二氧化镍锂电池
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二氧化钴锂电池专利 检索词：LiCoO2 AND Battery: （147 patents） PAT. NO. Title 1 7,939,205 Thin-film batteries with polymer and LiPON electrolyte layers and method United States Patent 7,939,205 Klaassen May 10, 2011 Abstract A method and apparatus for making thin-film batteries having composite multi-layered electrolytes with soft electrolyte between hard electrolyte covering the negative and/or positive electrode, and the resulting batteries. In some embodiments, foil-core cathode sheets each having a cathode material (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, and foil-core anode sheets having an anode material (e.g., lithium metal) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, are laminated using a soft (e.g., polymer gel) electrolyte sandwiched between alternating cathode and anode sheets. A hard glass-like electrolyte layer obtains a smooth hard positive-electrode lithium-metal layer upon charging, but when very thin, have randomly spaced pinholes/defects. When the hard layers are formed on both the positive and negative electrodes, one electrode's dendrite-short-causing defects on are not aligned with the other electrode's defects. The soft electrolyte layer both conducts ions across the gap between hard electrolyte layers and fills pinholes. Inventors: Klaassen; Jody J. (Minneapolis, MN) Assignee: Cymbet Corporation (Elk River, MN) Appl. No.: 12/850,078 Filed: August 4, 2010 Related U.S. Patent Documents Application Number Filing Date Patent Number Issue Date<TD< TD> 11458093 Jul., 2006 60699895 Jul., 2005 7776478 <TD< TD> <TD< TD> Current U.S. Class: 429/300 ; 429/304; 429/322 Current International Class: Field of Search: H01M 6/14 (20060101); H01M 6/18 (20060101) 429/47-347 427/1-601 29/623.1-625 References Cited [Referenced By] U.S. Patent Documents 3419487 December 1968 Robbins et al. 4207119 June 1980 Tyan 4299890 November 1981 Rea et al. 4328262 May 1982 Kurahashi et al. 4333808 June 1982 Bhattacharyya et al. 4353160 October 1982 Armini et al. 4365107 December 1982 Yamauchi 4435445 March 1984 Allred et al. 4440108 April 1984 Little et al. 4481265 November 1984 Ezawa et al. 4520039 May 1985 Ovshinsky 4539660 September 1985 Miyauchi et al. 4633129 December 1986 Cuomo et al. 4645726 February 1987 Hiratani et al. 4684848 August 1987 Kaufman et al. 4696671 September 1987 Epstein et al. 4730383 March 1988 Balkanski 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Primary Examiner: Yuan; Dah-Wei D Assistant Examiner: Best; Zachary Attorney, Agent or Firm: Kagan Binder, PLLC Parent Case Text CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This invention is a divisional of U.S. Ser. No. 11/458,093, filed Jul. 17, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,776,478 by Klaassen, entitled "THIN-FILM BATTERIES WITH POLYMER AND LIPON ELECTROLYTE LAYERS AND METHOD," which claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/699,895 filed Jul. 15, 2005, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. This is also related to U.S. patent application 10/895,445 entitled "LITHIUM/AIR BATTERIES WITH LiPON AS SEPARATOR AND PROTECTIVE BARRIER AND METHOD" filed Oct. 16, 2003 by J. Klaassen, the inventor of the present application, and to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/031,217 entitled "LAYERED BARRIER STRUCTURE HAVING ONE OR MORE DEFINABLE LAYERS AND METHOD" filed Jan. 6, 2005, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/458,091, entitled "THIN-FILM BATTERIES WITH SOFT AND HARD ELECTROLYTE LAYERS AND METHOD"and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11,458,097, entitled "APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR MAKING THIN-FILM BATTERIES WITH SOFT AND HARD ELECTROLYTE LAYERS"filed on Jul. 17, 2006, which are all incorporated herein in their entirety by reference. Claims What is claimed is: 1. A method comprising: providing an anode component comprising a first sheet that includes an anode material and a first LiPON layer covering the anode material and having randomly spaced defects; providing a cathode component comprising a second sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a second LiPON layer covering the cathode material and having randomly spaced defects; and sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON layer covering the anode material of the first sheet and the LiPON layer covering the cathode material of the second sheet, wherein the polymer electrolyte material includes a gel and at least partially fills and fixes the randomly spaced defects in the first and second LiPON layers. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: providing a third sheet that includes an anode material and a third LiPON layer covering the anode material; providing a fourth sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a fourth LiPON layer covering the cathode material; sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON layer covering the anode material of the third sheet and the LiPON layer covering the cathode material of the fourth sheet; and sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON layer covering the anode material of the third sheet and the LiPON layer covering the cathode material of the second sheet. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the anode material of the first sheet is deposited as a lithium-metal layer on a copper anode-current-collector layer through the LiPON layer. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the deposition of a lithium anode is done by electroplating in a propylene carbonate/lithium-salt electrolyte solution prior to assembling the cell. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the first sheet includes a cathode material on a face opposite the anode material and a LiPON layer covering the cathode material, and the second sheet includes an anode material on a face opposite the cathode material and a LiPON layer covering the anode material; the method further comprising: providing a third sheet that includes an anode material and a LiPON layer covering the anode material on a first face, and a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON layer covering the cathode material on a second face opposite the first face; and sandwiching the polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON layer covering the anode material of the third sheet and the UPON layer covering the cathode material of the second sheet. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer includes a polyvinylidene difluoride, propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of laminating two or more battery cells together to form a laminated battery device. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the laminated battery device comprises a stack of two-sided anode current collectors and two-sided cathode current collectors that are connected in parallel. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the laminated battery device comprises a stack of two-sided anode current collectors and two-sided cathode current collectors that are connected in series. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer is an adhesive that provides a structural connection between the LiPon layers. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the anode component comprises a current collector onto which is deposited a cathode material. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the anode component further comprises a current collector, and wherein a layer of lithium is formed as an active portion of the cathode component after assembly of the battery cell. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer is sticky. