GENE INTERPLAY FOR FOOD SECURITY
AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
TEXT OF THE 238TH INAUGURAL LECTURE
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY
PRESENTED BY
PROF. BENJAMIN ADEFEMI OGUNBODEDE
INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND
TRAINING
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY
MOOR PLANTATION, IBADAN.
IN ODUDUWA HALL, ON 10TH MAY, 2011
AT 5.00PM
1
INAUGURAL LECTURE
NAME:
Prof. Benjamin Adefemi OGUNBODEDE
Title of Degrees:
B.Sc. (Agric), M.Phil., Ph.D (Ife)
Position:
-
-
Director, Institute of Agricultural
Research and Training
Professor of Plant Breeding
2
Mr. Vice Chancellor, Sir,
Principal Officers of the University
Distinguished Colleagues,
My Esteemed Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
1.
Introduction
It is with total humility and immense gratitude to the Almighty God, the “I am that I am”
that I stand before this august gathering to deliver the 238th Inaugural Lecture of the University.
This is third of its kind from the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, the first having
being delivered by a former Director, the Late Prof. R. A. Sobulo, a Soil Scientist of repute and
the second, the 219th Series was delivered by a Nutritional Biochemist, Prof. (Mrs.) Olusola
Deborah Omueti. It was titled “Quality Nutrients: The embedded glory, vitality and Gold in
food crops.” It was delivered on 10th March, 2009.
Providence charted my academic career right from my undergraduate days in the Faculty
of Agriculture, University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University). Towards the tail end of
1975/1976 session, when we were about to choose disciplines in which to carry out our final year
research projects, a young lecturer returned with a Ph.D from the United States of America. We
were all fascinated with his wealth of knowledge and some of us wished we could emulate him.
We were discussing about him on one occasion when one of us jokingly said his course of study
was very difficult because it involved so much of mathematics and statistics. On further enquiry,
we were told he has a Ph.D Degree in Plant Breeding. I, there and then, resolved that it would be
Plant Breeding for me irrespective of the challenges I would encounter along the line. That was
how I found myself opting for this discipline for my research project. Only two of us (in a class
of forty-eight students) took this option. I was inwardly praying that I should be assigned to this
young, dynamic lecturer (Dr. Adedeji Ajani) for my project. But that was not to be. Rather, I
was assigned to a Senior Lecturer in the discipline whom we all feared and tried to avoid – then
Dr. Tunde Fatunla (now Retired Prof. Tunde Olutunla). That was the beginning of the journey
that is culminating into the presentation of this Inaugural Lecture today. I owe a debt of
gratitude to Dr. Ajani who first kindled my interest in Plant Breeding and to my mentor,
benefactor and role model Prof. Olutunla. Prof. Olutunla not only supervised my B.Sc, M.Phil.
and Ph.D theses, he was instrumental to my getting an appointment at the Institute of
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Agricultural Research and Training where, again by providence, I am today the Director. He
“signed, sealed and delivered” everything pertaining to the appointment 18 months before I
graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in 1977. He did not even inform me until I was about to
proceed to the National Youth Service Corps. I will forever be grateful sir, to you and to all my
teachers in the Faculties of Agriculture and Science of this great University.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor sir, the title of my lecture is “Gene interplay for food security and
national development.” A major objective of Nigeria’s “new” Agricultural policy is
“attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those
which consume considerable shares of Nigeria’s foreign exchange and for which the country has
comparative advantage in local production.” This in essence is “food security” – a situation
where everyone has access to food three times a day all the year round and at affordable prices.
We don’t need a soothsayer to affirm that the country is still very far from attaining this
objectives decades after setting the target. National development is the twin-brother to food
security.
This is because major ingredients of food security include development and
dissemination of improved varieties of crops and livestock breeds, provision of rural roads (for
transporting food materials), infrastructures (portable water and water for irrigation;
rural
electricity for processing, storage etc), provision of conducive environment for private sector
driven SMEs (Small and Medium Scale Enterprises) to thrive among others.
I will endeavor within the next fifty-five minutes or so to elucidate my modest
contribution to the attainment of food-security and national development through the
development of improved crop varieties as well as dissemination of information on improved
agricultural technologies to resource-poor farmers for the last 30 years or so.
2.
Some of the available natural resources in Nigeria
Nigeria is indeed a blessed nation. The country is endowed with abundant natural
resources. These include 68 million hectares of arable land, fresh water sources covering 12
million hectares, 960 kilometres of coastline and an ecological diversity which enables the
country to produce a wide variety of crops and livestock, forestry and fisheries products.
Nigerian agriculture falls into a number of distinct agro-ecological zones demarcated largely by
the balance between rainfall and evapotranspiration. On this basis, three broad agro-ecological
zones can be identified as follows:
4
i.
The Southern Rainforest zone consists of South West, South East and South South
agroecologies. These areas are suitable for crops such as plantains and bananas, oil
palm, cocoa, kola citrus, yams, cocoyam, cassava, rice, maize, fruits, vegetables and
some ruminants (sheep, goats) and poultry.
ii.
The Southern Guinea Savanna zone - This zone consists of some parts of South
West (especially Oke-ogun area – Kisi, Saki etc), Central as well as parts of NorthWest agroecologies.
These areas are suitable for cereal crops such as maize,
sorghum, millet, rice and to some extent acha (Digitaria exilis), legumes, root and
tuber crop, oil seeds (such as soyabeans, sesame), fruits, vegetables as well as some
livestock. The production of livestock is also limited by trypanosomiasis just as in
the forest zone and
iii.
The Northern Guinea Savanna zone which consists of parts of North West and
North East agroecologies. These are suitable for the cultivation of sorghum, millet,
maize, groundnut, rice, cotton and lately cassava. The absence of tsetse fly also
makes this zone the main production area for the country’s cattle, sheep and goats.
Inspite of these natural endowments and favourable agro-ecologies, Nigeria is still food
insecure. The per capital food production has not kept pace with the growing needs of the
population. The country continued to import agricultural raw materials which, on the average,
accounted for almost 16% of total importation during the period of 1991 to 1994. On the other
hand, agricultural exports contributed nearly 62% of total exports in the early seventies, but now
these account for less than 10%.
3.
The Roles of Agriculture in the national economy
It is important to note that agriculture remains the bedrock of the nation’s economy
employing 70-80% of the total population who mostly live at subsistence level. Despite its
pivotal role in the nation’s economy, agriculture contributes only 38% of the GDP (Gross
Domestic Product). Surely there is a “disconnect” along the line otherwise this situation should
not persist half a century after independence. To assess the problem from the right perspective,
we need to know the roles that agriculture is expected to play in an economy that is
5
predominantly agrarian to be able to determine the challenges militating against the attainment of
the laudable goals of food security and industrial development.
Agriculture in an economy such as ours, is expected to play the following major roles:
-
Provide food for the people with the aim of attaining self sufficiency in food
production and enhancing food security. The nation can achieve this by expanding
farm output and secondary agric-based trade and processing combined with increased
labour productivity and appropriate technology options.
-
Provide raw materials for local industries. This is a pre-requisite for the expansion
of the industrial based generation of employment and income for the country.
-
Provide the much needed funds for the development of the country through the
exportation of agricultural produce including cocoa, timber, kola, palm oil etc. and
arable crops such as maize, cowpea, soyabeans etc.
-
Provide employment for majority of rural dwellers not only by working directly on
the farms, but also through the establishment of agro-processing industries to export
semi-processed materials.
-
Transform the rural communities:
Farm settlements were established in many
parts of old Western Region in the late sixtees basically to transform the rural areas.
Rural infrastructures (roads, electricity, water supply) as well as schools, markets,
banks would have been provided. This would have made agriculture to be attractive
to the educated and would stem rural urban migration.
These objectives are all encompassing and so germane to the realization of food self
sufficiency, industrial development and rural transformation. Perhaps it is because the sector is
so pivotal to the enhancement of the socio-economic well being of resource-poor Nigerians that
Agriculture is placed on the concurrent list in the country’s policy formulation. That means all
the tiers of government (Federal, State, Local), the Private Sector as well as Non-Governmental
Organizations have specified roles to play to ensure the realization of these lofty ideals.
To be able to do this effectively and efficiently, new improved varieties of crops as well
as livestock breeds must be developed to substantially enhance food production so that
6
agriculture can grow much faster than the population. That will be the only sustainable panacea
against food scarcity, famine and stunted industrial development or growth.
4.
Genes, the hereditary factors
The formulation of two laws of heredity by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s was excellent
and repeatable experimental procedure as well as sound deductive reasoning. These laws (the
law of segregation of genes and the law of independent assortment of genes) proved the
existence of units of heredity which Mendel called “heredity factors” and which are responsible
for appearance of characters in living organisms. Mendel was, thus, attempting to explain what
man through the ages has noticed- the diversity among living things.
Man noticed, with
increasing curiosity, that certain differences among organisms and within organisms persist from
generation to generation.
Examples abound in nature.
Human beings exhibit tremendous
amount of physical diversity in height, weight, colour of the skin, colour of the hair etc. While
the hair may be straight, curly or wavy, the colour of their eyes may be brown or black.
Observations have also shown that most of these differences persist from generation to
generation. Such biological variations arise as a result of attributes (traits or characters) passed
down from parents to offspring through the germ line such as sperms and eggs or through
attributes passed down through the reproductive units of plants e.g. leaves, stems, roots, seeds
etc. Attributes that can be so passed from parents to offspring are termed ‘’heritable’’ i.e.
capable of being inherited by the offspring. In sexually-reproducing organisms, the sperm, eggs
or pollen constitute the germ line and contain the attributes in parents that are subsequently
passed to the offspring. These germ lines may be regarded as the bearers of information that
control the development of the offspring in the direction of the information contained in the
zygote which results from the union of the sperm and egg. Non-heritable attributes, on the other
hand, are developmental errors that do not involve the germline and even-though manifested in
the parents are not, generally, transmissible to the offspring.
Examples of non-hereditary
attributes, include postnatal accidents such as amputation of limbs, production of white leaves in
plants kept away from sunlight or blindness that results from accidents. Thus, the environment
i.e. external condition to which the organism is exposed, contributes to observable biological
variation but these are mostly not heritable by the offspring. Long before Mendel, man has
speculated that variations are transmitted from parents to offspring. This is obvious because in
7
higher animals, conception is always preceded by mating, thus, man naturally viewed semen as a
vehicle of inheritance fusing with the egg from the female to produce the zygote. It, thus,
appears that hereditary factors are transmitted through single cells and development of an egg (a
cell) starts only after fertilization by a sperm (another cell). In fertilization, it is mainly the
nucleus of the sperm that fuses with the nucleus of the egg. Olorode et al (1977) reported an
experiment with a single-celled alga-Acetabularia which offers an excellent proof that the
nucleus plays a vital role in heredity. Acetabularia wittsteni and A. mediterranea differ in their
fruiting bodies (caps).
By interchange of their nucleus by microsurgery or by grafting a
decapped stem of one species to the nucleate base of another specie, it was demonstrated that the
nucleus conditions the type of fruiting body produced (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. A. Acetabularia mediterranea, B. A. wittsteinii, C and D: stem grafts in the two
species. E and F: Development of caps which are characteristic of nucleate-base.
Careful observations of how chromosomes separate during meiosis and the discovery that
sex cells contain only half the number of chromosomes (one set instead of two) that other cells
have, led scientists to postulate that Mendel’s hereditary factors (later called genes) reside on
8
chromosomes (Morakinyo et al, 2009). This means that really speaking, chromosomes are the
carriers of heredity and the physical link between one generation and another. Chromosomes are
composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins. Morakinyo et al (2009) reported on
several elegant and decisive experiments conducted with bacteria and viruses by Avery et al
(1944), and Hershey and Chese, (1952) which showed that DNA is the genetic material that has
the necessary information to direct the synthesis of protein. Thus, a gene (a unit of heredity) is a
sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a protein, a tRNA or rRNA molecule or regulates
the transcription of sequence.
