis and Janis (1976); Langlois and Downs
(1980); Bandura (1965).
Note: Candidates may receive a maximum of two marks for general description of
Bandura’s study, ie no application to gender.
One mark – why the study was conducted (must go beyond the stem).
One mark – information about the method.
One mark – identification of the results.
One mark – indication of the conclusion drawn.
One mark – additional descriptive detail, eg descriptive results (or credit evaluative point
as long as it provides additional descriptive information).
Jack, who is 5 years old, was watching his favourite cartoon on the television. The cartoon was about a boy who was rewarded for
helping his father with jobs, including washing the car. After the cartoon had ended, Jack immediately went to his father and said,
.Daddy, can we wash the car, please?.
With reference to the social learning approach, explain the effect of the cartoon on Jack.s behaviour. (4 marks) June 04
AO1 Two marks for reference to aspects of the social learning approach, eg modelling (observation/imitation), observation,
identification, vicarious conditioning associated with gender, environmental influence . media.
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates the aspects identified. The application should be detailed to gain
two marks. For example, Jack has identified with the boy in the cartoon who he perceives as his role model. Jack sees this behaviour
as gender appropriate and leads him to want to reproduce the behaviour observed.
Holly is six years old. One Saturday she goes to play with her friend Sally, at Sally’s house. Holly notices how Sally helps her mother with the
cooking. When she does, Sally’s mother praises her. When Holly returns home, she helps her mother with the cooking.
Referring to features of social learning theory, explain why Holly helps her mother with the cooking. (4 marks) Jan 09
AO1 Candidates may choose to answer with general reference to social learning theory, eg observation; modelling; identification;
imitation etc, or with specific reference to vicarious reinforcement.
AO2 Up to two marks for reference to the stimulus material which illustrates social learning theory. For example,
Observation – Holly notices how Sally helps her mother with the cooking and is praised for it.
Modelling – Holly sees Sally’s mother as a role model
Imitation – Holly copies Sally’s behaviour by helping her mother with the cooking.
Vicarious reinforcement – Holly learns that if she helps her mother with the cooking, then she too will be rewarded.
Katie and Ayisha are 6 years old. They are both playing with their toy kitchen. Peter, who is also 6 years old, asks the girls if he can join in. Katie
and Ayisha refuse, saying, “Only mummies do cooking.”
How would social learning theorists explain the girls’ refusal to let Peter join in? (4 marks) Jan 04
AO1 Two marks for reference to aspects of social learning theory, eg observation, imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious
reinforcement of attributes and attitudes associated with gender, behaviour is due to environment influences.
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates the aspects identified.
The application to the stimulus material should be detailed to gain two marks.
For example, Katie and Ayisha have observed only girls playing with a toy kitchen and therefore see this form of play as appropriate
for girls and not boys.
Outline one criticism of social learning theory explanations of gender development. (2 marks) June 08
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate criticism. One further mark for elaboration of the criticism identified.
Likely answers: does not explain all individual differences; does not account for differences which exist between children of the same
sex who have been raised in the same household; does not take account of genetic influences unlike the biological approach.
Cognitive
Kohlberg proposed three stages of gender development.
Read the following statements.
A A child understands that someone stays the same biological sex even though he/she may change in appearance.
B A child understands that people stay the same sex throughout life.
C A child understands that people can change sex by changing their appearance.
D A child is able to label his/her own sex correctly.
In your answer book, write down which statement (A, B, C or D) is a correct definition of the following:
(i) gender identity;
(ii) gender stability;
(iii) gender constancy.
Label your answers clearly. (3 marks) June 07
AO2 (i) A child is able to label his/her own sex correctly. (D)
(ii) A child understands that people stay the same sex throughout life. (B)
(iii) A child understands that someone stays the same biological sex even though he/she may change in appearance. (A)
Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of gender development.
State what Kohlberg meant by gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy.
For each stage, give an example of how a child might show or explain his/her understanding of gender. Label your answers clearly. (6 marks)
June 08
AO1 One mark for correct definition of each term. Likely answers:
Gender Identity – a child is able to label his/her own sex correctly and to identify other people as boys or girls.
Gender Stability – a child understands that he/she stays the same sex throughout life.
Gender Constancy – a child understands that someone stays the same biological sex even though he/she may appear to change by
wearing different clothes, for example.
AO2 One mark for an appropriate example of each term. Possible answers:
Gender Identity – “My name is Rashid and I am a boy.”
