Introduction to Religious Studies and Theology
RS 100C – A Spring 2008
Week Three
PART ONE
Primal Religion
1. Anthropology and archaeology have proven that all human societies have had a
spiritual sense. They have demonstrated ritual, belief in supernatural powers, have
developed symbol systems, and created sacred objects. Some had sacred texts while
others depended only on petroglyphs and sacred symbols. Often there was an awe of the
sky and nature’s powers that embedded the symbolism. Burial sites usually presented a
sense of life after death in some form (ochre in the caves, sacred objects in or near the
burial site, and documents indicating ad desire to commemorate the life.
2. Primal religions are religions of the land that have arisen among native peoples around
the world. Joseph Campbell devoted his life to finding a synchronism among the
symbolic meanings of varied cultures. These are called archetypes.
In Native American spirituality, as in all diverse aspects of primal religion on all the
continents, there is an individuality to a designated peoples, often separated by clans or
natural land divisions. One can learn the archetypes of a primal society in a given
continent and then explore the diverse and varied symbolism of each peoples.
The major symbols of the Native American religions that typify worldwide archetypes
are the following: the Sacred Tree, The Medicine Wheel (often seen in the sky), the flute,
the drum, animals such as the Buffalo.
Hinduism
1. Brahmin/Brahman a is the Sanskrit name of the monistic deity that permeates Hindu
thought.
2. Brahman is represented by a Trimurti, and manifested in a trinity of deities: Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva. Each of these divine manifestations of Brahma also have a consort,
therefore, there is a male and female nature to Brahma. Your sheet indicates these gods
and goddesses.
Names you need to know – Brahman, Brahma and Sarasvati, Shiva and Lakshmi, Vishnu
and Parvati, Ganesha
3. Hinduism grew out of the primal religion of the Indus River Valley and was
influenced by a Dravidian culture (Vedas developing around 1500 BCE) ) and
immigrating Aryan tribes. 200-1500 BCE
Sacred texts:
Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Sutras (shruti, Rig Veda (hymns to the
Trimuti)
Oral tradition is known as coming from the rishis, “that which is heard”
Shrmriti .. “that which is remembered”
Ramayana Mahabharata (Bhagavad Gita)
4. Hinduism cannot be defined. It is like the hole in a donut.
5. Philosophy of Hinduism:
atman
the soul (reborn millions of times, in many forms, from heavens to hells)
karma
moral law
moksha
rebirth
paths
jnana marga (knowledge), karma marga (action, appropriate works),
bhakti marga (devotion)
dharma
appropriate behavior, path to rebirth
darshan
worship, view of an object
puja
ritual
ohm (aum)
seed of the mantras, mystical contemplation
Buddhism
1. Read the brief life of Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE,
Gandhāra.Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble
Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in
Buddhism's Three Jewels Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the
lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is
considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.
The Three Jewels are:



The Buddha (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained
Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. The Buddha could
also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the
Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also
means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be
experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism)
connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is
used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of
groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis),
or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of
Awakening (Sotapanna (pali)—one who has entered the stream to enlightenment).
According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen,
the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code
but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.
According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model, however, he did
not ask his followers to have faith in his example of a human who escaped the pain and
danger of existence. Instead, he continually encouraged them to put his teachings to the
test and only accept what they could verify on their own. The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of
the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and
the attainment of enlightenment. The Saṅgha (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a
refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further
examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly
projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain
Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all
three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.
Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The
suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be
alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some
Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra,
also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of
their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.
The Four Noble Truths
According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is
in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by
following the Noble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Āryāṣṭāṅgamārgaḥ , Pāli: Ariyo
Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri
Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".
1.
2.
3.
4.
There is suffering
There is a cause of suffering — craving
There is the cessation of suffering
There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering — the Noble Eightfold Path
According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first
sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment,[36] which was given to the five
ascetics with whom he had practised austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally
spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the
manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at
that time. The early teaching[37] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada[38] is
that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana
position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and
more expansive Mahayana teachings.[39]
The Noble Eightfold Path
The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of
Buddhism.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the
Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: Śīla (which concerns wholesome
physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind)
and Prajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).
Śīla is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the
division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
1. Right Speech—One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way
(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
2. Right Actions—Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyakkarmānta, sammā-kammanta)
3. Right Livelihood—One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or
others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)
Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another
three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
1. Right Effort/Exercise—One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma,
sammā-vāyāma)
2. Right Mindfulness/Awareness—Mental ability to see things for what they are
with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
3. Right Concentration/Meditation—Being aware of the present reality within
oneself, without any craving or aversion. (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)
Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of
the Noble Eightfold Path:
1. Right Understanding—Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.
(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
2. Right Thoughts—Change in the pattern of thinking. (samyak-saṃkalpa,
sammā-saṅkappa)
The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold
Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages
through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of
another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous
development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajñā (Pāli
paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) and samādhi (concentration).
PART TWO
Exegesis and Biblical Study
-
A biblical commentary
A biblical dictionary
An Interlinear Bible, either Hebrew or Greek
A specific biblical commentary
A book on the social and historical background
PART THREE
Christology – the study of Christ [Debates for the first 300 years of Christianity]
Church – meaning of the word as it has evolved from the biblical term ecclesia
Nature and Grace –
Human nature is the understanding of how God created humanity and
endowed humans with a certain purpose.
Grace is a word derived from the Latin word for gift, gratia. Grace is what
humans understand is given by God to every man and woman.