Scientists have shown that mutation or hybridization (change in the sequence of DNA)
results in the loss or addition of specific attributes or activities. This is the crux of the matter.
Plant breeding attempts to exploit this fact by mating (crossing or hybridizing) genetically
diverse populations of crops in the hope that through various processes such as linkage, crossingover etc new recombinants different in some respects from the parental lines will evolve.
5.
Understanding gene action
A thorough understanding of gene action and gene interplay is invaluable to a good grasp
of the mechanism of inheritance of the traits of interest and consequently one would be able to
fashion out the best breeding procedures for genetic improvement. As such, my initial research
effort was focused on elucidating the gene effects in each of a biparental cross contrasting for
podlength, seed weight, seed crowding and number of seeds per pod in cowpea (Figs 2, 3 and 4).
9
Fig 2: Cowpea pods showing little or no space between the seeds (Ex-Princes (1), KR91 (4),
Spaces at the ends (B33 (2)) and spaces in between the seeds (Paraquay (3)).
10
Fig 3: Cowpea pods showing some spaces in between the seeds (Ex-Ilorin (1), slight
Indentation of seed-ends (A44/2 (2)) and seeds with flat edges (Victor (3))
11
Fig 4: Diagramatic representation of cowpea pods showing empty spaces in-between seeds (ai)
Or at the extremity of pods (aii); seeds with no indentation (bi) or with slight indentation
(bii) and seeds with flat edges (c).
In cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, there is variation for pod length and number of seeds per
pod and the total space within a pod represents the possible carrying capacity of that pod. On
examination of pod filling in many cowpea lines, however, it was noted that the seeds do not
occupy more than 50 percent of the pod space. In some cultivars such as B33, both ends are
unfilled (Fig2.2) whereas in Paraquay there are empty spaces between the seeds (Fig. 2.3). In
Ex-Princess (Fig 2.1) and KR 91 (Fig.2.4) the pods are fairly well filled but there are still empty
spaces between seeds probably due to shrinkage at drying. Sometimes even when the seeds
touch, there may be still be unfilled space at the curved ends of the pod (Fig.3.1). We can thus
classify cowpea cultivars into three categories with respect to seed crowding:-
i.
Non-crowders are cultivars that leave space at either end of the pod and in-between
seeds (Fig. 2.2 and 2.3).
12
ii.
Crowders are cultivars which leave little or no space at the end of the pods. However,
some space may appear in between seeds within the pods as a result of shrinking.
(Figs.2.1,2..3 and 4.b).
iii.
Extreme crowders are cultivars with indentations or flat ends with no space between
seeds (Fig.3.3).
Thus breeding for varieties with slight indentation at the end of the seed as in Ifebrown
(Fig.3.2 and 4bii) or flat edges (Figs. 2.4 and 4c) will increase the compactness of the seeds and
consequently yield. The first step in this onerous assignment, therefore, was to ascertain the
genetic effects controlling the inheritance of these traits. A generation means analysis was
therefore, used to estimate these parameters in the four important traits listed above. Our results
revealed that while additive were more important than dominance gene effects in the inheritance
of pod length and number of seeds per pod, dominance gene effects were more important in seed
crowding. The inheritance of seed weight, on the other hand, did not fit the additive-dominance
model, Table 1 (Ogunbodede and Fatula, 1981).
13
Estimates of Gene Effects in Cowpea
Table 1:
M, (d), (h), potence ratio (h) / (d) and X2 value to test the adequacy
of the additive – dominance model for each trait
Trait
Cross/data
m
(d)
(h)
(h)/(d)
X2
1. Pod Length
KR91 x Parag No.2
18.50
9.12
1.52
0.17
5.48
2. Seed Weight/50
seeds (g)
(i) E. Rams x TVU256
(ii) TVU256 x H113 – 4
5.22
5.82
1.65
2.26
0.29
0.51
0.18
0.23
19.26**
32.74**
3. Seed Crowding
%
(i) Texas Cr. X 58 – 185
(ii) EX Princes x B 33
43.09
44.70
4.61
3.68
8.68
7.72
1.88
2.10
6.52
6.21
(i) Victor x B
(ii) 58 – 185 x B33
1.33
1.62
0.07
0.03
0.04
-0.01
0.57
-33
6.95
6.37
4. Number of seeds/
pods (a)
(a) Mordified log transformation (Wright, 1968) was used
**Significantly deviated from the additive – dominance model at 0.01 probabil
14
On further analysis and in an attempt to advance reasons for the non- conformity of the
data on seed weight to the additive-dominance model, we realized that a pre-condition for valid
inferences from analysis of variance table is non-correlation between means and variances (Little
and Hills, 1975). Consequently we investigated the effects of such correlations on our mating
design, generation means analysis. Various transformations were applied to render the means
and variances independent. Eventhough we found that reduction in correlation between means
and variances enhanced the conformity of data to the additive dominance model and also
increased the estimates of additive variance, our data on seed weight still did not conform to the
simple additive-dominance model even after many transformations, Table 2 (Ogunbodede and
Fatula, 1987, Ogunbodede, 1989).
15
Table 2: Correlation coefficient ® between means and variance, gene effects and Chi-square (x2) values to test the adequacy of
the simple model
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Trait/Cross
r
m
a
d
d/a
x2
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Pod Length
KR 91 x Paraq. 2
(a) Raw
(b) Transf. (1): x = (x)½
(c) Transf. (2): s2i = σ2i x 100
xi
2. Seed Weight
(i) E. Rams x TVu 256
(a) Raw
(b) Transf. (1): x= log x
(c) Transf. (2): s2i = σ2i x 100
xi
(ii) TV u 256 x H113-4
(a) Raw
(b) Transf. (1): x = log (x + 1.31)
0.93**
0.76
17.28±0.37
4.03±0.03
--- 7.71±0.27
--- 0.94±0.05
---- 0.83±0.43
---- 0.05±0.05
0.11
0.50
0.91**
14.65±0.55
--- 3.94±0.55
---- 0.57±1.08
---- 116.09**
0.97**
0.76
5.71±0.07
0.74±0.01
1.73±0.08
0.13±0.01
---- 0.43±0.13
---- 0.02±0.01
---- 47.95**
---- 52.40**
0.93**
5.73±0.29
1.72±0.30
---- 0.45±0.54
0.84*
0.09
5.80±0.06
0.84±0.0
--- 1.87±0.06
--- 0.12±0.0
---- 0.49±0.12
---- 0.01±0.01
0.26
2.48
0.76
2.56
---- 59.92**
---- 45.80**
(c) Transf. (2): s2i = σ2i x 100
0.42
5.86±0.25
--- 1.92±0.25
---- 0.60±0.50
0.31
3.63
xi
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(*), (**) Significantly deviated from the simple model at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels respectively.
16
The next logical step, therefore, was to develop a new model that would include the
digenic epistatic interactions and estimate magnitudes of the gene action when such epistatic
interaction govern the expression of a trait. This generalized procedure was illustrated with
examples of data that failed to confirm with the simple model but was adequately explained by
the presence of digenic epistatic interactions which were accommodated by the extended model
Tables 3 and 4 (Ogunbodede and Fatula, 1992 and 1995).
17
Table 3 – Gene Effects and Chi-Square (x2) values to test the Adequacy of the simple model, Pooled Data
Trait
Cross/Data
1. Seed crowding (%) …. ……..
(i)
2. Seed weight (g/50 seeds)
3. Number of seeds/pod……….. .
4. Pod Length (cm) …. ….
….
Tex, Cream x 58-185
Raw .. .. ... .. .. .. …
(ii) Ex-Princes x B33
Raw .. ...
…. .. ..
(i) E. Rams X TVu 256
(a) Raw … .. .. ….. .. …
(b) Transf. X1 = log x
(ii) TVu 256 x H113-4
(a) Raw … ….. … …. ….
(b) Tranf. X1 = log (x + 1.31) …
(i) Victor x B33
(a) Raw .. … … …. …..
(b) Transf. X1 = log x … ……
(ii) 58 – 185 X B33
(a) Raw ….. … … …. …….
(b) Transf. X1 = log x
KR91 X Paraq 2
Raw …
.. … … …. …. ..
m
A
d
d/a
x2
52.03±0.86
4.19±0.09
3.0±0.90
0.72
4.12
55.74±1.0
4.20±1.02
-10.09±1.97
2.40
2.61
5.71±0.07
0.74±0.01
1.73±0.08
0.13±0.01
-0.43±0.13
-0.02±0.01
-
47.75**
52.40**
5.80±0.06
0.84±0.0
-1.87±0.06
-0.12±0.0
-0.49±0.12
-0.01±0.01
-
59.92**
45.80**
11.82±0.16
1.05±0.01
2.92±0.16
0.11±0.01
1.0±0.29
0.05±0.01
-
8.44*
9.48*
11.36±0.16
1.03±0.01
2.55±0.16
0.09±0.01
-0.82±0.36
0.03±0.02
0.33
8.16*
5.64
17.28±0.27
-7.71±0.27
-0.83±0.43
0.11
2.48
**Significantly deviated from the simple model at P=0.05 and P=0.01 respectively
18
Since it was mostly firmly established that epistatic interactions govern the inheritance of
most-yield-related traits in cowpea, an additive main effect and multiplicative interaction (AMMI)
model was used to analyse genotype x environment interaction in open pollinated maize varieties
evaluated in 18 representative agro-ecologies of Nigeria (Ajibade, Ogunbodede and Oyejola, 2000).
Location effects accounted for 76 and 79% of the total variation in the early and late maturing varieties
respectively. The first three interaction principal component axis (IPCAs) were significant in the two
sets accounting for 82% and 79% of the sum of squares (SS) due to genotype x location interaction for
the early and late varieties respectively (Fig. 5).
Figure 5: Ordination of locations and genotypes on the first two IPCA of the
Genotype-location interaction for (a) early maturing and (b) late maturing open
pollinated maize varieties. Environment and genotype codes are as in Tables 1 and 2.
19
Ten sites consistently formed a cluster in each of the two sets of data indicating that these
sites induced similar adaptation patterns on the maize varieties. To minimize costs, four testing sites in
the mangrove forest agro-ecologies would be adequate for conducting yield trials of maize varieties
similar to those evaluated in the study.
The degree of heritability of a trait as well as the number of genes controlling the
inheritance of the trait also influence the breeding method to be adopted in the improvement of the
traits investigated. Consequently, we estimated these important parameters in many of the traits of
interest. From our experiments, we obtained narrow-sense heritability estimates of 72.1% and 36.8%
for pod length and number of seeds per pod respectively while seven pairs of genes were estimated to
control pod length and eight genes conditioned number of seeds per pod in the cowpea varieties
evaluated. (Ogunbodede and Fatula, 1982, 1988).
6.
Varietal development and generation of enabling technologies
The advent of a very destructive rust disease of maize incited by Puccinia polysora in 1950
called attention to the importance of plant breeding and genetic improvement of important crop
varieties. Attempts were made to import resistant varieties from the Carribean Island as well as South
and Central America for immediate release to farmers. Subsequently, organized approach towards a
systematic study of maize was established at the then Federal Department of Agricultural Research
(FDAR), Moor Plantation, Ibadan (Fakorede et al, 1999). Sources of resistance for this and other
diseases that received attention in the 1950s and 1960s e.g Cochilobolus heterostrophus (now Helminthosporium maydis), the southern leaf blight of maize were found in the rain forest area of south
western Nigeria. In furtherance of this quest to develop improved crop varieties from local staples, my
first major assignment at Moor Plantation, Ibadan after post-graduate studies was to work with “Senior
Colleagues” then Dr (now Prof.) I. Fawole (who recently retired from the University of Ibadan) and
late Mr. N. O. Afolabi on the development and evaluation of two new varieties of cowpea Vigna
unguiculata. One of the varieties, IFH 101, was developed from a single plant originally selected in
the F6 cross between Bulk b, a breeding line from the Institute and cowpea variety TVU 4557 (Fawole
et al, 1986). The variety is photoperiod insensitive with a high level of resistance to important diseases
of cowpea that are prevalent in many agro-ecological zones of the country. The second cowpea
variety, Popse-1, was derived from a single plant selection in the third cycle of a population
20
improvement programme. The base sub-population consisted of vita-25 into which disease resistant
genes had been incorporated. Selected elite lines were then crossed to male-strile plants within the
sub-population. Plants of this variety are indeterminate, semi erect with a prominent main stem that
subtends an average of four lateral branches per plant (Fawole et al, 1986). The two varieties have
been officially retroactively released to the Nigerian farmers by the National Variety Releases
Committee in 1985 (NACGRAB, 2009).
