C16 The Conquest of the Far West
The Societies of the Far West
a)The Western Tribes
Some dislocated eastern tribes in “Indian Territory”, others western tribes such as Pueblos had
permanent settlements/farms + interaction w/ Spanish & Mexicans- caste system over other Ind
tribes (genizaros=Ind w/o tribes)
Plains Indians- some nomadic, some farmers. Many (including Sioux) hunted buffalo as main source of
food + materials
Warriors unable to defeat white settlers b/c disunited, internal conflict, disease
b)Hispanic New Mexico
American capitalist integration led Spanish-speaking to erosion of communal society + economies,
land aristocracy from Santa Fe + Span/Mex peasants
Territorial govt in 1850, in 1870s govt dominated by “territorial ring” where business ppl took
advantage of impending statehood, used fed money for profit
Arrival of RRs in in SW during 1880s/1890s brought new ranching, farming, mining brought new
Mexican migrants
c)Hispanic California and Texas
Most Spanish missions that employed Ind as near slaves until 1830s. White settlers expelled
Hispanic californios from the land. Market for cattle allowed some rancheros to continue to own land,
but most Mexs became working class
In Texas Mexs also unable to compete with enormous Anglo-American ranching kingdoms- most
relegated to unskilled farm + industrial labor
d)The Chinese Migration
After 1848 gold rush, Chinese migration dramatically increased, settling mostly in CA. White sentiment
soon turned negative b/c Chinese industrious and successful
Chinese excluded from gold mining by CA 1852 “foreign miner tax”, other laws 1850s discouraged
immigration—Chinese began to work on transcontinental Central Pacific RR
After RR completion 1869 many Chinese moved to cities- formed “Chinatowns” w/ benevolent
societies, “tongs”-secret criminal societies
Many Chinese occupied lower jobs- unskilled laborers. Many started laundries
e)Anti-Chinese Sentiment
“Anti-coolie” clubs in 1860s/1870s sought ban on employing Chinese, formed b/c some whites felt
Chinese laborers accepted low wages + undercut unions
In CA, Democratic Party + Denis Kearney’s Workingmen’s Party attacked Chinese interest- based on
economic tension, cultural + racial- “inassimilable”
1882 Congress responded to pressure, passed Chinese Exclusion Act- halted Chinese migration,
barred naturalization- aimed to help “American” labor
f)Migration from the East
Extremely great postwar migration to empty and settled areas alike. Most white Anglo-Americans,
others foreign-born Eur immigrants—attracted by metal deposits, lands for farming and ranching
Fed land policies encouraged settlement: Homestead Act of 1862 gave 160 acres of land for small fee,
in return would improve land, create new markets mechanization + rising farm costs forced some
small farmers off this land
In response Congress passed Timber Culture Act (1863), Desert Land Act (1877), Timber and Stone
Act (1878) to allow ppl to buy/develop more cheap land
1860s saw development of territorial govt, statehood soon followed for most
The Changing Western Economy
a)Labor in the West
Labor shortage led to higher wages than in East, but job instability (after harvest or RR completion,
ect) led to communities of jobless in cities. Workers mostly mobile, single men
Working class highly multiracial, but whites generally occupied higher job levels (management +
skilled labor) than nonwhites in unskilled labor. Dual labor system reinforced by racial assumptions
that held nonwhites more suited for worse conditions + harder labor- allowed whites greater social
mobility
b)The Arrival of the Miners
First Western economic boom came from mining strikes in 1860s-1890s. During Pike’s Peak strike
1858 mining camps blossomed into “cities”, later Comstock Lode silver found in Nevada, 1874 Black
Hill strike in Dakota Terr.
After surface wealth used up, eastern capitalists often bought claims of pioneer prospectors, began
retrieving from deeper veins w/ corporate mines
In boom towns vigilantism used to combat outlaws. Men outnumbered women, prostitution very
common. After boom most remained in town as wage laborer in corporate mine
c)The Cattle Kingdom
Economy also affected by the open range- provided cattle raisers w/ free lands to graze, RRs gave
access to markets. Largest herds found in Texas
After success of the long drive proven, easier routes to access rest of country sought- market facility
grew up at Abilene, KS as railhead of cattle kingdom. Agricultural development in 1870s in W. Kansas
led other routes to grow
As settlement of plans increased new forms of competition emerged- sheep breeders used range to
feed flock, farmers from the East fenced in their lands—“range wars” developed btwn ranchers and
farmers
Large profits in cattle business led cattle economy to become more corporate. This expansion onto
already shrunken ranges from RRs and farmers became overstocked, and combined with bad winters
from 1885-1887, thousands of cattle died—open-range industry never recovered, but ranches
survived + grew
Although cattle industry mostly male, large number of women led them to have impt political
presence- women won vote earlier in West than rest of nation (some states to swell population for
statehood, bring “morals” to politics)
The Romance of the West
a)The Western Landscape
Painters of the “Rocky Mountain School
“ celebrated the West in grandiose paintings that attracted great crowds- emphasized ruggedness and
variety of region, awe toward land that had been previously expressed by Hudson River valley painters
b)The Cowboy Culture
Cowboy life romanticized in contrast to stable, orderly world of the East. Owen Wister’sThe
Virginian (1902) showed freedom from social contraints, only one example of magazine articles,
novels, ect. about Western life
c)The Idea of the Frontier
Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Mark Twain wrote about (mostly early) frontier
life is Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Painter/sculptor Frederic Turner captured romance of West in his works comparing it to the East
Theodore Roosevelt wrote history of West- The Winning of the West (1890s)
d)Frederick Jackson Turner
The historian Turner contended that by 1890s no single frontier line existed and the end of an era had
come. Expansion has stimulated individualism, nationalism, democracy, American uniqueness.