Gender Stability – “My name is Katy and when I grow up, I am going to be a mummy.”
Gender Constancy – “Even though my brother has long hair, I know that he is still a boy.”
Credit any appropriate alternative answers.
Sarah, who is two years old, was playing dressing-up games with her older sister Mary. Mary put on a pair of trousers. Sarah said, “We’re both
girls, so you can’t wear those because it will make you into a boy.” Mary, who is six years old, replied, “No it won’t. You can’t change into a boy
just like that.”
With reference to Kohlberg’s stages of gender development, explain what the comments made by Sarah and Mary suggest about their
understanding of gender. (4 marks) June 05
AO1 One mark each for correct outline of each stage of development.
Gender identity – a child is able to label his/her own sex correctly and to identify other people as boys or girls.
Gender constancy – a child understands that someone stays the same biological sex even though s/he may appear to change by
wearing different clothes, for example.
AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus material that illustrates the stages identified. The application to the stimulus material
should be detailed to gain two marks. For example, Sarah is at the stage of gender identity. She is able to label her own and others
sex correctly.
She has not yet developed gender stability due to her understanding that gender can change.
Mary is at the stage of gender constancy. She recognises that gender stays the same despite superficial changes such as putting on a
pair of trousers.
Identify and describe one feature of Kohlberg’s theory of development of gender concept. (3 marks)
AO1 One mark for correct identification of a feature and 2 marks for description.
One mark for brief or slightly inaccurate description.
Two marks if accurate and with detail.
Examples: Features could include specific stages, eg identity, stability, constancy.
Alternatively candidates may refer to the idea of stages or gender schema theory.
Identity – refers to a child’s knowledge (understanding) that they are male or female and are able to label other people as either male
or female.
Stability – refers to a knowledge (understanding) that they are not only male or female but that they will always be the same sex.
Constancy – refers to the understanding (knowledge) that a child has that their identity will remain stable over time and that external
appearances do not cause a change in gender. (Credit reference to Piaget’s ideas of conservation)
A group of seven children aged between four and five years are playing together. Four of the children are boys. Three of the boys begin to play
with a train set. Three girls are pretending to be nurses and ask the fourth boy to join them as their patient. He agrees to do this.
The group of three boys calls out to the boy who is with the girls, “You’re a boy and they’re girls. If you play with them, that makes you a girl!” The
boy who is the ‘patient’ replies, “I’m a boy and always will be. You don’t change into a girl just like that.”
With reference to each of Kohlberg’s three stages of gender development, explain what the comments made by these boys might suggest about
their understanding of their gender. (6 marks) Jan 03
AO1 Correct identification of the three phases of Kohlberg’s theory: gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy.
AO2 Each stage recognised in AO1 will be correctly linked to the stimulus provided.
Identity – these boys know they are male/own sex.
Stability – “patient boy” knows he will remain male.
Constancy – being/acting/appearing/looking like a girl does not make you a girl.
Or a definition of gender constancy.
Below are statements made by three children.
In your answer book, write down the statement which illustrates the concept of
(i) gender identity;
(ii) gender stability. (2 marks) (Jan 05)
(i) .My name is Kate and I am a girl..
(ii) .My name is Valerie. When I grow up, I am going to be a mummy..
Describe what psychologists mean by the term gender constancy. Use an example to illustrate your answer. (3 marks) Jan 04
AO1 One mark for correct description of the term gender constancy. One mark for relating the given example to gender constancy.
AO2 One mark for appropriate example.
Example: Gender constancy refers to the understanding that someone stays the same biological sex (AO1, 1) despite changes in
appearance (AO1, 1). For example, a child understands that although a girl who has short hair and wears trousers may look like a boy,
she is really still a girl (AO2, 1).
Philip is seven years old and is going to a fancy dress party. He is wearing a dress. Philip’s little brother, Sydney, says, “Look, mummy! Philip’s a
girl now!” Philip replies, “I am still a boy, even if I am wearing a dress.”
(i) With reference to Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory, identify the stage of gender development shown by Sydney. In your answer,
refer to comments made by Sydney. (2 marks) Jan 07
AO1 One mark for correct identification of the stage of gender development.
Accept reference to gender stability.
AO2 One mark for reference to the stimulus material that explains the stage identified.
(ii) With reference to Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory, identify the stage of gender development shown by Philip. In your answer, refer
to comments made by Philip. (2 marks) Jan 07
AO1 One mark for correct identification of the stage of gender development.