As a result of the reorganization of the mandates of National Agricultural Research Institutes in
1989 by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the national mandate for research
into the genetic improvement of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) and jute (Hibiscus sabdarifa) was given
to the Institute. The first assignment was to assemble all available germplasm and assess the extent of
genetic variability. This would suggest the next line of action in the varietal improvement programme.
Fifty-four (54) kenaf accessions of diverse eco-geographical origins were evaluated in an 8 x 8 latice
design in three environments. Two multivariate techniques- the Coefficient of Racial Likeness (CRL)
and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were used to assess the extent of genetic divergence among
the accessions. The CRL distances for the 1431 possible pairs of accessions were each less than 2.0.
This does not necessarily suggest lack of genetic diversity among the accessions. The first three
principal axes accounted for 67.17% of the total variation among the accessions (Ogunbodede, 1997,
Ajibade and Ogunbodede 2000, Table 6).
Table 6:
Eigen-values and percent of total variation accounted for by the first three principal
component axes of the ordination of kenaf varieties
_________________________________________________________________________________
Principal Component Eigen-value
% of total variation
Cummulative percent
axis
accounted for
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
I
2.79
31.01
31.01
II
2.12
23.53
54.54
III
1.14
12.63
67.17
_________________________________________________________________________________
From a two dimensional ordination of the first two principal axis, six clusters can be identified
(Fig.6). Clustering was closely related to average CRL values and there was no relationship between
clustering and eco-geographical distributions. Cluster II contains entries from Nigeria, Cuba and
21
United State of America while Cluster VI contains introductions from Australia, Nigeria and
Guatamala (Fig.6).
Fig. 6: Two-dimentional ordination of 54 kenaf accessions using Principal
Component Analysis
The clustering of the accessions was closely related to the CRL values.
Guatemala 48
reasonably separated from all other accessions (Cluster I) with a mean CRL value of 0.84 (Table 7).
22
Table 7:
Coefficient of racial of likeness (CRL) distances between pairs of twelve kenaf accessions
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Genotype
Cuba 108
Local 1870
S69-J-I Guat 48
AU-75
AU-72 J6987 AC299 AU151886
Guat45
HC583
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tian-1
0.45
0.35
0.17
0.89
0.76
0.46
0.62
1.04
0.88
0.73
1.04
Cuba 108
0.35
0.45
0.83
0.76
0.54
0.72
1.11
0.91
0.82
1.14
Local 1870
0.37
0.80
0.67
0.58
0.67
1.01
0.83
0.72
1.04
S69-J-I
0.84
0.73
0.51
0.63
1.00
0.85
0.71
1.00
Guat 48
0.96
0.82
0.81
0.97
0.78
0.78
0.84
AU-75
0.46
0.46
0.66
0.49
0.55
0.73
AU-72
0.24
0.78
0.64
0.47
0.78
J6987
0.62
0.44
0.34
0.60
HC583
0.56
0.37
0.41
AC299
0.46
0.50
AU151886
0.50
Guat 45
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
23
Mean CRL values for accessions in cluster II range from 0.67 (Tiannug No 1) to 0.78 (for S
69.54) with an average of 0.74. Average CRL values for accessions in Cluster VI, on the other hand,
range from 0.45 (for HC 583) to 0.58 (for AU 72) with an average of 0.51. From these results, it was
evident that sufficient genetic variability was lacking in the 54 accessions evaluated. Consequently,
there was the need to also increase the level of variability so as to be able to make reasonable progress
from a selection programme. However, there was the need to ascertain which agronomic parameters
would influence our traits of interest most so as to determine which parameters to put emphasis in a
selection programme.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to determine agronomic
characteristers influencing fibre and core yield in kenaf (Ogunbodede and Ajibade, 2001). The results
revealed that fibre yield was positively and significantly correlated with these two parameters (plant
height and buttdiameter), Similarly, these two parameters were significantly though negatively
correlated with core weight.
Table 8: Simple linear correlation coefficients among nine kenaf characters
Characters
1. Plant height
2. Butt diameter
3. Leaves/plant
4. Nodes/plant
5. Fresh plant wt
6. Core weight
7. Core %
8. Retting %
9. Fibre yield/plant
1
-
2
0.69**
-
3
-0.11*
-0.33**
-
4
-0.22**
-0.41**
0.67**
-
5
0.39**
0.24**
0.32**
0.29**
-
6
-0.40**
-0.60**
0.39**
0.42**
0.06
-
7
0.09*
0.13**
-0.28**
-0.22**
-0.29**
0.12**
-
8
-0.27**
-0.14**
-0.01*
-0.01
-0.39**
0.01
0.13**
-
9
0.17**
0.19**
-0.02
-0.01
0.28**
-0.07
-0.09*
0.13
-
Since these two products (fibre and core yield) are the two most important end-products of
this very important industrial crop, due emphasis must be placed on selection for these parameters in
our breeding schemes. Out of five of these parameters investigated butt-diameter alone accounted for
35.59% of the total variation (Table 9).
Table 9: Stepwise multiple regression indicating contribution of some agronomic characters to
core weight in kenaf
Characters
Butt diameter
Fresh plant weight
Core %
Leaves/plant
Plant height
R2
0.3559
0.4009
0.4769
0.5037
0.5155
No. In
1
2
3
4
5
24
[] R2
0.3559**
0.0446**
0.0764**
0.0268**
0.0118**
Genetic improvement of kenaf is our national mandate. From our research results, the level of
genetic variability in our 54 or accessions from five countries was low. I, therefore, resolved to
“create” genetic variability through the use of nuclear techniques. Dry seeds of two most adaptable
and acceptable varieties of kenaf (Cuba 108 and Tiannug 1) were exposed to different doses (100 to
400Gy) of gamma rays from Cobalt60 source and the M2 population was screened for mutants. Two
promising mutants (Ife Ken 100 and Ife 400) were isolated after many cycles of selection. Ife ken 400
combined high fibre yield with high seed yield (Tables 10 & 11).
Table 10:
Performance of six promising kenaf lines and two check varieties (Cuba 108 &
Tiannung No. 1) evaluated in Moor Plantation, Ibadan, 1995 and 1996.
Cultivar/Line Estab.
Count
No. of
Plant
Leaves/Plant Ht.
(cm)
22.6
212.3
23.5
148.0
20.1
186.4
25.0
230.6
31.2
225.5
27.3
231.8
22.7
254.9
19.7
201.7
24.0
223.9
2.15
15.23
Nodes/Plant Capsules/
plant
47.5
56.5
39.1
51.9
61.6
64.9
56.2
41.8
51.8
5.70
10.0
13.3
6.1
14.3
14.2
15.8
21.1
6.9
12.8
3.89
Basal
Diam.
(cm)
2.6
2.0
1.9
2.5
2.1
2.1
2.6
2.2
2.3
0.2
V1 100
Cuba 108
V1 200
Ifeken 100
V2 400
Tiannuag 1
Ifeken 400
V2 10019
Mean
S.E
102.0
93.0
117.7
121.7
93.3
76.3
80.0
118.7
100.3
12.12
Table 11:
Evaluation of new kenaf cultivars with two check varieties
Seed
Yield
kg/ha
303.3
326.7
370.0
466.7
263.3
203.3
520.0
483.3
367.1
74.4
Fibre
\kg/Yield
(g) ha
533.3
920.0
780.0
790.0
640.0
893.3
866.7
1120.0
818.3
113.2
__________________________________________________________________________________
Treatment
Fresh wt
Core wt
Fibre wt
Mean
(T/ha)
Mean
(kg/ha)
Mean
(kg/ha)
_________________________________________________________________________________________
2002
2003
2002
2003
2002
2003
Cuba 108
32.55
21.26 26.91
2400.00 1755.00 2077.50
1062.96 877.78 970.37
Ife Ken 100
31.36
20.56 25.96
2475.00 2592.50 2533.75
929.63 944.44 937.04
Ife Ken 400
32.39
23.56 27.97
3199.99 1890.00 2544.99
1522.22 835.00 835.00
Local
25.92
26.75 26.34
3322.22 1542.50 2432.36
1103.7 790.55 947.13
SE
0.60
0.84
124.27 60.00
22.42 23.26
CV%
7.87
20.44
17.45
15.70
21.27 15.09
__________________________________________________________________________________________
25
This variety (Ife Ken 400) was officially released to the Nigerian farmers by the National
Variety Release Committee in year 2005. Two new mutants with high fibre yield stability have
recently been developed in the Institute (Balogun et al, 2009). One of these mutants is likely to be
photo-insensitive. These promising varieties will further be tested both on-station and on-farm before
being submitted for consideration for release to the Nigerian farmers.
6.1
Development of improved maize varieties
In October 1995, I was moved to the Maize Improvement Programme of the Institute as the
Maize Breeder and the Coordinator of the Regional Research Project on maize and cassava – a project
funded by eight coastline West Africa Countries. The project had two sections-Maize Breeding and
Utilization as well as dissemination of the technologies generated to resource-poor farmers. I was also
simultaneously appointed the National Coordinator, Nationally Coordinated Research Programme on
Maize since that was one of the responsibilities of my predecessor in office. This was a big challenge
since maize is grown virtually in all parts of Nigeria from the mangrove swamps in the areas of the
south-south to the Sudan/Sahel ecologies of the north. It is a staple food crop grown throughout the
year, eaten in various forms and used extensively as raw-materials in the confectionery, brewery and
livestock feed industries. In an attempt to develop improved varieties of this very important crop,
therefore, there would be need for a rich-germplasm bank from which lines with contrasting attributes
for desired traits can be retrieved and utilized for hybridization and selection.
My first major
assignment in this regards, therefore, was the completion of a project already embarked upon under the
externally funded project – maize germplasm collection. With other scientists in the programme, I
embarked on “Evaluation and characterization of Nigerian maize germplasm.”
Twenty-three
parameters including vegetative, pathological, yield related and six qualitative characters were
assessed, Table 12 (Ogunbodede et al 2003).
26
Table 12:
Physiological, morphological and yield characteristics of maize germplasm
collected from all over Nigeria.
Lengt
h of
Flag
leaf
(cm)
1
Averag
e leaf
length
(cm)
Averag
e leaf
width
(cm)
Plant
Heigh
t (cm)
Root
Lodgin
g
Stem
Lodgin
g
Ear
Heigh
t (cm)
D. to
50%
silk
D. to
50%
Tas.
Husk
Cove
r
Ear
aspec
t
6
No.
of
mode
s/
plant
7
2
3
4
5
8
9
10
11
12
Range
13-65
33.7-99
3-4
65231.5
1-5
1-5
6.16
21.619
5674
4378
1-5
1-5
Mean of
popu.
31.5
73.66
(369)
6.75
3.9
(395)
4.1
(365)
10.65
(341)
68.73
(391)
3.98
(18)
10.88
(18)
76.05
(19)
3.29
(18)
3
(13)
10.37
3.91
0.51
-2.93
2.16
10.65
58.3
2
(382)
58.6
6
(18)
-0.58
2.4
(251)
3.88
(18)
61.2
8
(382)
60.9
4
(18)
-0.56
3.2
(376)
7.45
(19)
155.9
6
(394)
167.6
8 (19)
Mean of
selected
lines
%
Increased
/
decreased
35.63
(19)
80.48
(19)
13.1
9.25
2.81
25
100
Grain
wt.(g)
13
Average
Cob
length
14
Average
Cob
Circ.