Mirrored sentiments of US
Turner inaccurate and premature- ppl had always lived in “empty, uncivilized” lands and had been
displaced, also in coming years much land still available
e)The Loss of Utopia
With nation feeling that there had been a “passing of the frontier”, ppl felt opportunities closing and
with it ability to control own destiny
“Myth of the garden” (West as Garden of Eden) lost
The Dispersal of the Tribes
a)White Tribal Policies
Traditional policy was to regard tribes as nations and wards of the president, therefore negotiate
treaties w/ them ratified by Senate. As white settlers demanded more lands during 1850s led ppl to
abandon idea of one large Indian Territory to policy of “concentration”- each tribe given negotiated
reservation
In 1867 after bloody conflicts Congress created Indian peace Commission to make permanent Indian
policy- move all Plains Indians into Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas. Failed b/c of poor
administration by Bureau of Indian Affairs & killing of buffalo herds by whites + reduced Indian ability
to resist white advance -led to violence
b)The Indian Wars
1850s-1880s showed nearly constant fighting as Indians struggled against threats to their
civilizations- during Civil War conflict w/ Indians in Old Northwest and the Southwest
Not only military that threatened tribes; white vigilantes participated in “Indian hunting” killed tribes
for sport or bounties, wanted retaliation after raids
Treaties made in 1867 saw temporary lull, but influx of settlers in 1870s penetrated Dakota Territory
+ change in govt policy to not recognize tribes as independent nations led to violence in 1875
Sioux rose up under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the Black Hills- at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876
Indians killed Colonel George Custer and regiment, Indians became disunited after and forced to
return to reservation
Nez Perce Indians under Chief Joseph 1877 attempted to flee Idaho for Canada but caught by soldiers,
forced to travel for years afterward to difft areas
Last organized resistance came from Apaches under Chiefs Mangas Colorados, Cochise, and finally
Geronimo- unwilling to bow to white pressures Geronimo conducted raids on white outposts (“Apache
Wars”), surrendered 1886
Atrocities against Indians had prompted much fighting- in 1890 Sioux religious revival under the
prophet Wovoka led to “Ghost Dance” that celebrated vision of whites leaving + buffalo return- in Dec
troops tried to round up some Indians at Wounded Knee, SD which turned into an Indian massacre
c)The Dawes Act
Efforts taken to destroy reservation + communal land ownership in order to force Indians to become
farmers, landowners - abandon culture for white civili.
Dawes Act of 1887 eliminated tribal ownership and gave land to individual owners. Bureau of Indian
Affairs promoted assimilation, sometimes by removing children and sending them to white boarding
schools, build churches
Indians unprepared for capitalist individualism + corrupt administration led to abandonment of
program, later Burke Act of 1906 also failed to divide lands
The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer
a)Farming on the Plains
Before Civil War lands accessible only by wagon, transcontinental RR completed 1869 and subsidiary
lines built afterward w/ land grants and loans
Easier access to Great Plains spurred agriculture- RRs offered cheap land and credit, rainfall allowed
farming
Farmers faced problems: enclosing land expensive, but 1873 Joseph Glidden and IL Ellwood invited
barbwire; arid land needed irrigation, especially after 1887 when series of dry spells followed- during
1880s booms credit easy, but arid weather of late 1880smany farmers unable to pay debt and forced
to abandon farms
b)Commercial Agriculture
Commercial farmers specialized in cash crops sold on national/international markets. Relied on town
stores for supplies and food, dependent on bankers’ interest rates, railroad freight rates, and US/Eur
markets
During late 19th century agriculture became an international business- US commercial farmers relied
on risky world market to absorb surpluses
Overproduction in 1880s led to price drops, economic crisis for small farmers
c)The Farmers’ Grievances
Farmers resented railroads and their higher freight rates for farm goods, credit institutions for their
high interest rates and payments that had to be made in years when currency scarce, and prices that
they had to pay for goods and the money they received- believed manufactures keeping farm good
prices low
d)The Agrarian Malaise
Farmers isolated, lacked education for children, proper medical facilities, and community- this sense of
obsolescence lead to growing malaise among farmers that created great political movement in
1890sSturdy yeoman farmers had viewed themselves as the backbone of American life, now they
were becoming aware that their position was declining in relation to the rising urban-industrial society
in the East