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer comprises polyvinylidene difluoride, propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer comprises MEEP. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the negative electrode component includes a negative-electrode current collector made of a metal that does not readily alloy with lithium during a plating operation, and lithium metal is plated onto the negative-electrode current collector through the LiPON layer on the negative electrode component. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer electrolyte layer comprises a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. Description FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to solid-state energy-storage devices, and more specifically to a method and apparatus for making thin-film (e.g., lithium) battery devices with a soft (e.g., polymer) electrolyte layer, and one or more hard layers (e.g., LiPON) as electrolyte layer(s) and/or protective barrier(s), and the resulting cell(s) and/or battery(s). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronics have been incorporated into many portable devices such as computers, mobile phones, tracking systems, scanners, and the like. One drawback to portable devices is the need to include the power supply with the device. Portable devices typically use batteries as power supplies. Batteries must have sufficient capacity to power the device for at least the length of time the device is in use. Sufficient battery capacity can result in a power supply that is quite heavy and/or large compared to the rest of the device. Accordingly, smaller and lighter batteries (i.e., power supplies) with sufficient energy storage are desired. Other energy storage batteries (i.e., power supplies) with sufficient energy storage are desired. Other energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors, and energy conversion devices, such as photovoltaics and fuel cells, are alternatives to batteries for use as power supplies in portable electronics and non-portable electrical applications. Another drawback of conventional batteries is the fact that some are fabricated from potentially toxic materials that may leak and be subject to governmental regulation. Accordingly, it is desired to provide an electrical power source that is safe, solid-state and rechargeable over many charge/discharge life cycles. One type of an energy-storage device is a solid-state, thin-film battery. Examples of thin-film batteries are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,314,765; 5,338,625; 5,445,906; 5,512,147; 5,561,004; 5,567,210; 5,569,520; 5,597,660; 5,612,152; 5,654,084; and 5,705,293, each of which is herein incorporated by reference. U.S. Pat. No. 5,338,625 describes a thin-film battery, especially a thin-film microbattery, and a method for making same having application as a backup or first integrated power source for electronic devices. U.S. Pat. No. 5,445,906 describes a method and system for manufacturing a thin-film battery structure formed with the method that utilizes a plurality of deposition stations at which thin battery component films are built up in sequence upon a web-like substrate as the substrate is automatically moved through the stations. U.S. Pat. No. 6,805,998 entitled "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR INTEGRATED BATTERY DEVICES" (which is incorporated herein by reference) issued Oct. 19, 2004, by Mark L. Jenson and Jody J. Klaassen (the inventor of the present application), and is assigned to the assignee of the present invention, described a high-speed low-temperature method for depositing thin-film lithium batteries onto a polymer web moving through a series of deposition stations. K. M. Abraham and Z. Jiang, (as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,510,209, which is incorporated herein by reference) demonstrated a cell with a non-aqueous polymer separator consisting of a film of polyacrylonitrile swollen with a propylene carbonate/ethylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution. This organic electrolyte membrane was sandwiched between a lithium metal foil anode and a carbon composite cathode to form the lithium-air cell. The utilization of the organic electrolyte allowed good performance of the cell in an oxygen or dry air atmosphere. As used herein, the anode of the battery is the positive electrode (which is the anode during battery discharge) and the cathode of the battery is the negative electrode (which is the cathode during battery discharge). (During a charge operation, the positive electrode is the cathode and the negative electrode is the anode, but the anode-cathode terminology herein reflects the discharge portion of the cycle.) U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237 entitled "Polyphosphazenes as gel polymer electrolytes" (which is incorporated herein by reference), issued to Allcock, et al. on Aug. 12, 2003, and describes co-substituted linear polyphosphazene polymers that could be useful in gel polymer electrolytes, and which have an ion conductivity at room temperature of at least about 10.sup.-5 S/cm and comprising (i) a polyphosphazene having controlled ratios of side chains that promote ionic conductivity and hydrophobic, non-conductive side chains that promote mechanical stability, (ii) a small molecule additive, such as propylene carbonate, that influences the ionic conductivity and physical properties of the gel polymer electrolytes, and (iii) a metal salt, such as lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, that influences the ionic conductivity of the gel polymer electrolytes, and methods of preparing the polyphosphazene polymers and the gel polymer electrolytes. Allcock et al. discuss a system that has been studied extensively for solid-polymer electrolyte (SPE) applications, which is one that is based on poly(organophosphazenes). This class of polymers has yielded excellent candidates for use in SPEs due to the inherent flexibility of the phosphorus-nitrogen backbone and the ease of side group modification via macromolecular substitution-type syntheses. The first poly(organophosphazene) to be used in a phosphazene SPE (solid polymer electrolyte) was poly[bis(2-(2'-methoxyethoxy ethoxy)phosphazene] (hereinafter, MEEP). This polymer was developed in 1983 by Shriver, Allcock and their coworkers (Blonsky, P. M., et al, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 106, 6854 (1983)) and is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237. Also, the following U.S. Pat. No. 7,052,805 (Polymer electrolyte having acidic, basic and elastomeric subunits, published/issued on 2006 May 30); U.S. Pat. No. 6,783,897 (Crosslinking agent and crosslinkable solid polymer electrolyte using the same, 2004 Aug. 31); U.S. Pat. No. 6,727,024 (Polyalkylene oxide polymer composition for solid polymer electrolytes, 2004 Apr. 27); U.S. Pat. No. 6,392,008 (Polyphosphazene polymers, 2002 May 21); U.S. Pat. No. 6,369,159 (Antistatic plastic materials containing epihalohydrin polymers, 2002 Apr. 9); U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,251 (Polymer electrolyte composition, 2001 Apr. 10); U.S. Pat. No. 5,998,559 (Single-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes, and conductive compositions and batteries made therefrom; 1999 Dec. 7); U.S. Pat. No. 5,874,184 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, 1999 Feb. 23); U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,664 (Synthesis of polyphosphazenes with controlled molecular weight and polydispersity, 1997 Dec. 16); U.S. Pat. No. 5,665,490 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, 1997 Sep. 9); U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,098 (Batteries containing