15
Grain
rows/cob
Ear
Rot
Streak
Rust
Blight
Curvular
ia
Downy
mildew
Stem
Borer
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Range
6.2247.87
6.1-22.5
6.7-17.8
4-18
1-5
1-4
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-4
Mean of
popu.
21-71(245)
13.16
(112)
12.03
(112)
12.57
(112)
2.88
(79)
1-4
(371)
2.07
(358)
2.22
(365)
2.36
(369)
1.03
(360)
1.70
(388)
Mean of
selected
lines
%
Increased/
decreased
23.31
(15)
14.32
(8)
12.86
(8)
13.97
(8)
3.56
(6)
1.6
(19)
1.94
(18)
2.44
(18)
2.28
(18)
1
(18)
1.61
(18)
7.37
8.81
6.9
11.14
23.61
14.29
-6.28
-1.08
-3.39
-2.91
-5.29
*No. of lines assessed in parenthesis
The 425 accessions were assessed for maize streak virus, helminthosporium leaf blight, curvularia leaf
spot, fusarium leaf whorl blight, stem borer as well as yield related characters. Accessions from the
southern agro-ecologies – Ondo 5, Rivers 4, Lagos 9, Kwara 10 and 24 were tolerant/resistant to maize
streak infection while those from northern guinea savannah – Bauchi 2, Sokoto 7 and Niger 1 were
least affected by bacteria blight (Fig, 8a and b).
27
Fig. 8a: Mean values of disease infection due to streak in twenty selected lines evaluated under irrigation,
Ibadan 1996.
Fig. 8b: Mean values of disease infection due to blight in twenty selected lines evaluated un-irrigation,
Ibadan 1996.
28
Accessions Imo 1 and Benue 5 were most susceptible to curvularia leaf spot while fusarium leaf spot
was more prevalent in Benue 5 (Fig. 9a and b).
Fig 9a: Mean values of disease infection due to curvularia in twenty selected lines evaluated under irrigation,
Ibadan 1996.
Fig 9b: Mean values of disease infection due to Leaf whorl in twenty selected lines evaluated under irrigation,
Ibadan 1996.
29
Four accessions – Niger 1, Adamawa 7, Bauchi 4 and Oyo 4 appeared resistant/tolerant to stemborer
infectation (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: Percentage stem borer infestation of twenty selected maize lines and four check varieties evaluated
under irrigation at Moor Plantation, Ibadan (Jan. – April, 1996).
i.
Development of green maize varieties
In Nigeria, maize breeding for specific end use is a new development. This involves producing
varieties with special attributes that make such genotypes suitable for particular purposes. Our concern
stems from the fact that most, if not all, the varieties of maize developed then were not really intended
for human consumption. The varieties were more suited for industrial processing into confectioneries
or livestock feed. This is because they were mostly full of “chaff” and have low sucrose content. It
was only after purchasing and tasting such varieties that consumers would reject them and scout for
“sweeter, less chaffy” materials. Our main objective then, was to develop materials that would be
“sweeter and less chaffy” than our current varieties, but not as sweet as the American “sweet-corn”.
Many countries such as USA (Lubberstede et al, 1997, Ravilla and Tracy, 1998) and Thailand (Prawit
30
et al, 1998) focused attention on the development of maize with specific end use. Research efforts in
Thailand for example resulted in the development of ten (10) “baby corn” hybrids, open pollinated as
well as elite full-sib families. In 1978, a new variety, called “Thai super sweet”, was released for
cultivation. This variety which was also acclaimed to be the best for fresh ear quality was also
acclaimed to be the best for green maize consumption. European and Japanese markets preferentially
demanded this variety thus highlighting the great potentials of maize even in advanced countries.
After interacting with a broad spectrum of stake holders – farmers, scientists and the
consuming public, we identified the following characteristics (among others) as ideal attributes for
green maize (Ogunbodede, 1999, 2000)
-
Moderate sucrose content
-
Adequate Vitamin A i.e. high carotene content
-
Relatively high protein content (both in quantity and quality)
-
Reduced chaff
-
Tolerance to some major pests and diseases prevalent in the major agroecological zones of the country.
Consequently, we embarked on a breeding programme using five improved maize varieties, an
exotic variety from America and a quality protein maize variety from Ghana. Of primary interest were
the desired attributes including:
-
Earliness in maturing (DMR-ESR-Y)
-
Disease resistance (DMR-LSR-Y/W)
-
Good nutritional quality such as protein (Obatanpa from Ghana)
-
High carotene content (POP 31-1-DMR, Suwan-l-SR)
-
Available sources of sucrose (sweet corn from America)
Hybridization was carried out with sweet corn being used as pollen parent in 1997. Evaluation of
resultant crosses and parents were simultaneously conducted at our Ibadan station and for the Savanna
ecology at the University of Ilorin, Ilorin (Tables 13 to 16).
31
Table 13: Means across locations for grain yield and sensory evaluation in the parents and F1
Hybrids of field corn X sweet corn crosses at Ilorin
Variety
Suwan 1-SR
Pop 31 DMR
Obatampa
Suwan 1 – SR
X
Sweet Corn
Pop 31 DMR
X
Sweet corn
Obatampa
X
Sweet Corn
S.E
Grain
Yield
(t/ha)
2.53
2.04
2.27
Flavour
Sweetness
Texture
Likeness
Ear
Aspect
Overall
Preference
2.65a
4.20b
3.75b
2.95a
3.90b
3.30b
3.40a
3.45b
4.50b
4.10a
6.20b
5.45b
4.25b
3.60b
3.65b
4.95c
2.15a
3.60c
2.43
3.50b
3.15b
3.85b
5.10b
3.65b
4.00c
2.45
3.45b
3.20b
5.25b
6.50b
2.30a
2.90b
2.43
3.30b
3.40b
4.55b
4.90b
3.50b
3.40b
N.S
0.33
0.29
0.50
0.65
0.53
0.48
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different
Flavour: 1 (excellent): 6(very poor); Sweetness: 1 (excellent): 6 (very poor)
Texture: 1 (extremely tender): 8 (extremely tough); Likeness: 1 (like extremely):
9 (dislike extremely) Ea aspect: 1 (best): 5 (poor); overall preference: 1 (best): 6 (poor)
Table 14: Means nutrient composition of parents and F1 Hybrids of field corn X sweet corn
crosses at Ilorin
Variety
Suwan 1-SR
Pop 31 DMR
Obatampa
Suwan 1 – SR
X
Sweet Corn
Pop 31 DMR
X
Sweet corn
Obatampa
X
Sweet Corn
S.E
%
Moisture
Content
16.21
16.91
15.31
Crude
Protein
Ash
Crude
Lipid
Crude
Fibre
NFE
12.24
11.55
10.83
1.25
1.00
1.00
5.5
6.25
6.25
3.75
3.25
3.75
60.96
61.04
62.87
64.71
64.29
66.62
17.13
12.80
1.00
6.25
3.75
59.08
62.85
13.79
9.29
1.00
6.25
4.25
65.43
69.68
13.93
14.33
1.00
6.50
3.75
60.50
64.25
15.56
11.48
1.04
6.42
3.75
61.65
67.65
32
Carbohydrate
Table 15: Mean agronomic characters of four green maize varieties over 3 years on-station
evaluation 1998-200
Varieties
Plant
height
(cm)
Days of
Maturit
y (days)
DMR
rating
(%)
Cob size
ART-98-SWT1
ART-98-SWT2
ART-98-SWT3
ART-98-SWT4
POP31DMR
DMR-ESR-Y
DMR-LSR-Y
Mean
154.46ab
122.3b
140.33ab
148.67ab
141.33ab
131.00b
168.67a
143.82
85ab
86a
75b
87a
70c
79ab
90a
81.71
90.0a
80.0ab
73.0d
78.0c
78.0c
89.0a
80.0ab
81.14
Moderate
Small
Small
Long
Small
Small
Long
-
Maize
green
yield
t/ha
12.5a
12.0a
9.0b
12.3a
9.0b
9.0b
10.2b
10.57
Maize
grain
yield
t/ha
4.0bcd
4.2bc
4.2bc
3.27cd
4.23b
3.90b
5.27a
4.15
Adaptati
on
Pedigree
Wide
‘’
‘’
‘’
‘’
‘’
‘’
-
SC X Swawn-1-SR
SC x Pop 3 DMR
SC x Obatampa
SC x DMR-LSR-Y
Developed by IITA
Developed by IITA
Developed by IITA
-
Table 16: Mean nutrient composition of four green maize varieties assessed for 2 years (1998 –
1999) on station.
Varieties
ART-98-SWT1
ART-98-SWT2
ART-98-SWT3
ART-98-SWT4
POP31DMR
DMR-ESR-Y
DMR-LSR-Y
Mean
%
Crude
Protein
14.33a
12.80ab
9.29c
10.83b
11.55b
9.00c
10.00c
11.11
Ash
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.04
%
Crude
Lipid
6.50
6.20
6.50
6.25
6.50
6.25
6.25
6.35
Crude
Fibre
NFE
3.75
3.75
3.25
4.0
3.25
3.75
3.25
3.50
60.50
62.87
61.04
60.96
60.50
59.08
59.0
60.56
%
Carbohy
drate
64.25
64.25
62.85
69.68
64.29
66.62
64.71
65.23
%
Moisture
13.98b
13.79b
13.93b
15.31ab
16.91a
16.21a
15.31ab
15.06
The newly developed hybrids and their maternal parents were also evaluated both on the field
and in the laboratory to determine the effects of transferring the sugary genes (su su) on grain yield,
organoleptic and nutritional properties of the genotypes.
Both carbohydrates and Nitrogen Free
Extractors (NFE) contents in the grains increased with delay in sampling time (Olaoye et al, 2008).
The newly developed green maize variety, christened “Oloyin” (since it was as sweet as if
rubbed with honey) was released to Nigerian farmers by the National Variety Release Committee in
year 2001.
ii.
Development of Quality Protein Maize (QPM) varieties
Development of QPM varieties appear to be the next logical step after releasing “oloyin” high
protein maize to the Nigerian farmers. The difference between the two breeds of maize lies in the fact
that while high protein maize contain high (greater than the usual 8.0 to 10.0%) crude protein, QPM on
33
the other hand, is not only high in protein but also contains the essential, body-building, amino-acidstryptophan and lysine. From literature a single recessive gene, opague 2, controls the improved quality
in QPM. It was labeled, opaque 2 after the recessive gene, which gave the kernels an opaque
appearance in contrast to the normal translucent shiny appearance of regular dent and flint kernels.
Opaque 2 mutant was found in maize genetic stocks as far back as 1930s. In 1964, Purdue University
found a maize mutant homozygous for opaque 2 gene that contained twice as much lysine and
tryptophan compared to normal maize. The University found that the laboratory rats fed with opaque
2 maize gained weight much more rapidly that rats fed normal dent maize. Thus, QPM variety
contains average of 4.015g lysine/100g of protein as against 2.96gl lysine/100g of protein for normal
maize and average of 1.66.5g tryptophan/100g of protein compared to 0.61g tryptophan/100g of
protein for normal maize.
Development of QPM varieties at the Institute started as far back as the mid-sixtees when Drs.
H. C. Wiggin and A. O. Obajimi commenced cycles of plant-to-row selection using available varieties
then (Wiggins and Obajimi, 1967). Promising selections were hybridized with opaque-2 variety and
these pioneers of QPM varietal development in Nigeria obtained crude protein ranging from 7.56 to
16.9%. This project was probably not pursued to its logical conclusions due to lack of infrastructural
facilities and the difficulty experienced in the selection of opaque kernels.
