KEY KNOWLEDGE Suggested Answers (pp. 347–8)
REVIEW
1
Learning is when a relatively permanent change in behaviour is made as a result
of experience.
2
Learning is a hypothetical construct because it cannot be directly observed. We
can only infer from observing changes in behaviour.
3
The three types of behaviour that are not dependent upon learning are:

Reflex actions: simple reflexes important for survival; automatic, involuntary
responses that are not learnt.

Fixed action patterns: complex species-specific behaviour patterns that are the same
for every member of a species; these are not learnt.

Maturation: behaviour dependent upon reaching developmental stages; these are
not learnt.
4
A sucking reflex is a simple reflex action that enables a baby to automatically
suck when a nipple is placed in its mouth, which enables survival through feeding.
However, a fixed action pattern is a complex set of behaviour patterns specific to a
species. For example, a male bowerbird will create a mound of twigs and coloured
(usually blue) objects to attract a female.
5
A child is unable to walk until its leg muscles are sufficiently developed to be
able to support body weight. Therefore, walking is a behaviour dependent upon
maturation.
INVESTIGATE
Student’s own responses, for example:
Learning type
Description/definition
Reflex action
Unlearnt, simple survival Contraction of pupil in eye
reflexes
in bright light to prevent
damage to retina
Unlearnt, species-specific, Male lyrebird dance routine
complex behaviour patterns to attract a female
Behaviour dependent upon Toilet training for toddlers
reaching
developmental is
dependent
upon
stages
developmental stage
Fixed action pattern
Maturation
Example
Chapter 14 Suggested Answers
REVIEW 14.1
1
A person would be unable to adapt to their surroundings if unable to learn or
remember. For example, a person with Alzheimers might be unable to adapt to living in
new surroundings.
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2
Animals with complex brain structures use interacting parts of the brain to learn
from experience. Simple organisms such as insects cannot be trained beyond simple
actions due to much less complex brain structure.
3
Learning and memory formation is linked to: hippocampus, the amygdala, and
lobes of the cerebral cortex (which are all located in the forebrain) and the cerebellum.
(which is located in the hindbrain).
4
An animal with a damaged hippocampus is able to experience the feeling of pain
or fear when it occurs (e.g. from an electric shock), but is unable to learn that the same
experience can occur following the same stimulus (such as a bell to warn of an electric
shock).
INVESTIGATE 14.1
1
The aim was to find out if rats with damage to both hippocampi would remember
if they had entered specific radial arms to find food.
2
Rats with damage to both hippocampi will repeatedly enter the same arms in a
radial arm maze looking for food.
3
Independent variable—rats with damage to hippocampi or rats with normal
hippocampi; Dependent variable—whether a rat re-entered an arm of the maze in search
of food
4
Conclusions—rats with damaged hippocampi were able to learn to go into each
arm of the maze to obtain food. However, because of their damaged hippocampi, they
were unable to remember which arms of the radial arm maze they had already entered for
food.
5
The results of this experiment cannot be directly applied to humans, but we can
infer that further testing with humans may have similar results.
REVIEW 14.2
Brain structure
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Oxford Psychology Units 3 & 4
Role in learning
Effect of damage on
ability to learn
Plays a central role; new
information which will
become declarative
memory involves an
interaction between
hippocampus and relevant
areas of neo-cortex.
Unable to learn from
experience.
Plays a role in emotional
learning to associate fear
with a new unpleasant
stimulus; can strengthen
learning of information
which will become
declarative memory if that
memory is associated with
positive or negative
Inability to learn to fear a
dangerous stimulus (e.g.
electric shock) even if they
know it is going to happen
following a stimulus.
Classical conditioning
cannot occur.
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emotions.
Cerebral cortex
Cerebellum
Ventral tegmental area
Many areas involved in
learning and memory
storage; one of the key
areas is the basal ganglia, in
the frontal lobes which
integrate information from
the motor areas and
somatosensory cortex to
produce smooth bodily
movements.
Difficulty learning new
skills that result in
procedural memory (such
as playing tennis).
Plays a role in the order of
muscular movement,
balance and posture; also
necessary for learning
motor skills.
Difficulty in coordinating
body movement, balance
and posture.
Plays a role in learning
through operant
conditioning (use of
rewards such as food to
learn behaviours).
Difficulty in learning new
behaviours through use of
rewards such as food.
REVIEW 14.3
1
Student detailed drawings/flow chart to represent the neural steps involved in
learning. Key elements to include: neural structures (axon terminal, synaptic gap,
dendrite of postsynaptic neuron), neurotransmitter released into synapse during learning,
increased ‘sprouts’ growing from axon terminals towards dendrites of neighbouring
neurons in learning new skills or information; enables more efficient transferral of
information between neurons.
2
Physical changes take place in the form of new ‘sprouts’, called filigree
appendages that grow from axon terminals and branch towards dendrites of neighbouring
postsynaptic neurons.
3
Synapses become weaker through infrequent use, leading to ‘forgetting’ of
information.
REVIEW 14.4
1
‘Plasticity’ refers to changes in the brain as a result of stimulation from the
environment (i.e. learning).
2
Stages in developmental plasticity:

Proliferation—neuron cells of unborn baby divide and multiply.