single-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes, 1997 May 27); U.S. Pat. No. 5,597,661 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, 1997 Jan. 28); U.S. Pat. No. 5,567,783 (Polyphosphazenes bearing crown ether and related podand side groups as solid solvents for ionic conduction, 1996 Oct. 22); U.S. Pat. No. 5,562,909 (Phosphazene polyelectrolytes as immunoadjuvants, 1996 Oct. 8); U.S. Pat. No. 5,548,060 (Sulfonation of polyphosphazenes, 1996 Aug. 20); U.S. Pat. No. 5,414,025 (Method of crosslinking of solid state battery electrolytes by ultraviolet radiation, 1995 May 9); U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,478 (Lithium secondary battery of vanadium pentoxide and polyphosphazenes, 1994 Dec. 27); U.S. Pat. No. 5,219,679 (Solid electrolytes, 1993 Jun. 15); U.S. Pat. No. 5,110,694 (Secondary Li battery incorporating 12-Crown-4 ether, 1992 May 5); U.S. Pat. No. 5,102,751 (Plasticizers useful for enhancing ionic conductivity of solid polymer electrolytes, 1992 Apr. 7); U.S. Pat. No. 5,061,581 (Novel solid polymer electrolytes, 1991 Oct. 29); U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,246 (Polyetheroxy-substituted polyphosphazene purification, 1987 Apr. 7); and U.S. Pat. No. 4,523,009, (Polyphosphazene compounds and method of preparation, 1985 Jun. 11), which are all incorporated herein by reference. Each discuss polyphosphazene polymers and/or other polymer electrolytes and/or lithium salts and combinations thereof U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/895,445 entitled "LITHIUM/AIR BATTERIES WITH LiPON AS SEPARATOR AND PROTECTIVE BARRIER AND METHOD" by the inventor of the present application (which is incorporated herein by reference) describes a method for making lithium batteries including depositing UPON on a conductive substrate (e.g., a metal such as copper or aluminum) by depositing a chromium adhesion layer on an electrically insulating layer of silicon oxide by vacuum sputter deposition of 50 nm of chromium followed by 500 nm of copper. In some embodiments, a thin film of LiPON (Lithium Phosphorous OxyNitride) is then formed by low-pressure (<10 mtorr) sputter deposition of lithium orthophosphate (Li.sub.3PO.sub.4) in nitrogen. In some embodiments of the Li-air battery cells, LiPON was deposited over the copper anode current-collector contact to a thickness of 2.5 microns, and a layer of lithium metal was formed onto the copper anode current-collector contact by electroplating through the LiPON layer in a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution. In some embodiments, the air cathode was a carbon-powder/polyfluoroacrylate-binder coating (Novec-1700) saturated with a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 organic electrolyte solution. In other embodiments, a cathode-current-collector contact layer having carbon granules is deposited, such that atmospheric oxygen could operate as the cathode reactant. This configuration requires providing air access to substantially the entire cathode surface, limiting the ability to densely stack layers for higher electrical capacity (i.e., amp-hours). There is a need for rechargeable lithium-based batteries having improved protection against dendrite formation and with improved density, electrical capacity, rechargeability, and reliability, and smaller volume and lowered cost. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In some embodiments, the present invention includes a battery having an electrolyte structure that combines a plurality of layers of different electrolytes (e.g., hard-soft-hard). In some embodiments, a thin (0.1 to 1.0 micron) LiPON electrolyte layer serves as a hard coating on the negative electrode preventing the formation of lithium dendrites (especially when paired with a corresponding LiPON electrolyte layer coating on the positive electrode) and/or providing an even (smooth), hard layer of lithium metal on, or as part of, the negative electrode when the battery is charged. In some embodiments, a thin (0.1 to 1.0 micron) LiPON electrolyte on only one electrode (e.g., the negative electrode) may not prevent the formation of lithium dendrites over the long term (e.g., many thousands of discharge-recharge cycles), since the lithium growing through a pinhole may only need to grow about 3 microns or less across the electrolyte to short the battery (i.e., providing a metal electrical conduction path directly from anode to cathode). When LiPON is also used as a coating at the positive electrode (e.g., an electrode that includes LiCoO.sub.2) the random locations of the pinholes will not line up (e.g., across the electrolyte from anode to cathode) so lithium would also need to grow sideways in the electrolyte, which doubly ensures that lithium plating at a defect site (which would typically form a dendrite) will not short the battery. In some embodiments, a soft electrolyte layer bridges the gap between the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode. At both electrodes, the LiPON layer also provides an improvement in environmental resistance to water vapor and oxygen, especially during manufacture before the battery is completed and otherwise sealed. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte includes a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) layer that is located between and contacts with the LiPON layer on the positive electrode and the LiPON layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a polymer electrolyte such as PEO-LiX (poly-ethylene oxide lithium-X, where LiX=a metal salt, such as LiPF6, LiBF.sub.4, LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.4, CF.sub.3SO.sub.3Li (lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, also called triflate), lithium bisperfluoroethanesulfonimide, lithium (Bis) Trifluoromethanesulfonimide, and/or the like, for example). In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a polymer electrolyte such as polyPN-LiX (Polyphosphazene with lithium-X, where LiX.dbd.LiPF.sub.6, LiBF.sub.4, LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.4, and/or the like, for example). In some embodiments, a small-molecule additive, such as propylene carbonate, that influences the ionic conductivity and physical properties of the polymer electrolytes is added to form a gel electrolyte that better fills defects and acts as an adhesive. The present invention provides both a method and an apparatus for making thin-film batteries having composite (e.g., multi-layered) electrolytes with a soft electrolyte layer between hard electrolyte layers covering the negative and/or positive electrodes, and the resulting batteries. In some embodiments, metal-core cathode sheets each having a cathode material (e.g., LiCoO2) deposited on a metal foil, screen, or mesh (e.g., copper, nickel, or stainless steel) or a metal-covered insulator (e.g., a sputtered metal film on a polymer film, a SiO2-covered silicon wafer, or an alumina or sapphire substrate) and is covered by a hard electrolyte (some embodiments form such electrodes on both sides of the substrate), and foil-core anode sheets having a anode material (e.g., lithium metal) deposited on a metal foil (e.g., copper, nickel, or stainless steel) or a metal-covered insulator (e.g., a sputtered metal film on a polymer film, a SiO2-covered silicon wafer, or an alumina or sapphire substrate) and is also covered by a hard electrolyte (some embodiments form such electrodes on both sides of the substrate), and such sheets are laminated using a soft (e.g., polymer gel) electrolyte sandwiched between alternating cathode and anode sheets. In some embodiments, a hard glass-like electrolyte layer obtains a smooth hard positive-electrode lithium-metal layer upon charging, but when such a layer is made