These facts compelled plant breeders in the Institute to go the extra mile in our quest for a
breakthrough in this regards. Our interest was further given an impetus not only because of the
national awareness that was then generated in Federal Government circles, with regards to QPM
varieties, but also because our green maize varieties had crude protein contents far above the normal
maize varieties. This was a sort of encouragement. We were sure it was just a question of time before
we would be able to isolate QPM varieties from our breeding stock.
Several methods have been proposed. These include the use of light table whereby segregating
QPM kernels are spread on top of the acrylic surface and with light switch inside the box. Kernels are
thereby classified according to the degree of endosperm modification; kernels with 10 – 30% opaque
areas usually have good quality protein. Other methods include:

Laboratory procedures (Villegas et al, 1984).

ELISA method (Wallace et al, 1990)
34

Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

Turbidimetric rapid method (Diochioiu et al, 2002) – this method is simple, accurate,
reproducible and suitable for large numbers of samples. This method was used along
with the light table.
We found that two of our candidate QPM lines (TZPB –OB, and ART98 – SW4-OB) compared
favourably with the reference check (Obatampa) with 3.55%, 3.49% lysine. Obatampa had a value
of 3.5% lysine (Table 17).
Table: 17 Character mean of essential amino acids and crude protein of the QPM varieties
Varieties
TZPB-OB
ART-98-WS4-OB
ART-98-SE5-OB
ART-98-SW6-OB
ILE1-OB
OBATAMPA
(check)
Mean
C.V (%)
LSD (0.05)
Crude
Protein
7.00
7.43
8.75
6.12
5.68
7.00
Zein
(DM)
0.48
0.65
1.30
0.14
0.04
0.48
Percentage (%)
Zein crude Lysine
ml/µg
128.27
3.55
157.18
3.49
156.07
3.31
191.62
3.67
125.28
3.72
138.32
3.50
6.99
0.60
0.44
0.51
0.50
0.26
149.46
28.10
1.36
3.54
0.90
0.06
Tryptophan
0.81
0.49
0.75
0.87
0.87
0.81
0.81
0.8
0.01
Two other lines (ART98-SW6-OB and ILE1-OB) with 3.67% and 3.72% lysine were
superior to Obatampa (Table 18). A similar trend was found using the tryptophan content, ILE1-OB
and ART98-SW6-OB again exhibited superiority over the check. While our new lines each recorded
0.87% tryptophan. Obatampa gave a value of 0.81%. A third candidate variety, TZPB-OB, recorded
the same value (0.81%) as the check variety (Table18, Olakojo et al, 2007). Our outstanding QPM
lines were resistant/tolerant to major diseases prevalent in the zone e.g. streak, downy mildew,
blight etc. (Table 18).
35
Table 18: Character means for disease and pest scores for quality protein maize varieties
Varieties
Ear rot
Streak
Rust
Blight
Curvularia
Lunacs
Downy
mildew
Other
insects
1.25
1.25
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Stem
borer
4wks
1.50
1.37
1.50
1.37
1.50
1.50
ART-98-SW1-OB
ART-98-SW2-OB
ART-98-SW3-OB
ART-98-SW4-OB
ART-98-SW5-OB
ART-98-SW6-OB
2.00
1.87
1.63
2.00
1.75
1.63
1.37
1.37
1.37
1.37
1.37
1.50
1.75
1.50
2.00
1.87
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.50
1.25
1.37
1.75
1.75
1.87
1.75
1.87
2.00
ILE-1-OB
DMR-1-SR-Y-OB
DMR-LSR-W-OB
TZPB-SR (check)
1.75
2.25
1.00
1.63
1.37
1.50
1.37
1.37
1.62
1.75
1.87
1.63
1.37
1.37
1.37
1.50
1.75
2.00
1.63
1.63
1.87
1.50
1.25
1.87
1.50
1.37
1.25
1.37
1.30
1.25
1.25
1.28
Mean
S.E
C.V
1.75
0.23
37.69
1.40
0.11
22.39
1.77
0.01
17.42
1.37
0.01
22.28
1.77
0.16
26.65
1.27
0.155
34.38
1.41
0.16
33.83
1.36
0.12
24.42
1.50
1.63
1.50
1.25
1.37
1.37
Our outstanding QPM lines yielded as well and sometimes better than the check variety. For
example ART98-SW4-OB, ART98-SW6-OB and ILE1-OB yielded 2.51, 2.66 and 2.20 t/ha
respectively whereas the check variety (TZPB-SR) yield 2.51t/ha. (Table 19).
36
TABLE 19: Agronomic characters and yield (t/ha) of QPM varieties
Varieties
Plant
stand
Plant
Height
Ear
height
Root
lodging
Husk top
cover
Plant
aspect
Plant
harvest
Field
weight
Ear
harvest
Ear
aspect
Grain
yield
24.75
25.00
26.00
26.62
29.62
25.8
21.87
33.13
22.62
24.00
Days of
50%
silking
59.15
60.87
58.25
57.75
57.13
57.75
59.00
58.62
52.75
60.37
ART-98-SW1-OB
ART-98-SW2-OB
ART-98-SW3-OB
ART-98-SW4-OB
ART-98-SW5-OB
ART-98-SW6-OB
ILE-1-OB
DMR-1-SR-Y-OB
DMR-LSR-W-OB
TZPB (check)
159.15
144.63
155.62
158.87
154.62
155.00
152.37
148.12
124.25
151.87
63.00
67.13
60.25
65.00
63.75
60.38
59.00
69.37
50.87
63.63
2.30
1.38
1.50
1.50
1.75
5.25
0.75
2.37
1.25
1.25
2.00
2.63
2.00
2.13
1.87
2.63
2.40
1.75
2.13
1.62
2.00
2.81
2.30
2.5
1.5
2.13
2.88
1.75
2.00
2.63
24.6
24.8
25.4
26.6
29.3
25.5
21.7
32.1
22.37
23.7
2.59
2.23
3.02
2.96
3.97
2.47
2.50
3.18
2.80
2.47
25.65
24.63
25.50
26.62
29.37
25.50
21.75
32.13
22.37
23.75
2.00
2.13
1.50
2.00
1.63
2.00
2.13
2.13
1.13
2.00
2.34
1.93
2.59
2.51
3.84
2.66
2.20
3.15
2.27
2.15
Mean
S.E x (0.05)
C.V (%)
29.95
1.36
24.00
58.17
2.60
12.64
150.57
6.92
13.00
62.23
2.50
15.9
2.33
1.82
221.0
2.11
0.40
53.83
2.23
0.32
39.80
25.63
1.41
15.61
2.82
0.31
31.61
25.65
1.42
15.70
1.86
0.27
40.30
2.52
0.32
34.78
Two of these newly developed QPM varieties were officially released to the Nigerian farmers in December, 2009.
There is need to test the acceptability of our products otherwise, all the efforts would have been wasted if the end-users reject
these products at the end of the exercise. As such, we conducted sensory evaluation of the roasted or boiled newly developed varieties
harvested after maturity (Table 20).
37
Table 20: Sensory evaluation (range 1-9) of four green maize varieties cross locations, 1998 and 1999
Varieties
ART-98-SWT1
ART-98-SWT2
ART-98-SWT3
ART-98-SWT4
POP31DMR
DMR-ESR-Y
DMR-LSR-Y
Mean
Colour
Acceptability
Boiled
Roasted
6.68a
6.63a
6.95a
6.30a
6.90a
6.43a
6.40b
6.20a
6.50b
5.0b
6.50b
6.0b
6.50b
6.53a
6.63
6.29
Appearance
Succulence
Chaff ness
Boiled
6.41ab
7.09a
7.05a
6.0b
6.0b
6.0b
6.0b
6.36
Boiled
6.26a
6.0ab
6.19a
6.81a
6.0ab
6.5a
5.5b
6.18
Boiled
6.51a
6.34a
5.96a
6.18a
6.5a
6.50a
6.5a
6.35
Roasted
7.03a
6.10b
6.83a
6.33b
6.1b
6.0b
6.0b
6.34
Roasted
6.90a
5.90ab
5.55b
7.44a
6.0ab
6.5a
5.0b
6.18
38
Sweetness
Roasted
6.25a
4.94b
5.93b
6.81a
6.0a
6.0a
5.0b
5.99
Boiled
6.76a
6.88a
4.63c
6.14a
5.0b
5.0b
5.0b
5.88
Flavour
Roasted
6.79a
6.88a
6.04a
6.88a
5.50b
5.0b
5.0b
5.81
Boiled
6.80a
6.28a
4.81b
6.24a
6.0a
6.0a
5.0b
6.76
Roasted
6.58a
6.03a
6.28a
7.0a
6.0a
6.0a
6.37a
6.29
General
Acceptability
Boiled
Roasted
7.28a
7.20a
6.14b
7.13a
6.56b
6.14b
6.56b
6.49b
8.0a
8.0a
6.0b
6.0b
6.0b
6.0b
7.57
6.70
iii.
Development of other varieties of maize and cowpea
Many other improved varieties of maize with specific attributes to solve particular production
challenges were developed in collaboration with other scientists in the Institute. These include striga
resistance/tolerant varieties (Ogunbodede et al, 2001; Olakojo et al, 2004) hybrid maize varieties
(Olakojo and Ogunbodede, 2005; Olakojo et al, 2005), open pollinated maize varieties (Olakojo et al,
2005), open pollinated maize varieties (Ogunbodede et al, 2000; Olakojo et al, 2005).
After six years of rigorous breeding and selection, the Institute in collaboration with the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan developed two stem-borer resistant
varieties of maize (BR-9943-DMR-SR and BR-9928-DMR-SR). For this specialized breeding work,
the Institute had to establish an experimental site in the UNDP designated stem borer endemic area in
Amakama, Umuahia, Abia State in year 2003. Also a new variety of cowpea (Ife-98-12) has recently
been developed in the Institute. These improved varieties were released to the Nigerian farmers by
the National Variety Release Committee on 3rd December, 2009.
7.
Information dissemination to resource-poor famers
For a clearer understanding of this important aspect of my duties as a scientist in a University-
based Zonal Coordinating National Agricultural Research Institute, there is need to give some details
of how results of technologies generated are disseminated to resource-poor farmers in an agrarian
country such as Nigeria. The well-known-technology-generation and information dissemination
“triangle” is relevant here:Research
Extension
Farmers
For the research scientist to be effective and efficient in his duties, the technologies generated
must be taken to the end-users – the rural farmers in this case effectively, efficiently and promptly.
39
How efficiently the three components of this “triangle” work hand-in-hand determines, to a large
extent, the level of agricultural productivity in a state or the country at large.
Various approaches have been adopted over the years to promote increased productivity in
this sector particularly since ordinarily it should provide the raw materials for industrial development
after providing enough food for local consumption and even export. During the colonial era, the
commodity approach was in place. This laid emphasis on export crops such as cocoa, groundnut,
oilpalm, cotton etc. Later the conventional Ministry approach to agricultural development was
introduced wherein each subsector had its own extension services resulting in the farmers being
“bombarded” by different “agents” from the same Ministry.
Skill transfer in either of these
approaches was by demonstration – trying to convince farmers of the superiority of improved over
the local technologies. Other strategies introduced in the country included:
i.
Farm Settlement Scheme (mostly in the Western and Eastern regions)
ii.
National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP). This approach attempted to
integrate research, extension and agro-service i.e. input supply
iii.
OFN – Operation Feed the Nation, which was introduced by the Military in the 1970s as a
way of checking the excessive rural-urban migration with an envisaged increase in food
production. The programme achieved one thing – it increased the awareness of both urban
and rural dwellers of the great potentials in agricultural investment.
iv.
The Green Revolution initiated by the civilian administration replaced the OFN.
The
programme achieved very little.
v.