Migration—newly formed neurons move outward to their destined location, which
determines their development and therefore their role.
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
Circuit formation—axons of new neurons grow out to target cells and form
synapses with them.

Circuit pruning—elimination of excess neurons and synapses; occurs during
infancy and childhood, and there is a second wave of pruning in early adolescence.

Myelination—axons in the child’s brain become covered in myelin—a white, fatty,
waxy substance that coats some axons and protects them from electrical
interference from other neurons. Myelin speeds up rate of transmission of signals
within the neuron.
3
Pruning is the cutting back of excess neurons and synapses. In children, this is a
way of enabling excess neurons to be reduced. In adults, it is a way of enabling areas of
brain used least to be pruned, making the brain function more efficiently.
4
Final stage in the maturation of a brain, where axons become coated in a white,
fatty substance called myelin.
5
Myelin coats some axons and protects them from electrical interference from
other neurons, and speeds up the rate of transmission.
6
Adaptive plasticity enables the brain to be continually shaped through learning
and experience throughout life.
INVESTIGATE 14.2
1
a
Sensitive and critical periods:
Sensitive periods in development—optimum times for a developing individual to learn
specific things (e.g. learning spoken language, toilet training). Critical periods—narrow
period of time in which an animal is pre-programmed to learn a specific behaviour/skill
(e.g. young geese being imprinted on a moving object can only occur soon after
hatching).
b
Critical period in development for humans to learn speech is first year of life.
c
It is important for children to learn to discriminate speech sounds so they can later
produce them.
2
Student-based research on ‘feral child’ case.
REVIEW 14.5
1
fMRI and PET have enabled researchers to observe neuron activity and changes
within the brain during the learning process.
2
fMRI and PET are generally considered safe, but can pose minor dangers to those
being scanned: fMRI uses large magnets deemed safe, but it is very loud and patients
required to wear headphones or earplugs. PET is unsafe for pregnant women due to its
use of radioactive substances.
3
Limitations of using neuroimaging devices on children are: fMRI requires
children to stay still for long periods of time, while PET involves injection of a
radioactive isotope.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1
2
3
a
a
d
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4
c
5
c
6
b
7
c
8
a
9
d
10
b
11
c
12
d
13
c
14
d
15
Hippocampus plays a central role in learning. It is responsible for the
consolidation of declarative memories, and transfers them to the neo-cortex to be stored.
16
Neural pathways are interconnecting bundles of myelin-covered neurons which
enable communication between different parts of the nervous system.
17
a
Synaptogenesis is when existing synapses are moulded, or new synapses are
formed.
b
If learning continues, neural pathways strengthen, enabling more efficient
communication between neurons. If the same type of learning continues it is less likely
the learning will be forgotten.
18
Hippocampi are required to consolidate memories. Rats with intact hippocampi
remember which maze arm they had previously found food. When the hippocampi are
damaged, rats were unable to remember which arm had food from previous learning, so
repeatedly entered the same arms with no food.
19
Stages in developmental plasticity:
Proliferation—neuron cells of unborn baby divide and multiply.
Migration—newly formed neurons move outward to their destined location, which
determines their development and therefore their role.
Circuit formation—axons of new neurons grow out to target cells and form synapses
with them.
Circuit pruning—elimination of excess neurons and synapses; occurs during infancy
and childhood, and then again during adolescence.
Myelination—axons of the neurons become covered in myelin, a white, fatty, waxy
substance that protects axons from electrical interference from other neurons and speeds
up the rate of transmission of signals within the neuron.
20
Experience-expectant learning—when an individual is exposed to specific
experiences for learning to occur (during a sensitive period); experience-dependant
learning—learning from experiences can occur at any time in an individual’s life.
21
Sensitive periods are optimum times for a developing individual to learn specific
things (e.g. learning spoken language, toilet training) whereas critical periods refer to a
narrow period of time in which an animal is pre-programmed to learn a specific
behaviour/skill (e.g. young geese being imprinted on a moving object can only occur
soon after hatching)
Oxford Psychology Units 3 & 4
ISBN 978 0 19 556717 5 © Oxford University Press Australia
22
Imaging technologies such as fMRI and PET have enabled researchers to observe
changes in intact brains whilst an individual is engaged in learning. Enables greater
understanding of which regions of the brain are involved in specific forms of learning.
Oxford Psychology Units 3 & 4
ISBN 978 0 19 556717 5 © Oxford University Press Australia