very thin, will tend to have randomly spaced pinholes/defects. When the hard layers are formed on both the positive and negative electrodes, one electrode's dendrite-short-causing defects on are not aligned with the other electrode's defects. The soft electrolyte layer conducts ions across the gap between hard electrolyte layers and/or fills pinholes, thin spots, and other defects in the hard electrolyte layers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 100 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 101 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 1C is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 102 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium-battery manufacturing process 200 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected lithium battery 300 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 4 is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected lithium battery 400 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5A is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected screen-cathode current-collector contact lithium-battery 500 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5B is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected screen-cathode-current-collector contact lithium-battery 501 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6A is a perspective view of an electrode 600 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. FIG. 6B is a perspective view of another electrode 601 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. FIG. 6C is a perspective view of a plating system 610. FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, and 7F are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a substrate of some embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a copper foil substrate of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected foil-cathode-current-collector contact lithium battery 900 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 10A is a schematic cross-section view of an encapsulated surface-mount micro-battery 1000 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 10B is a perspective view of an encapsulated surface-mount micro-battery 1000 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 11 is a flow chart of a method 1100 for making a battery cell according to some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 12 is a flow chart of a method 1200 for making a stacked battery according to some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of a device as part of a system. FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a device as part of a portable system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Although the following detailed description contains many specifics for the purpose of illustration, a person of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that many variations and alterations to the following details are within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the following preferred embodiments of the invention are set forth without any loss of generality to, and without imposing limitations upon the claimed invention. In the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which are shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. It is understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. The leading digit(s) of reference numbers appearing in the Figures generally correspond to the Figure number in which that component is first introduced, such that the same reference number is used throughout to refer to an identical component, which appears in multiple Figures. Signals (such as, for example, fluid pressures, fluid flows, or electrical signals that represent such pressures or flows), pipes, tubing or conduits that carry the fluids, wires or other conductors that carry the electrical signals, and connections may be referred to by the same reference number or label, and the actual meaning will be clear from its use in the context of the description. Terminology In this description, the term metal applies both to substantially pure single metallic elements and to alloys or combinations of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metallic element. The term substrate or core generally refers to the physical structure that is the basic work piece that is transformed by various process operations into the desired microelectronic configuration. In some embodiments, substrates include conducting material (such as copper, stainless steel, aluminum and the like), insulating material (such as sapphire, ceramic, or plastic/polymer insulators and the like), semiconducting materials (such as silicon), non-semiconducting, or combinations of semiconducting and non-semiconducting materials. In some other embodiments, substrates include layered structures, such as a core sheet or piece of material (such as iron-nickel alloy and the like) chosen for its coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) that more closely matches the CTE of an adjacent structure such as a silicon processor chip. In some such embodiments, such a substrate core is laminated to a sheet of material chosen for electrical and/or thermal conductivity (such as a copper, aluminum alloy and the like), which in turn is covered with a layer of plastic chosen for electrical insulation, stability, and embossing characteristics. An electrolyte is a material that conducts electricity by allowing movement of ions (e.g., lithium ions having a positive charge) while being non-conductive or highly resistive to electron conduction. An electrical cell or battery is a device having an anode and a cathode that are separated by an electrolyte. A dielectric is a material that is non-conducting to electricity, such as, for example, plastic, ceramic, or glass. In some embodiments, a material such as LiPON can act as an electrolyte when a source and sink for lithium are adjacent the LiPON layer, and can also act as a dielectric when placed between two metal layers such as copper or aluminum, which do not form ions that can pass through the LiPON. In some embodiments, devices include an insulating plastic/polymer layer (a dielectric) having wiring traces that carry signals and electrical power horizontally, and vias that carry signals and electrical power vertically between layers of traces. In some embodiments, an anode portion of a thin-film solid-state battery is made (as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/895,445 discussed above) using a method that includes depositing LiPON on a conductive substrate (e.g., a metal such as copper or aluminum) that is formed by depositing a chromium adhesion layer on an electrically insulating layer of silicon oxide (or on a polymer sheet) using vacuum-sputter deposition of 50 nm of chromium followed by 500 nm of copper. In some embodiments, a thin film of LiPON (Lithium Phosphorous OxyNitride) is then formed by low-pressure (<10 mtorr) sputter deposition of lithium orthophosphate (Li.sub.3PO.sub.4) in nitrogen, or by sputtering from a LiPON source. In some embodiments LiPON is deposited over the copper anode current-collector contact to a thickness of between 0.1 microns and 2.5 microns. In some embodiments, a layer of lithium metal is formed onto the copper anode current-collector contact by electroplating through the LiPON layer (which was earlier deposited on the copper anode current-collector contact) in a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 organic electrolyte solution. The LiPON acts as a protective layer during fabrication of the battery, and in the assembled battery, it operates as one layer of a multi-layer electrolyte. (In other embodiments, the layer of lithium