The Agricultural Development Programme (ADP): The ADP as an extension strategy for
reaching small holder farmers was initiated in 1972 with the establishment of three (3)
enclave ADPs at Gombe, Gusau and Funtua with its focus being integrated agricultural and
rural development. Six more enclave and four state wide Projects were established in the late
‘70s as a result of the success by the three earlier enclave projects. The Multi-state ADPs I, II
& III were outcomes of the lessons learnt from these earlier projects and by 1989 every state
in Nigeria had an ADP (Nnonyelu, 1995). As a result of the observed inefficiency of
extension in the earlier projects, it was necessary to review existing strategies in order to solve
the problem of sub-standard extension. The reorganization resulted in the introduction of the
Training and Visit System (T&V) of Extension into the ADPs.
40
The T&V system was designed to solve problems associated with organization, supervision,
coverage and mobility, demonstration, training, linkage with research, coordination and status
of extension personnel. Its essential features which deal effectively with the above are:
-
Single line of command
-
Professionalism
-
Concentration of efforts
-
Time-bound work
-
Field and farmer orientation
-
Regular and continuous training and
-
Linkages with research.
The reorganization entailed a renewed focus and emphasis on the main features of the T&V
extension, particularly as it concerned visits and supervision at all levels, research-extensionfarmer-linkage and concentration of efforts. Other areas of reorganization included farmers’
participation in problem identification and diagnosis as well as in On-Farm Adaptive
Research (OFAR) and Small Plot Adoption Techniques (SPAT).
These ensured that
production recommendations were relevant to farmers’ production and resource situation and
that the farmer identified himself with the new technologies being pushed by extension
(Nnonyelu, 1995).
Thus a research scientists in the Institute is expected to perform three basic functions –
Firstly he is to conduct mostly applied, research that is targeted at solving the challenges
faced by resource-poor farmers in the country. The approach is “bottom-up” i.e. the farmers are
involved in problem identification rather than perceived solution being imposed on farmers.
Secondly, the scientist is expected to be a major player in disseminating the results of the research
carried out to the end-users – mostly peasant farms who still produce the bulk (over 70%) of the food
requirements of the country. And finally, the scientist is expected to render services to the University
and adjoining communities. I have dwelt to some extent on my research focus and some of the
improved technologies generated. I will now attempt to elucidate some of my contributions in the
area of information dissemination to rural farmers. It is in light of the foregoing that one can
appreciate the important function of a research scientist in a National Agricultural Research System
(NARS) where he is expected to interact with and transfer improved technologies to rural farmers.
This component of our mandate is so crucial to food security for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is
41
need to take our research findings to the farmers field, to validate our “on-station” (researcher
managed trial) results and then to popularize the new technologies so as to aid adoption by the
clientele.
A third reason for this important segment of our activities is to conform with the
mandatory requirements of the National Variety Release Committee. Such variety need to be tested
and approved by local farmers as being superior to all existing varieties, otherwise there would have
been no advantage in adopting the new technology.
7.1
Popularization of hybrid varieties in South West Nigeria
One of the objectives of the RRPMC (Regional Research Project on Maize and Cassava) was
to popularize recently developed hybrid varieties in South Western Nigeria with a view, to
convincing rural farmers of the superiority of this class of maize over the more common but less
productive open-pollinated varieties. This became necessary because of the reluctance of rural
farmers to adopt hybrid maize on the wrong assumption that it needed so much fertilizer to give
reasonable yields and since harvested seeds could not be replanted, they believe that it was not
profitable to cultivate. To debunk these misconceptions three newly developed hybrids (83-22-13,
8644-27, 8644-32) a popular hybrid (Oba Super) and a widely adopted open-pollinated variety
(Suwan-1-SR) were evaluated in Ibadan, Ikenne, Orin-Ekiti and Ilorin. The new hybrids performed
better than the open-pollinated variety even under marginal conditions (Fig. 11, Ogunbodede and
Omueti, 1997).
42
Fig 11:
Performance of some commercial hybrid maize varieties in South-Western Nigeria, 1996.
43
(b)
Dissemination of Downy Mildew Resistant Varieties
This devastating disease that could result in zero yield was first reported by King (1970) and
described by Oyekan et al (1989, 1990). It was estimated that crop loss to this disease in 1993 was
N342.5m (about $4.28m, FDA 1993). Maize streak virus disease which is another yield depressing
disease was reported by IITA in 1982 and 1986. Coexistence of these two major diseases was also
reported by Fajemisin (1981). From a survey conducted (Cardwell and Adenola, 1995) it was
obvious that most farmers plant DM susceptible varieties (Table 21).
No wonder downy mildew disease had resulted in a large reduction in maize production
particularly in Kwara, Ondo, Kogi, Osun, Oyo, Ogun and Edo States (Fig.12).
44
45
Fig. 12: Maize downy mildew affected states
Source: Cardwell, K.F. and A.O. Adenola (1995)
Some varieties with adequate levels of resistance to this disease e.g. DMR-ESR-Y, DMR-ESR-W,
DMR-LSR-Y, Suwan-1-SR etc. have been developed by the National Agricultural System in
collaboration with International Organizations to combat this menace.
Thus, to effectively control the spread of this disease, an aggressive extension strategy
had to be put in place. Being a Zonal Coordinating Research Institute for the eight south-western
Nigeria States, the Institute is in intimate contact with the local farmers.
As such evaluation of DM resistant candidate varieties was carried out on farmer fields
throughout SW Nigeria (Table 22). Also the final products were taken to farmers throughout the
nooks and crannies of this zone and beyond. Apart from the Institute funding sources, international
projects such as RRPMC (Regional Research Project on Maize and Cassava) contributed
significantly to research and extension to curb the menace (Ogunbodede and Omueti, 1997).
Table 21: Status of Downy Mildew Disease of Maize – Selected States in SW and Central AgroEcological Zones, 1993.
Estimated land
area under
maize
Estimated no. of
farmers in the
state
Maize type
grown
Seed Source
Farmer’s seed
State ADP
Out of State
Private seed
Company
What
Proportion of
farmers buy
seed:
i Once each
year
ii Occasionally
iii Never
Kwara
102,224
ha
Oyo
260,000ha
Osun
58,252.95ha
184,787
farm
families
OP
(White)
344,230
farm
families
OP (Y/W)
329,061
farm
families
OP W/Y
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
States
Ogun
-
Kogi
150,000ha
Ondo
90,000ha
Delta
3,740.50ha
Total
664,217
250,000
farm
families
OP
W/Y
172,000
farm
families
OP W/Y
150,000
farm
families
OP W/Y
Hybrid
180,000
farm
families
OP W/Y
1,520,068
Yes
Yes
Yes
50%
80%
5%
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
5%
No
No
No
40%
60%
40%
85%
20%
30%
1%
80%
20%
30%
10%
30%
30%
10%
5%
50%
30%
5%
60%
99%
Source: Cardwell, K.F. and A.O. Adenola (1995)
46
Table 22: Area (ha) grown to Downy Mildew Resistant Varieties (1998)
Osun
Ekiti
Edo
Ogun
Total
V1
V2
V1
V2
V1
V2
V1
V2
1995
50.29
39.99
24.17
16.11
12.17
18.25
33.82
14.50
120.45 88.85
1996
55.45
36.95
29.01
12.01
14.29
14.09
36.82
19.83
134.55 82.88
1997
62.21
18.12
23.35
19.10
22.67
15.11
38.20
33.88
146.43 86.20
1998
44.37
42.63
18.61
14.03
21.96
16.56
40.02
35.49
124.96 108.71
V1 = DMRLSR W/Y
V1
V2
V2 = DMESR W/Y
Source: Field Survey, 1998
Farmers’ comments on the characteristics and utilization of local and improved maize varieties were
also obtained (Table 23).
Table 23:
Farmer’s comments on utilization characteristics of MAIZE Germplasm
Local types
Improved types
1.
2.
3.
4.
Less milleable
Low product yield and too chaffy
Does not roast well
Could be too thick for acceptability, low
solubility property
‘Eko’ not too thick
Low water absorption index
Not sweet
Very milleable
Better product yield
Roast well
Not too thick outercoat
5. Gives more stable and thick ‘eko’ (maize gruel)
6. Better swelling property and water absorption index
7. Could be very sweet
Source: Ogunbodede B. A. and O. Omueti (1997)
7.2
ON-farm trials of newly developed green maize varieties
As a pre-requisite for the official release of an improved variety by the National Variety
Release Committee, seeds of the new variety must be evaluated by farmers under the prevailing
ecological conditions in their respective locations. Such varieties must still prove superior to the best
local variety to qualify for release. Seeds of two candidate green maize varieties were so tested under
the auspices of Oyo State Agricultural Development Programme at Oyo town, Saki, Ogbomoso and
Ibadan/Ibarapa (OYSDAEP, 2000 Table 24).
47
Table 24:
Results of on-farm trials of 2 green maize varieties in Oyo State by Oyo State
Agric. Dev. Programme, 2000
______________________________________________________________________________
Oyo
Saki
Ogbomoso
Ibadan/Ibarapa Mean
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Days to tasselling
ART-98-SWT1
52
52
60
51
57
ART-98-SWT2
53
55
64
49
56
Suwan-1-Sr (check)
58
57
79
49
61
Maize fresh weight (t/ha)
ART-98-SWT1
ART-98-SWT2
Suwan 1-SR
10.01
10.64
13.20
14.92
10.89
15.22
10.30
11.73
13.13
12.38
11.48
13.42
11.89
11.18
13.75
Maize grain weight (t/ha)
ART-98-SWT1
ART-98-SWT2
Suwan 1-SR
1.36
1.45
1.91
2.04
1.49
2.07
1.41
1.60
1.79
1.70
1.57
1.84
1.63
1.53
1.90
Sweetness 1-3 (1-fair, 2Good, 3-Excellent
ART-98-SWT1
3
3
3
3
3
ART-98-SWT2
1
1
1
1
1
Suwan 1-SR
2
2
2
2
2
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Even though the improved variety used as check variety recorded a slightly higher (15.64%) yield in
Oyo State, the improved quality – higher protein, higher sucrose content of the green maize attracted
better price which more than compensated for the reduced yield. Because farmers in Ogun State used
the prominent local variety (Aiyetoro local) as the check variety, the improved green maize variety
outyielded the check variety by as much as 17.6% (Table 25). While the local variety was rated as
fair, the two green maize varieties were rated as very good and excellent (Table 25).
48
Table 25: Results of ON-FARM trials of 2 green maize varieties in Ogun State by Ogun State
Agricultural Development Programme, 2000.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Parameter
Location
Mean across
Variety
Ijo-Agbe
Odeda I
Odeda II
Locations
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Days to tasseling (days)
ART-98-SWT1
53
54
53
ART-98-SWT2
54
55
54
Ayetoro local
60
62
61
Maize Fresh weight (t/ha)
ART-98-SWT1
10.0
10.3
10.0
ART-98-SWT2
8.0
8.2
8.5
Ayetoro Local
9.0
9.4
9.1
Maize grain weight (t/ha)
ART-98-SWT1
1.40
1.3
1.2
ART-98-SWT2
1.20
1.1
0.9
Ayetoro Local
1.27
1.2
1.1
Sweetness 1-3
(1 fair, 2-Good, 3-Excellent)
Roasted Boiled Roasted Boiled Roasted Boiled
ART-98-SWT1
3
3
2
2
3
3
ART-98-SWT2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Ayetoro Local
1
1
1
1
1
1
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Overall assessment:
ART-98-SWT2
was rated best (excellent)
ART-98-SWT1
was rated second (very good)
Ayetoro Local
was rated fair
7.3
On-farm trials of newly developed kenaf variety
Eventhough kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) can grow virtually everywhere in the country, the
traditional “home” of this miracle crop remains the Central and North-Western agro-ecological zones
where it is cultivated in most homesteads for its culinary properties. As such the ON-FARM trials of
two newly developed kenaf varieties and a local check were conducted by farmers in three major
zones of the southern guinea savannah (Somaji, Sidisaba and Katcha) in 2000 and 2001 (Olakojo et
al, 2006). The two improved varieties consistently and significantly outyielded the local variety by
as much as 42.2% in core yield and 32.9% in fibre yield in year 2000 (Table 26).