AO2 One mark for reference to the stimulus material that explains the stage identified.
Describe one study in which the cognitive developmental theory of gender was investigated.
Indicate in your answer why the study was conducted, the method used, the results obtained and the conclusion drawn. (5 marks) Jan 06
AO1 Any appropriate study in which the cognitive developmental theory of gender development was
investigated, eg Damon (1977), Thomson (1975), Martin and Halverson (1983).
One mark – why the study was conducted (must go beyond the stem)
One mark – information about the method
One mark – identification of the results
One mark – indication of the conclusion drawn
One mark – additional descriptive detail, eg detailed methodology (or credit evaluative point as
long as it provides additional descriptive information).
Describe one study in which the development of gender identity was investigated. Indicate in your answer why the study was conducted, the
method used, the results obtained, and the conclusion drawn. (5 marks) Jan 05
AO1 Any appropriate study in which the development of gender identity was investigated, eg
Damon (1977), Martin and Halverson (1983), Thomson (1975).
One mark . why the study was conducted
One mark . information about the method
One mark . identification of the results
One mark . indication of the conclusion drawn
One mark . additional descriptive detail, eg detailed results.
Psychodynamic
Describe Freud’s theory of gender development. (4 marks) Jan 09
AO1 Four marks for correct description including four of the following features: phallic stage in boys and girls; sexual attraction to
opposite-sex parent; unconscious conflict and resolution; Oedipus conflict; castration anxiety; electra complex; penis envy; penis baby
project; identification, etc.
Briefly describe Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex. (3 marks) Jan 06
AO1 One mark for identification of a correct feature.
Two marks for identification of correct feature(s) but brief description.
Three marks for accurate description including three of the following features: theory usually applied to boys; boys are at the Phallic
stage; sexual attraction to opposite sex parent; castration anxiety; unconscious conflict and resolution; identification, etc.
Briefly describe Freud.s explanation of the Electra complex. (3 marks) June 04
AO1 Three marks for correct description including three of the following features: phallic stage in girls, penis envy, castration, penis
baby, unconscious conflict and resolution, role of parents, identification.
Outline one limitation of Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex. (2 marks) (Jan 07)
AO1 One mark for identification of an appropriate limitation.
Two marks for identification of an appropriate limitation with clear elaboration.
Likely answers: little empirical evidence; complex arose from Freud’s own self-analysis; Freud explained Little Hans’ behaviour in
terms of an already-existing theory; idea of infantile sexuality at 4 – 5 years of age is questionable; implications of absent father figure;
comparison with Chodorow – gender identity is a response to the mother, not the father.
Outline one criticism of the psychoanalytic explanation of gender development. (2 marks) Jan 03
AO1 One mark for brief identification of a criticism or slightly inaccurate expansion of a criticism. Two marks if criticism is appropriately
and accurately outlined.
Criticisms might include, for example, lack of falsifiability, limited evidence, evidence based upon techniques not recognised as
scientific, evidence relating to children brought up without a same sex parent refutes the idea.
Outline two criticisms of the psychoanalytic explanation of gender development. (4 marks) June 06
AO1 One mark for each criticism identified.
One further mark for elaboration of each criticism identified. This may be in the form of justification or illustration.
Likely answers: lack of empirical support for the Oedipus/Electra complex; the Oedipus complex arose from Freud.s own self-analysis;
Freud.s use of the case study of Little Hans as evidence is questionable; the age at which gender identity occurs; the gender identity
which emerges is a response to the father.
Mix
(i) Give a social learning theory explanation of identification. (1 mark)
(ii) Give a psychoanalytic explanation of identification. (1 mark)
(iii) State one difference between these two explanations. (1 mark) (Jan 08)
(i) AO1 One mark for correct explanation of the term.
Possible answer: Social learning theorists view identification as an attachment to specific models who possess qualities that an
individual would like for themselves (AO1, 1).
(ii) AO1 One mark for correct explanation of the term.
Possible answer: Psychoanalytic theorists view identification as the process by which children gain their gender identity from their
same-sex parents (AO1, 1).
Credit answers which refer to the Oedipus/Electra complex.
(iii) AO2 One mark for an appropriate difference.
Possible answer: Psychoanalytic theorists state children identify with their same-sex parents, whereas social learning theorists state
that children may have a number of models with whom they identify (AO2, 1).
Credit other appropriate answers/examples.