metal of the anode is formed by an initial charging operation after the battery is assembled.) In some embodiments, a cathode portion of the thin-film solid-state battery is made sputtering LiCoO.sub.2 onto a first of metal foil from a LiCoO.sub.2 source, over which is deposited a LiPON layer, which in the assembled battery, operates as another layer of the multi-layer electrolyte. In some embodiments, a solid or gel polymer electrolyte is used as a structural connection or adhesive between the two LiPON electrolyte layers, as well as forming an ion-conductive path between the positive and negative electrodes of the battery. It is desirable, in some embodiments, to form a very thin electrolyte. If a single very thin layer of LiPON is used, it tends to have defects (e.g., thin spots or pinholes) and lithium ions will preferentially travel through these paths of least resistance and plate to spike-shaped lithium-metal dendrites that short out the battery. If a single very thin solid or gel polymer electrolyte layer is used, any surface irregularities (e.g., bumps or ridges in the anode or cathode material) will tend to connect through the electrolyte and short the battery. By having two independently formed very thin LiPON (hard) electrolyte component layers, one formed on the battery's anode and another formed on the battery's cathode, any such thin spots or pinholes in one layer will not line up with a thin spot or pinhole in the other layer. The third electrolyte layer (e.g., a soft polymer electrolyte that conducts lithium ions between the two LiPON layers) made of a solid and/or gel polymer electrolyte material does not get shorted out by bumps or other irregularities in either electrode since those irregularities will tend to be coated with LiPON and/or the corresponding spot on the other side will be coated with LiPON. Accordingly, one or more (even all) of the plurality of layers can be made very thin without the danger of having an initial short (from a polymer electrolyte that is too thin allowing the anode and cathode to touch) or a later-developed short (from a pinhole in a LiPON electrolyte layer that allows formation of a lithium-metal dendrite after one or more charge/discharge cycles). Further, the dense, hard, glass-like LiPON layer causes the lithium ions that pass through it to form a lithium-metal layer that is dense and smooth. In other embodiments, one or more other hard and/or glass-like electrolyte layers are used instead of one or more of the LiPON layers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237 entitled "Polyphosphazenes as gel polymer electrolytes" discusses MEEP (poly[bis(2-(2'-methoxyethoxy ethoxy)phosphazene]) and other polymers, which are used in some embodiments of the present invention as structural connector and polymer electrolyte sublayer between two UPON sublayers. The polyphosphazene (herein called polyPN) used as the connective layer is soft and sticky. Its adhesive properties are what allow the electrode to be and to remain joined. Its softness allows for defect correction and/or for defects to not cause poor battery performance and reliability. In other embodiments, other soft or gel-like ion-conducting polymers are used. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,523,009, 5,510,209, 5,548,060, 5,562,909, 6,214,251, 6,392,008 6,605,237, and 6,783,897 (which are all incorporated herein by reference) each discuss polyphosphazene polymers and/or other polymer electrolytes and/or various lithium salts and compounds that can be used as, or included in, one or more component layers of an electrolyte in some embodiments of the present invention. The term vertical is defined to mean substantially perpendicular to the major surface of a substrate. Height or depth refers to a distance in a direction perpendicular to the major surface of a substrate. FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 100 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, cell 100 includes a first sheet 111 (a cathode or positive-electrode subassembly) having a first metal foil 110 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of cathode material 112, such as, for example, LiCoO.sub.2, for example, by sputtering from a LiCoO.sub.2 target, and over which is deposited a relatively hard LiPON layer 114 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader). In some embodiments, cell 100 includes a second sheet 121 (an anode or negative-electrode subassembly) having a second metal foil 120 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of LiPON 124 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader and as an environmental barrier for lithium that is later plated through this layer), and a layer of lithium 122 (which forms the active portion of the anode or negative-electrode) is plated through the LiPON film 124 (either before or after the entire battery is assembled: if the cathode contains sufficient lithium to start, then the anode lithium layer is formed after assembly by the initial charging of the battery, while if the cathode has little or no lithium to start with, then the anode lithium layer is formed before assembly, e.g., by electroplating in a liquid electrolyte or solution from an external sacrificial lithium-metal electrode). In some embodiments, a sheet or layer of polymer electrolyte 130 is sandwiched between the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121. In some embodiments, the layer of the polymer electrolyte is deposited onto LiPON layer 114, LiPON layer 124, or a portion of the polymer electrolyte is deposited onto both LiPON layer 114 and LiPON layer 124, and then the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121 are pressed together or otherwise assembled (in some embodiments, two or more of the sheets are squeezed together between a pair of rollers). In some embodiments, it is the hard-soft-hard combination of electrolyte layers that provide a low-cost, high-quality, high-reliability, highly rechargeable battery system. In some embodiments, the hard layers act as protective barrier layers during manufacture and as current spreader electrolytes that obtain a smooth hard layer of lithium on the anode upon charging. In some embodiments, the hard layers are or include a glass or glass-like electrolyte material (e.g., LiPON). When they are made very thin (in order to increase cell conductivity and reduce cell resistance), these hard layers tend to have randomly spaced pinholes, bumps, or other defects (thicker layers can eliminate many such defects, but will have decreased cell conductivity and increased cell resistance). When the hard layers are formed on both the positive electrode and the corresponding negative electrode, the pinholes and defects of the electrolyte covering one electrode will tend not to be aligned with the pinholes and defects of the electrolyte covering the other electrode. The soft electrolyte layer both conducts ions across the gap between hard layers and tends to fill the pinholes and defects of the hard electrolyte coverings. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer can be a solid or gel polymer electrolyte (these also act as adhesives to hold the cells together and as seals to reduce contamination of the cell from environmental factors and to reduce leakage of the soft electrolyte layer), or can be a liquid electrolyte, optionally infused in a structural element (such as a sponge, screen, or ridges formed of a host solid-polymer (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, fluoroethylene or the like) on one or more of the hard electrolyte layers (e.g., by microembossing). In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a gel that includes a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVdF), propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. PVdF is a polymer that does not conduct lithium ions, that is, lithium salts will not dissolve in PVdF. However, PVdF can be swollen with a liquid such as propylene carbonate in which a lithium salt has been dissolved. The gel that results can be used as a soft electrolyte. In some embodiments, the thickness of each of the hard electrolyte layers is one micron or thinner, and the thickness of the soft electrolyte layer is about three microns or thinner. The structure shown in FIG. 1A is also represented in the following Table 1: TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Reference Function or Number Property Example Materials . . . optionally, more battery layers stacked above . . . 110 cathode metal foil (e.g., one that does not alloy with current Li, such as copper, nickel, stainless steel and collector the like), metal screen, or metal film on polymer film or SiO.sub.2 layer on Si wafer, (can have electrode formed on both sides for battery stack) 112 cathode LiCoO.sub.2 (sputtered or powder-pressed in place), material carbon powder, CuO powder (any of the above can be infused with polyPN electrolyte material to increase conductivity and lithium transport), or atomic matrix of copper and copper oxides (which, in some embodiments, includes a tapered composition Cu and O structure with more copper towards the top and more oxygen towards the bottom, e.g., Cu metal gradually mixed to . . .Cu.sub.4O. . .Cu.sub.2O. . .Cu.sup.+O.sup.--. . .CuO) 114 hard LiPON or electrolyte other lithium-glass material 130 soft polyPN with lithium (e.g., LiPF.sub.6), or other electrolyte polymer (e.g., PEO, polypropylene, etc.) electrolyte material 124 hard LiPON or electrolyte other lithium-glass material 122 anode Lithium, (can be plated through the hard material (e.g., LiPON) layer before or after assembly) (could be zinc with suitable changes to electrolytes and cathode material) 110 anode metal foil (e.g., copper), metal screen, or current metal film on polymer film or SiO.sub.2 layer on Si collector wafer, (can have electrode formed on both sides for battery stack) . . . optionally, more battery layers stacked below FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 101 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, cell 101, which is assembled in an uncharged state, includes a first sheet 111 (a cathode or positive-electrode subassembly) similar to that of FIG. 1A, except that the hard electrolyte 114 extends laterally over first metal foil 110 well beyond the lateral edges of the film of cathode material 112. In some embodiments, the lateral extent of cathode material 112 (such as, for example, LiCoO.sub.2, for example) is defined using photoresist and lithographic processes similar to those used for semiconductor integrated circuits (e.g., the cathode material is masked using photoresist, or a hard material such as SiO.sub.2 covered by photoresist and etched and the photoresist is removed so that the hard layer (e.g., SiO.sub.2) acts as the mask, to define the lateral extent of cathode material 112 (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2), and the mask is then removed. The hard electrolyte layer 114 (e.g., LiPON) is deposited on the cathode material 112 as well as onto substrate 110 around the sides of cathode material 112. This sideward extension of the hard UPON layer 114 acts as a seal to the sides of the lithium in the cathode to protect it from environmental contaminants such as oxygen or water vapor. In some embodiments, cell 101 includes a second sheet 121 (an anode or negative-electrode subassembly similar to that of FIG. 1A, except that no lithium is yet present) having a second metal foil 120 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of LiPON 124 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader and as an environmental barrier for lithium that is later plated through this layer), and a mask layer 119 around all of the sides of what will be plated lithium layer 122 (see FIG. 1C) that is later plated through the portions of LiPON film 124 not covered by mask 119 (after the entire battery is assembled). (In other embodiments, mask layer 119 is an electrical insulator, such as SiO.sub.2, deposited directly on metal foil 120, and photolithographically patterned to expose the metal substrate in the center, and the hard electrolyte layer LiPON film 124 is deposited on top of the mask layer). In some embodiments, the mask material 119 is photoresist and/or an insulator such as SiO.sub.2 that have lateral extents that are photolithographically defined. As above, in some embodiments, a layer of soft polymer electrolyte 130 (either a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) or a gel or liquid polymer electrolyte) (such as polyphosphazene having lithium salts such as LiPF.sub.6 to assist lithium conductivity) is sandwiched between the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121. FIG. 1C is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 102 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, the lithium metal layer 122 is plated before assembly (a combination of the methods described for FIG. 6C and FIG. 2 below). In other embodiments, a battery 101 (such as shown in FIG. 1B) is assembled before any lithium metal is in the anode assembly 121, and is initially charged by plating lithium from the cathode 112 through electrolyte layers 114, 130, and 124 and onto the anode current collector 120 to form lithium metal layer 122. FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium-battery manufacturing process 200 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, one or more double-sided anode sheets 121 are alternated with one or more cathode sheets 111 (wherein an cathode material 112 is deposited on both major faces of foil 110 inside of LiPON layer 114), with a polymer layer 130 placed or formed between each sheet. In some embodiments of anode sheets 121, an anode material 122 is deposited on both major faces of foil 120 inside of (or plated through) LiPON layer 124 (note that, in some embodiments, by this stage, the mask 119 (see FIG. 1B) has been removed from the lateral sides of the anode after lithium metal has been pre-electro-plated through the LiPON not covered by the mask 119 onto current collector 121 using a liquid electrolyte and a lithium sacrificial electrode. In some embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is spun on as a liquid and then dried. In other embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is dip coated. In other embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is cast on. In some embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is deposited from a liquid source 225, "squeegeed" (by squeegee 221) and/or doctor-bladed (by doctor-blade 222) in place onto both sides of each foil-core double-sided anode sheet 121 (having previously had LiPON layer 124 and anode layer 122 formed thereon), and onto both sides of each foil-core double-sided cathode sheet 111 (having previously had cathode-material layer 112 and LiPON layer 114 formed thereon). In some embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is deposited by an apparatus that is essentially an offset printing press, wherein a liquid soft polymer electrolyte material and/or solvent mix ("ink") is printed to the areas to which the soft polymer electrolyte layer 130 is desired.), and the stack is laminated together ("calendared" e.g., by being pressed between rollers 250 (for example, pressed between rubber-coated steel rollers, which, in some embodiments, are heated (e.g., by flowing hot oil inside the rollers)). Note that rollers 250 are schematically shown