49
Table 26:
Varietal means of kenaf agronomic characters across locations
_________________________________________________________________________________
Variety
(t/ha)
Days of flowering
Plant height (m)
Fibre yield(t/ha)
Core
Seed yields
Yield (t/ha)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2000
2001
2000 2001
2000 2001
2000
2001
2000
2001
Ifeken 100
62.55b 60.0b
3.27a 2.40a
1.01a 1.32a
2.63a
2.94a
1.50a
0.88b
Ifeken 400
61.77b 60.0b
3.11a 2.21a
1.07a 1.20a
2.40a
2.16a
1.74a
0.68c
Local
71.11a 62.0a
2.11b 1.50b
0.76b 0.80c
1.85b 0.80b 0.83b 0.92a
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Mean
65.14
60.60
2.86
2.05
0.95
1.12
2.29
2.29
1.37
0.83
SE(0.05)
1.27
0.94
0.23 0.07
0.11 0.05
0.32
0.32
0.37
0.10
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figures in the same column with different letter are significantly different at p<0.05.
7.4
On-Farm Adaptive Research (OFAR) Team Leadership in Ogun State
Agricultural Development Programme
Extension is the core component of ADP system since it ensures that farmers are provided
with the requisite knowledge and skills necessary to increase their agricultural productivity and,
hence, their incomes and subsequently standard of living.
Thus, extension ensures that new
technologies being generated by research scientists are disseminated effectively to farmers. This is
achieved by regular visits of research scientists and extension agents to farmers to appraise their
farming practices, identify production bottlenecks and profer solutions.
Five National Agricultural Research Institutes in the country are designated as Zonal
Coordinating Research Institutes to backstop adaptive research activities at the ADPs in the
respective agro-ecological zones. The five Zonal Coordinating Research Institutes are: Institute for
Agricultural Research (IAR), Zaria for North West; Lake Chad Research Institute (LCRI), Maiduguri
for North-East, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, Niger State for North-Central,
National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) for South-East and Institute of Agricultural
Research and Training (IAR&T), Obafemi Awolowo University, Ibadan for South-West agroecological zone.
These National Agricultural Research Institutes in addition to back-stopping
adaptive research in the ADPs within the zones, also appoint On-farm Adaptive Research (OFAR)
Team Leaders from within each coordinating Institute. The Team leaders and OFAR Team members
50
superintend OFAR activities, and formulate adaptive research guidelines. The Team Leader presides
over the Monthly Technology Review Meetings (MTRM) and generally work hand-in-hand with the
Programme Managers (PMs) of the various ADPs to ensure that information on improved
technologies are disseminated to all the farm-families in the State on a regular basis.
Immediately I finished my Post-Graduate studies in 1984, I was appointed a member of the
On-farm Adaptive Research (OFAR) Team for Oyo State ADP with the specific task of
disseminating latest technologies to farm-families in the areas of agronomy of arable crops with
appropriate extension messages. I also served as Resource Person in the other ADPs in South-West
zone, as well as the North-Central zone. In 1991, I was appointed OFAR/MTRM Team Leader for
Ogun State ADP, a post I held for 11 years until I was elected the Deputy Director of the Institute in
April, 2002. My Team Leadership position afforded me even greater opportunities for intimate
contact with resource-poor farmers in every nook and cranny of Ogun State and beyond. I was able
to bring research findings closer to the eventual users and also participated in diagnosing the
challenges to increased productivity from the view point of the farmers. Solutions proffered to such
problems were always very easily adopted by majority of the farmers because it would have
addressed mutually identified bottlenecks.
The process of arriving at such solutions also
accommodated the views and opinions of these end-users (the peasant farmers) since they were
deliberately involved in validating the claims of research scientists by being fully involved in the
farmer-managed ON-farm Adaptive Research trials that would compare the performance of these
new technologies with the farmers practice under farmer’s conditions. Any fund expended on
developing an improved technology could be regarded as a waste if the ultimate results were not
adopted by the local farmers.
51
8.
Nigeria and Food security
8.1
Global and National Food Security
Food insecurity is indeed one of the most intractable problems confronting the developing
world particularly Africa and Asia. The household is food insecure if it can provide food to feed its
members for only a few months of the year. This worrisome situation is attributable to poverty.
Approximately 1.2 billion rural people live in poverty (globally defined as living on less than 1 US
$ per day). Also about 160 million pre-school children are malnourished. Malnutrition at a young
age leads to the early onset of poor physical and cognitive productivity and higher rates of
communicable diseases such as diarrhea or measles which may later in life predispose the child to
other ailments like diabetes and heart diseases. About 90% of developing world’s poor live in Asia
and sub-saharan Africa. Most of the developing world’s malnourished children live in south Asia
and sub-saharan Africa together accounting for 70%. Less that 1% live in the middle East and North
Africa and about 7% in Latin America and the Caribbean (Hazell and Haddad, 2001).
The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) while highlighting the challenges in
the developing world in 2009 posited that:
5.1 billion people live in developing countries

1.2 billion people live on less than US$1 a day

900 million people go hungry every day

170 million children under 5 are malnourished

600 million women 19 years and over are anaemic (IFPRI, 2009).
The Institute (IFPRI) predicted that if there are no drastic changes in agricultural development
practices by 2015, globally:
-
600 million people will suffer from hunger
-
900 million people will live in absolute poverty
-
128 million pre-school children will be malnourished
The African Union (AU) agrees that 27% of Africans are malnourished. The African population as at
2005 was put at 764 million. This means that 206 million people are undernourished in Africa.
The fundamental challenges facing the Nigerian National Food System are the sustainable
provision of food that is adequate both in quantity and quality and at affordable prices. With a
52
population of 140 million, if 27% of Africans are malnourished then at least 38 million, of us
(Nigerians) are undernourished!
These dismal statistics are not meant to frighten us rather, they are intended to drive home the
reality of our precarious food insecurity situation so that we can take pragmatic steps devoid of any
sentiment to arrest the situation.
8.2
Should Nigeria be Food Insecure fifty years after independence?
Nigeria with a land area of about 910,770 kms is one of the largest countries in West Africa.
It encompasses three major ecological regions – humid forest region, sub-humid region and a semi
arid region with annual rainfall ranging from about 250mm in the Sahelian north to over 3000mm in
the southern coastal areas. The country has nearly 68 million hectares under crop / pasture and forest.
Of this only 31 million hectares, 45% of the total arable land area is under cultivation (Abalu 1993)
giving a national average of 0.35 hectare of cultivated land per capita.
The physical and climatic diversity permits the growth of a wide variety of crops. The
country, therefore, has a great agricultural potential. Inspite of this natural endowment, Nigeria
remains one of the poorest countries in the world. About 40 years ago Nigeria’s per capita income
was about $1,500.00. The country was then classified on the same level with:
* Brazil
* Columbia
* Argentina
* Bulgaria
* Bangladesh
* Malaysia
* Indonisia
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Peru
* Jamaica,
* Mexico
* Thailand
*Hong Kong *
India
* Romania etc.
All these countries have since then paid consistent attention to sustainable agriculture and
industrialization.
Undoubtedly, the country is very rich in crop plant genetic resources which exist in wild
forms in their natural habitats as well as in diverse crop landraces/ecotypes/cultivars.
Understandably, Nigerians depend very heavily directly and indirectly on plants because majority of
the population live in the rural areas. The daily energy requirements is almost entirely from plant
sources. Thus, plants are used in a variety of ways such as food, spices/condiment, herbs, energy
source, raw materials etc. The country is a renowned centre of diversity for many taxa such as
53
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), West African okra (Abelmoschus caillei), West African rice (Oryza
glaberrima), yam (Dioscorea sp), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean), African yam bean
(Sphenostylis sternocarpa) and winged bean (Psophcarphus tetragonolobus). However, perhaps as a
result of poor funding culminating in infrequent (or non-existent) germplasm collections, the
knowledge base of genetic diversity in crop plants is very low. With the little information we have,
many potentially useful plants are today still uncultivated to any reasonable extent in the country.
Such plants include: Alligator pepper (Afromommum meleueta), breadful (Artocarpus, communis),
shea-butter (Butyrospernum paradoxum subsp Parkii), silk cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra), African
star apple (Chrysophyllum albidum), Africa pear (Deacryodes edulis), Fig tree, “opoto” (Ficus
capensis), African mango (Irvingia gabonensis var.excelsa), Date palm (Phoenix dactyl lifera)
among others (NACGRAB, 2008).
To come back home, the Institute has the national mandate for the genetic improvement of
maize and kenaf. The Institute has been working on maize almost from inception. Eventhough
regarded as a food staple, maize is indeed an industrial crop from which a variety of products could
be developed both for local and export markets. Also, a lot of research have been conducted
especially on production and utilization of these two crops. Yet because of the lack of political will
coupled with non-provision of conducive environment for Small and Medium Enterprises to thrive,
most of such results are still gathering dust on the shelves. A few examples of the opportunities
available from commercial processing of these crops will clearly elucidate this point.
8.2.1
Industrial utilization of maize
Maize remains the pivot of the livestock industry. As such, establishment of feed mills will
be feasible and profitable. Enterpreneurs can even process the maize crop and residue into cattle and
other ruminants feed during the dry season. Moreover, the milled flour from maize is used to
produce breakfast cereals, non-alcoholic beverage and baby foods. Malted maize is also used for
brewing and whisky distilling. Wet mill maize can be used to produce industrial starch. A high
percentage of the syrup and dextrin used in the food, beverage, pharmaceutical and textile industries
is derived from corn starch. Nigeria is blessed with a very good weather and fertile soil. Maize
grows virtually from the creeks of the coastal Niger-Delta to the Sahel zones of the north. Given
Nigeria’s endowment with a large expanse of arable land, a large population of unemployed and
54
underemployed labour force, a veritable stock of human capital, with appropriate resources
allocation, maize would be a substantive source of income and foreign exchange earning for Nigeria.
8.2.2
Production and processing of kenaf as panacea for the importation
of jute bags and newsprint
The most critical raw material related problem in the Pulp, Paper and Publishing sector of the
Nigerian economy revolves around the sourcing of local fibre pulp.
There has been an ever-
increasing demand for and the usage of paper in Nigeria for decades. The pulp and paper mills at
Jebba, Okuiboku (Cross River State) have virtually collapsed while the one at Iwopin (Ogun State)
was “dead on arrival.” One of the most important factors responsible for this ugly situation was that
the mills relied heavily on imported long fibre (to the tune of over 53,000 million metric tons
annually) as a major input. This immense demand for long fibre pulp, therefore, created a large
market that could be filled locally by small and medium-scale private investment in the pulp mill
industry.
Paper of acceptable quality and grade can be only obtained by blending short fibre pulp with
long fibres in a defined proportion with the percentage of long fibre component being determined by
the strength and quality of paper needed e.g. 10% of long fibre for newsprint and as much as 50% for
kraft papers. While other sources of long fibres (bamboo, raphia, straw etc) have been used partially
or wholly for paper making, the quality of paper produced from kenaf is in all respects superior.
Newsprint from kenaf produced paper with acceptable characteristics such as high brightness, lower
ink density and rub-off than standard newsprint. Also, for the production of printing and writing
papers and tissue papers, whole stalk kenaf can replace softwood and hardwood pulps. Kenaf can
also be used for speciality papers such as cigarette and security papers (e.g. bank notes and
certificates). Furthermore, kenaf is the major raw material in producing packaging bags (commonly
called “jute” bags). Since the jute bag factory in Badagry, Lagos State closed down decades ago,
nothing much has been done to resuscitate it.
A major attraction of this crop is the very short gestation period. While other sources of longfibre e.g. Gmelina takes 8 to 10 years to mature, kenaf matures in only 100 to 120 days. Thus with
irrigation facilities, three cropings are possible in one year.
