Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erikson was one of the first psychologists to insist that development was a life-long process
rather than coming to completion at puberty or adolescence. He conceptualized eight stages
spanning from birth to old age. Erikson defined these stages with a focus on tasks that each
individual must master. Unsuccessful resolution of these tasks would leave a "psychological
scar." Erikson's stages were developed in response to Freud's psychosexual stage theory.
Whereas Freud thought that each stage was represented by a sexual crisis. Erikson thought that
each stage was distinguished by a psychosocial crisis. Erikson took into account the impact of
the larger society on development.
Erikson's Stages:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1-year): Feeling that people will take care of you vs. viewing the
world as a cold, fearsome place.
The basic crisis at this stage is the infant's hope and faith that someone cares about and will take
care of him or her versus a dread or fear of being abandoned. If parents consistently and
successfully meet the infant's needs, the infant learns to trust his or her environment. According
to Erikson, the infant's first social achievement is the willingness to let the mother out of sight
without anxiety or rage because he or she is certain the mother will return. If parents do NOT
successfully meet the infant's needs, the infant develops a mistrust and fear of people and objects
in the environment. Failure to develop this trust also results in adults who display
psychopathology of withdrawal and depression.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3-years): Independence through exploring and "testing"
others vs. doubt that you can succeed.
The basic crisis at this stage is the toddler's assertion of independence through exploring and
testing limits versus the toddler being made to feel ashamed for maintaining independence.
"Potty training" is an important issue. Successful resolution of the crisis occurs when parents
allow toddlers some autonomy (say be giving them choices) but at the same time impose some
limits. This results in the development of willpower on the part of the toddler.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years): Ability to take initiative and follow through vs. guilt when
others discourage this behavior.
The basis crisis is the development of the child's ability to initiate activity and see those
activities through. Guilt arises from parental discouragement of a child's initiative, although
Erikson argues that the parent must forbid some inappropriate behaviors, but in a manner that
does not make the child feel guilty for initiating the activity. Successful resolution leaves the
child with a sense of purpose and direction and confidence in planning. Unsuccessful resolution
leaves the child with a feeling of unworthiness and a fear that almost everything self-initiated
will go wrong.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 11 years): Learning culture's skills and deriving feelings of
competence from peers vs. feeling inferior relative to peers.
The basic crisis if the for the child to learn the skills of the culture, usually in a school setting.
For Erikson, school marked the child's entrance into real life. The child's constant testing of self
in school and against peers is the basis for feelings of competency (industry) or lack of it
(inferiority). At this stage, children are eager to be productive and learn the fundamentals of
technology. If encouraged, a child will enjoy solving problems and completing tasks, and will
seek intellectual stimulation. If not, a sense of inferiority will arise. However, Erikson cautions
that, "If he accepts work as his only obligation, and 'what works' as his only criterion of
worthwhileness, he may become the conformist and thoughtless slave of his technology and
those who are in a position to exploit it."
Identify vs. Role Confusion (12 to 20 years): Asking the question "Who am I?" by trying on
roles within a secure environment vs. lack of exploration and delayed sense of self.
Successful resolution of this crisis involves the development of a sense of identity, of reconciling
various roles in life into a single identity. Ego identity also involves a confidence that one has a
sense of sameness and continuity that is apparent to others. Unsuccessful resolution involves
confusion and uncertainty over self-identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adults): Committing to a close, sharing relationship, surrendering
some independence vs. keep total independence and isolation.
Successful resolution involves giving up some isolation and developing health} bonds love with
another. Unsuccessful resolution involves loneliness and may possibly lead to promiscuity
(Meredith Gray?). Those choosing isolation are ready, if necessary, to destroy those people who
seem dangerous to them, thus the development of prejudice.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adults): Developing a concern for establishing and
guiding the next generation (expanding one's concerns beyond one's immediate group to that of
society and future generations) vs. feeling unfulfilled and becoming self-centered.
Successful resolution of this conflict may involve having and nurturing children, teaching, taking
on younger proteges, or by productive and creative work that will live on. Unsuccessful
resolution involves stagnation and selfishness.
Integrity vs. Despair (65 years on): Accepting the life one has lived without major regrets vs.
despair that time has run out.
Ego integrity is the culmination of the successful resolution of the seven previous crises in
development. It is an acceptance of the life one has lived without major regrets for what could or
should have been done differently. The person who cannot accept the basic way his life has been
lived may despair that time has run out. Many of those experiencing despair are very afraid of
death. Successful resolution involves wisdom and acceptance of being in the final stages of life.