55
That kenaf can grow profitably in the south-west and other agro-ecologies of Nigeria has been
well known for decades. This was further confirmed by the results of multi-locational trials sited in
South West, South-East and North Central Nigeria in 1991/1992 (Ogunbodede, 1997). From the
results of our research within the last decade or so as well as research from other institutions, it is
well established that kenaf is indeed a crop that can revolutionize the agricultural, newsprint,
packaging as well as the building subsectors of the Nigerian economy.
Nigeria could become
industrialized within a short time if urgent steps are taken to take advantage of research results.
The following materials (among others) can be obtained from kenaf:
i.
Newsprint with desirable characteristics
ii.
Printing, writing and tissue papers
iii.
Speciality papers e.g. bank notes and certificates
iv.
Packaging bags especially to export agricultural commodities
v.
Roofing felt and ceiling asbestos
vi.
Burlap – the canvas used for shoes and bags
vii.
Camouflage clothes – mostly used by members of the armed forces
viii.
Typing cord
ix.
Plastics
x.
Carpet padding
The nation stands to gain so much by investing in kenaf research, production and processing.
These include:
i.
Huge foreign exchange (millions of dollars) currently used in importing newsprint will
be conserved.
ii.
Huge foreign exchange (over N200,000,000.00 in 2003 alone) used in importing “jute”
bags from Bangladesh, India etc will be saved.
iii.
Paper producing mills e.g. those at Oku-Iboku (Cross Rivers State), Jebba (Kwara State)
and Iwopin (Ogun State) will roar back to life. Thousands of Nigerians will be gainfully
employed.
iv.
Bags made from kenaf are bio-degradable and are globally acceptable in preference to
synthetic bags. Thus, packaging bags factories will be resuscitated and/or established.
This will provide job-opportunities for thousands of Nigerians and our produce will be
easily acceptable in international market.
56
v.
Thousands of farm families will be gainfully employed by planting kenaf to feed the
factories.
vi.
There are bright opportunities of exporting the finished products of these factories to
other countries especially within the African continent.
9.
Recommendations
There is no doubt that genetics has played a significant role in the achievement of the current
food production level, given the very trying circumstances under which agricultural research has been
put these past few decades. It is a glaring fact also that Nigeria is far from achieving food security
inspite of all these efforts. The solution to this multi-faceted problem is not-far-fetched:-
i.
Drastic improvement in funding science and technology
It is widely recognized that countries must build their science, technology and innovations
capacity to be able to increase productivity, wealth and standard of living. Science and technology is
indeed, the engine of economic growth as was demonstrated by South Korea when it invested heavily
in Science and Technology and was able to raise per capita income substantially in 2005 (AsensoOkyere, 2009).
In Nigeria, as at now, facilities for science and technology are virtually lacking.
The infrastructures which must not only be established but also diligently maintained should include:- Tissue culture laboratories.
- Biotechnology facilities for genetic manipulations and varietal development – Every sciencebased University and National Agricultural Research Institute deserves to have this facility.
- Gene banks – this could be sited in each of the agro-ecological zones in the country. Such
banks should have in situ and ex situ conservation facilities etc.
Asenso-Okyere (2009) quoted from Her Excellency Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of
Liberia’s speech at the Science with Africa Conference (3-7 March, 2008, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia)
“No country on earth has developed without deploying harnessing and utilizing science and
technology whether it is through technology transfer or home grown. The African continent needs to
think seriously about stepping up its efforts in using science and technology for decision support and
for making a difference in the lives of ordinary people. By harnessing science and technology,
African countries have a stronger chance for sustained economic growth, for addressing poverty,
57
disease and environmental destruction.
Therefore, building national science and technology
capacities are critical indicators of the future well-being of a country’s citizens and how well a
country can compete in the global market”.
Rwandan President Paul Kigame echoed this earlier (Asenso-Okyere, 2009) in a speech to the
Royal Society in London (2006): “We in Africa must either begin to build our scientific and
technological training capabilities or remain an impoverished appendage to the global economy. We
all know that the application of science and technology is fundamental and indeed, indispensable in
the social and economic transformation of our countries.
Productive capacities in modern
economies are not based merely on capital, land and labour. They are also dependent on scientific
knowledge and sustained technological advances.”
ii.
Manpower development
Let us examine this problem from two perspectives:-
(a)
Dearth of geneticists and plant breeders in the national research system
It is becoming increasingly difficult for the Universities to attract students into the Faculties
of Agriculture and by implication into Departments of Genetics and Breeding. Worse still,
out of the very few students currently enrolled in these departments, less than ten per cent
(10%) are desirous of going for Post Graduate training in these disciplines. The very few that
reluctantly come for such advanced training are self-sponsored and are studying principally
because there is no job. Consequently, at the slightest opportunity they abandon academic
career for juicy appointments in other sectors of the economy. The result is staring all of us in
the face as there is scarcely a Research Institute or Faculty of Agriculture in any Nigerian
University today wherein full complements of staff in these almost “endangered” disciplines
are on ground. If it is this bad now, what will happen in the next five years or so when most
of us that are still struggling to maintain the pace retire from active service? One way to
tackle this problem will be provision of scholarships to students in these disciplines both at
under-graduate and post-graduate levels. This will go a long way in encouraging students to
pursue degrees in these fields of endeavor.
(b)
Technical professional training for geneticists and breeders
Unless a scientist or technical staff goes on regular in-service training in his/her field of
specialization, such a staff becomes obsolete and out-of-tune with modern trends within a
58
short time. As such, government and other relevant agencies (FAO, UNDP, CGIARs, etc)
should redouble efforts in arranging for local (Nigerian), sub-regional or overseas trainings in
specialized areas. Such areas can include (but not limited to):-
iii.

Cryopreservation of embryos, seeds etc

Tissue culture and mass propagation of plant materials

Protoplast isolation and fusion

Fermentation and enzyme technology

DNA-marker assisted breeding

Genetic transformation among others
Protecting Intellectual Property (IPR) of inventors
Protecting IPR is a critical aspect of technology innovation and by implication sustenance of
SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). The rights of inventors need to be jealously protected. This
can be enhanced by going into partnership agreement with him or in the case of public officers, with
his research organization as the case might be. Such a partnership will even ensure a hitch-free
running of the SME based on the technical know-how of the partnering establishment(s). It will also
provide further incentives to budding innovators to put in all it takes to develop new products since
the recognition and remuneration are guaranteed. Furthermore, Nigerian genetic resources (both
plants and animals) were acquired in the past, by other countries that derived huge economic benefits
therefrom without compensation to the local communities from where such materials were acquired.
Activists in many countries e.g. Zimbabwe have been at the forefront of the struggle to ensure that
the rights of local communities, farmers and breeders to their biological resources, traditional
knowledge and technologies are protected. The Genetics Society of Nigeria (of which I was a former
National President, 1998 to 2004) has urged the Federal Government, over the years, to develop a
national legislation to protect these rights. The African Union recently adopted a model law to guide
member countries. Also The Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement of the World
Trade Organization (WTO) provide a ray of hope in this direction. Most of the plants now used to
generate millions of dollars annually from manufacturing drugs and other chemicals were taken from
Africa without payment of any royalties.
59
iv.
Enactment of only resource-poor Nigerian targeted policies
Government at all levels should endeavour to enact policies that will ameliorate the suffering
of the Nigerian masses irrespective of whose “ox is gored.” Often times, our policies ensure that the
rich become richer while the poor become poorer. Unbridled importation of products that can easily
be manufactured in Nigeria is a sure way to entrench unemployment and poverty in Nigeria but
guaranteeing a steady flow of foreign exchange to the developed countries. Akin to this, is the issue
of policy reversals. The moment a law negatively affects “big wigs” in the society, necessary
contacts are made, pressure is mounted from all angles, most of the time, the policy is reversed even
before reaching midstream.
The implications are numerous. People that have hearkened to the
“clarion-call” and have invested time and other resources would not only be disappointed but also
incure huge financial losses. More worrisome is the fact that such “scape-goats” of our political
policy instability will develop apathy to further signals from the government.
v.
Deliberate efforts to develop the rural communities
The rate of rural-urban migration should be a source of concern to every patriotic Nigerian.
While the rural areas from which over 70% of our food staples are derived are getting steadily
depleted of the workforce, large cities, especially State capitals, are daily flooded with hungry
looking desperate job seekers. The results are obvious. The food supply situation in the country is
getting worse by the day while the limited facilities in our cities are often over-stretched to the limit.
After months (if not years) of searching for elusive-white-collar jobs in the cities, these “army” of
job-seekers often turn to other means of survival. No wonder crime rate is on the increase and the
citizenry is the worse for it. But really, should the situation in the rural areas degenerate to this level?
No. I do not think so. Even less endowed African communities are developing “satellite” cities
linked to major cities by good road networks, train and buses. In these “rural” cities, all amenities
available in major cities are provided – good road network, schools, hospitals, banks, recreation parks
etc. There is no doubt that cost of living in these rural areas will be cheap. This economic factor
alone will encourage young school leavers to endeavor to be gainfully employed in the rural areas if
only to save money for other productive purposes. The farm-settlement scheme established in
various part of the old Western Region of the country had these lofty goals as the overall objectives.
The scheme was even tailored to the sustainable production of food and industrial raw materials for
60
the nation’s agricultural sector. Some state governments are already re-visiting this issue as a
panacea for the elusive food security in our country.
vi.
Provision of easy-to-get agricultural loans at single digit interest rate
A major constraint to the adoption of improved agricultural technologies is non-availability of
funds to procure the necessary inputs e.g. improved seeds, fertilizer etc for a newly developed crop
variety. Many genuine farmers clamour for these loans without success. A case in point was that of
an enlightened farmer in Ijebu-Mushin who approached the Institute to take over the management of
the 27 acre farm so as to break even and eventually make profit from the investment. The farmer
already had 2000 layers, a piggery with 30 pigs, farm structures for expansion and many dug-out
ponds for fish-farming. The Institute signed an MOU (Memorandum of Understanding) with the
company and deliberations were concluded on a proposal that would have turned around the fortunes
of this farm. The Company needed only N3.5m for feeding and running the farm for the first 6
months or so before returns on investment could start trickling in. The company’s attempt to obtain
this loan from a commercial bank was futile even after series of meetings of bank officials with the
company management, visits to the farm and phone-calls to me (the Director) to confirm our
involvement with the farm. Such is the plight of millions of resource poor-Nigerians who are ready
and willing to contribute significantly to food security in Nigeria. Unless the procedure is simplified
and genuine farmers given financial support as and at when due, we may continue to pay lip-service
to agriculture in this country.
10.
Conclusions
Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, in this lecture, I have attempted to draw attention of this august
gathering to the situation of food security in our dear country as at the moment. I have also
highlighted my modest contributions to alleviate hunger, malnutrition and food insecurity. There is
still need for more indepth research to enhance food productivity as well as information
dissemination to resource-poor farmers who still produce over 70% of the nations’ food staples.
Being on the concurrent list, Agriculture still requires more attention from the three tiers of
government – the Federal, State and Local Governments. Also, Private Sector, including industries
utilizing the results of agricultural research, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), financial
61
sector and individuals still need to pay more attention to this sector if food self-sufficiency will not
continue to be a mirage.
It will be unethical for me to claim all the credits for the modest contributions that I might
have been able to make. Several scientists both at the Faculty of Agriculture and the Institute have
partnered with me to execute joint research projects on varied topics in relation to the theme of this
lecture. I wish to particularly mention the Plant Breeding team of the Institute with whom I have
worked tirelessly over the years to make the Institute a household name when the issue of varietal
development of important food staples are mentioned in this country. All these achievements could
not have materialized but for the wonderful support of my loving wife, understanding children,
siblings and friends.
“So then, it is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs but of God who shows mercy” (Rom.
9:16). I return all the glory and adoration to the Almighty God for the grace to present this lecture
today. Unto Him alone be the glory and honour Amen.
Mr. Vice-Chancellor Sir, distinguished ladies and gentlemen, I thank you all for your
attention.
62
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