relative to two central battery layers, where In some embodiments, two or more such resulting stacks are then laminated together in a similar fashion. In other embodiments, all of the alternating layers of a battery device are laminated in a single pressing step. FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected lithium battery 300 of some embodiments of the invention, resulting from the laminating method of FIG. 2. In some embodiments, the outermost layer 111 and the outermost layer 121 are single sided, having a metal face facing outwards. In other embodiments, all layers 111 are identical one to another (and each is mirror-symmetrical about the center plane of foil 110), and all layers 121 are identical one to another (and each is mirror-symmetrical about the center plane of foil 120). In some embodiments, the edges of layers 111 are electrically connected to one another (for example, soldered, spot-welded or pressed together on the right-hand side) to form external cathode current-collector contact 321, and the edges of layers 121 are electrically connected to one another (for example, soldered, spot-welded or pressed together on the left-hand side) to form external anode current-collector contact 322, thus connecting all the cells in parallel to provide higher output current. In some embodiments, 1- to 30-mA-hour (or more) single cells are thus formed (depending on the area of each cell), and the battery has an amp-hour capacity of about the sum of the parallel cells. TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Materials List for FIG. 3 - 1 repeat unit Material Thickness Layer Mass (microns) (mg/cm.sup.2) 1/2 cathode collector foil* 1.5 and up (e.g., 6.25) 4.94 Nickel seed 0.1 to 0.3 (e.g., 0.3) 0.27 LiCoO.sub.2 0.5 to 10 (e.g., 5.0) 2.80 LiPON (cathode protect) 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 soft polymer electrolyte and/or 0.5 to 10 (e.g., 5.0) 0.75 "glue" LiPON (anode protect) 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 Lithium (plated from LiCoO.sub.2) about 0.3 times the 0.08 LiCoO.sub.2 thickness (e.g., 1.5) Copper (or Al, Ni, stainless steel, 0.1 to 1 (e.g., 0.25) 0.22 and the like) (used as the Li plate surface) Anode collector foil 3.0 and up (e.g., 12.5) 9.88 Copper (or Al, Ni, stainless steel, 0.1 to 1 (e.g., 0.25) 0.22 and the like) (used as the Li plate surface) Lithium (plated from LiCoO.sub.2) about 0.3 times the 0.08 LiCoO.sub.2 thickness (e.g., 1.5) LiPON (anode protect) 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 soft polymer electrolyte and/or 0.5 to 10 (e.g., 5.0) 0.75 "glue" LiPON (cathode protect) 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 LiCoO.sub.2 0.5 to 10.0 (e.g., 5.0) 2.80 Nickel seed 0.1 to 0.3 (e.g., 0.3) 0.27 1/2 cathode collector foil 1.5 and up (e.g., 6.25) 5.14 Totals (e.g., 53.1) 28.84 *In some embodiments, the foils are about 0.5-mils (0.0005 inches = 12.52-microns) thick In some embodiments, the cathode material layers 112 are each about 10 microns thick or more. In some embodiments, 10 microns of LiCoO.sub.2 provides about 0.552 mA-hour-per-square-cm per repeat unit 320 at 80% theoretical utilization, and 2.1 mW-hour-per-square-cm at 3.8-volt-discharge voltage. In some embodiments, the charge-storage density is about 104 mA-hour/cubic-cm, and about 19.1 Ahour/kg. In some embodiments, the energy-storage density is about 395 W-hour/liter, and about 72.8 W-hour/kg. In some embodiments, a 10-cm by 6.5-cm by one repeat unit 320 corresponds to 33.6 mA-hour, and about 127 mW-hour. In some embodiments, a final package measuring about 10.8-cm long by 6.5-cm wide by 1.8-cm thick houses three sets of 320 repeat units each, the sets tied in series to deliver 3.75 A-hour discharge from about 12.3 volts to about 9 volts. FIG. 4 is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected lithium battery 400 of some embodiments of the invention. In the embodiment shown, each sheet 126 has anode material covered with LiPON on one major face (the upper face in FIG. 4) of the foil 125, and cathode material covered with LiPON on the opposite major face (the lower face in FIG. 4). In some embodiments, the outermost layers are single sided as shown, having a metal face facing outwards. In other embodiments, all layers 125 are identical one to another, including the outermost layers. In some embodiments, the edge of the top-most layer 125 is electrically connected (for example, on the right-hand side) to form external cathode current-collector contact 421, and the edge of bottom-most layer 126 is electrically connected (for example, on the left-hand side) to form external anode current-collector contact 422, thus connecting all the cells in series. Each repeat unit 420 shows one basic stack layer. Up to one-A-hour or more single cells are thus formed, in some embodiments, depending on the area of each cell. FIG. 5A is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected screen-cathode-current -collector contact lithium-battery 500 of some embodiments of the invention. This embodiment is substantially similar to that of FIG. 3, except that, for the positive electrode, a metal screening or mesh 510 replaces foil 110. In some embodiments, this allows greater contact area to the cathode material 112, which is still completely covered by LiPON layer 114. In some embodiments, metal screening or mesh 510 is formed by selectively etching one or more photo-lithographically-defined areas of a metal foil. In some embodiments, LiCoO.sub.2 is sputtered onto the metal screening 510. In other embodiments, a LiCoO.sub.2 powder is packed onto the screening 510. In some embodiments, the LiCoO.sub.2 (whether deposited by sputtering LiCoO.sub.2 or by packing LiCoO.sub.2 powder onto the screening 510) is infused with polyPN or other polymer electrolyte material to enhance the ionic conductivity within the cathode. In some embodiments, the screening 510 is initially (before depositing LiCoO.sub.2) about 50% open space, and the open space is filled with LiCoO.sub.2 and/or polyPN or other ionic-enhancement material. In some embodiments, the metal screening or mesh 510 of all of the layers 511 are electrically connected to one another (for example, on the right-hand side) to form external cathode current-collector contact 521, and the edges of layers 120 are electrically connected to one another (for example, on the left-hand side) to form external anode current-collector contact 522, thus connecting all the cells in parallel. Each repeat unit 520 shows one basic stack layer. TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Materials List for FIG. 5A - 1 repeat unit Material Thickness Layer Mass (microns) (mg/cm.sup.2) 1/2 cathode collector 1.5 and up (e.g., 6.25) 2.59 screen/mesh/etched foil LiCoO.sub.2 (cathode) 8.0 to 40 (e.g., 12.5) 7.00 LiPON (cathode protection and 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 electrolyte) soft polymer electrolyte and/or 0.5 to 10 (e.g., 5.0) 0.75 "glue" LiPON (anode protection and 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 electrolyte) Lithium (plated from LiCoO.sub.2) about 0.3 times 0.265 LiCoO.sub.2 thickness (e.g., 5.0) Copper (or Al, Ni, stainless steel, 0.1 to 1 (e.g., 0.25) 0.22 and the like) (used as the Li plate surface) Anode collector foil 3 and up (e.g., 12.5 9.88 Copper (or Al, Ni, stainless steel, 0.1 to 1 (e.g., 0.25) 0.22 and the like) (used as the Li plate surface) Lithium (plated from LiCoO.sub.2) about 0.3 times 0.265 LiCoO.sub.2 thickness (e.g., 5.0) LiPON (anode protection and 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 electrolyte) soft polymer electrolyte and/or 0.5 to 10 (e.g., 5.0) 0.75 "glue" LiPON (cathode protection and 0.1 to 2.5 (e.g., 1.0) 0.21 electrolyte) LiCoO.sub.2 (cathode) 8.0 to 40 (e.g., 12.5) 7.00 1/2 cathode collector 1.5 and up (e.g., 6.25) 2.59 screen/mesh/etched foil Totals (e.g., 74.5) 32.37 In some embodiments, the cathode material layers include 31.25 microns LiCoO.sub.2 in each repeat structure (50% of screen volume) at 80% packing, and 95% electrical utilization corresponds to 1.63 mAhr/cm.sup.2/repeat unit, and 6.22 mWhr/cm.sup.2/repeat unit at 3.8 V average discharge voltage. In some embodiments, the LiCoO.sub.2 is infused with polyPN or other polymer electrolyte material to enhance the ionic conductivity within the cathode. In some embodiments, the charge storage density equals 218 mAhr/cm.sup.3; and 50.35 Ahr/kg. In some embodiments, the energy storage density equals 835 Whr/liter, and 192 Whr/kg. In some embodiments, each 10 cm.times.6.5 cm.times.1 repeat unit corresponds to 106 mAhr; 404 mWhr. In some embodiments, a final package 10.8 cm.times.6.5 cm.times.1.8 cm houses three sets of 80 repeat units each tied in series to deliver 8.5 Ahr in discharge from 12.3 V to 9 V. FIG. 5B is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected screen-cathode-contact lithium-battery 501 of some embodiments of the invention. This embodiment is substantially similar to that of FIG. 4, except that a metal screening or mesh is laminated to the bottom side of foil 535 (a foil corresponding to foil 110 of FIG. 4), or the bottom side of foil 535 (starting with a foil 110 of FIG. 1A) is selectively etched only part-way through to form a foil top side and a bottom side that has a mesh-like quality. In some embodiments, this allows greater contact area to the cathode material 112, which is still completely covered by LiPON layer 114. In some embodiments, foil-mesh layer 535 is formed by selectively etching a photolithographically-defined areas of a metal foil, but not all the way through. In some embodiments, the outermost layers are single sided as shown, having a metal face facing outwards. In other embodiments, all layers 535 are identical one to another, including the outermost layers (wherein the electrode layers facing outwards are non-functioning). In some embodiments, the edge of the top-most layer 535 is electrically connected (for example, on the right-hand side) to form external cathode current-collector contact 531, and the edge of bottom-most layer 535 is electrically connected (for example, on the left-hand side) to form external anode current-collector contact 532, thus connecting all the cells in series. Each repeat unit 530 shows one basic stack layer. In some embodiments, the thin (0.1 to 1.0 micron) LiPON electrolyte serves as a hard coating at the negative electrode preventing the formation of lithium dendrites. Its use as a coating at the positive electrode (i.e., LiCoO.sub.2) doubly ensures that lithium plating at a defect site will not short the battery. At both electrodes, LiPON also provides an improvement in environmental resistance to water vapor and oxygen. In some embodiments, the use of a relatively soft solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) simplifies the construction of cells over a full hard-electrolyte solid-state (e.g., LiPON only as the electrolyte) design. The soft polymer electrolyte functions as an "electrolyte glue" that allows the positive and negative electrodes to be constructed separately and adhered to each other later in the assembly process. In some embodiments, the soft polymer electrolyte is sprayed, squeegeed, or otherwise deposited in liquid form, and later solidified. Without the LiPON coating, some embodiments using a soft polymer electrolyte would need sufficient soft polymer electrolyte thickness to have mechanical rigidity or mechanical strength, which reduces energy density and increases cell resistance. Without the soft polymer electrolyte ("electrolyte glue"), LiPON films would need to be perfect (defect free) over very large areas to achieve high-energy cells. The combination of the two electrolyte material systems eliminates shortcomings of either used alone. Numerous metals can be used as the anode in battery cells of the present invention. One common anode metal is lithium. The lithium must be protected from oxygen and water vapor during manufacturing, assembly, and use of the battery. Zinc is another common anode metal used in some embodiments of the present invention. Zinc is the most electronegative metal that has good stability and corrosion resistance, with the appropriate inhibitor chemistry, in aqueous solutions. Several possible metal-air systems are listed in Table 4 along with a summary of their theoretical characteristics. TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Characteristics of metal-air cells. From "Handbook of Batteries, 3.sup.rd Ed.," David Linden and Thomas B. Reddy, Eds., Table 38.2, McGraw-Hill Handbooks, New York, 2002. SUMMARY OF OTHER LITHIUM/AIR RESEARCH Electrochemical Theoretical Theoretical Practical equivalent cell specific energy operating Metal of metal, voltage, Valence (of metal), voltage, anode Ah/g *V change kWh/kg V Li 3.86 3.4 1 13.0 2.4 Ca 1.34 3.4 2 4.6 2.0 Mg 2.20 3.1 2 6.8 1.2-1.4 Al 2.98 2.7 3 8.1 1.1-1.4 Zn 0.82 1.6 2 1.3 1.0-1.2 Fe 0.96 1.3 2 1.2 1.0 *Cell voltage with oxygen cathode Lithium, the lightest alkali metal, has a unique place in battery systems. Its gravimetric electrochemical equivalence of 3.86 amp-hrs/g is the highest of any metallic anode material. It can be seen from Table 3 that lithium has the highest operational voltage and greatest theoretical specific energy of the metals listed. Using a lithium anode leads to a very light, high energy density battery. The difficulty with lithium technology is providing practical systems that operate in real world conditions. It is possible to construct lithium cells utilizing an aqueous electrolyte, but these cells have limited applicability due to corrosion of the lithium metal anode by water. The lithium anode may also corrode from contact with oxygen. A solution to the rapid corrosion of lithium metal anodes in lithium-air cells includes the use of LiPON as a protective barrier and separator in the structure of an organic-electrolyte lithium cell. In some embodiments, a cell utilizes a LiPON thin film acting as both a portion of the electrolyte structure and a protective barrier against moisture and oxygen corrosion of the lithium metal anode. The structure of thin, flexible, lithium cells lends itself well to high-speed web-deposition processes, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,805,998 (which is incorporated herein by reference). In some embodiments, a battery of the present invention (e.g., reference numbers 100, 300, 400, 500, 600 or 900) is incorporated in an electrical device such as a hearing aid, compass, cellular phone, tracking system, scanner, digital camera, portable computer, radio, compact disk player, cassette player, smart card, or other battery-powered device. In some embodiments, the back (outside) of the cathode is exposed (or can be exposed, for example, by removing a protective polymer film layer) to air, such that oxygen acts as a cathode material. In some such embodiments, the air cathode battery is a primary battery that cannot be recharged, while in other embodiments, the air cathode battery is a secondary battery that can be recharged. Other Embodiments of the Invention One aspect of the invention includes an apparatus including a lithium anode covered by a LiPON electrolyte/protective layer, a lithium-intercalation-material cathode covered by a LiPON electrolyte/protective layer and a polymer electrolyte material sandwiched between the LiPON electrolyte/protective layer that covers the anode and the LiPON electrolyte/protective layer that covers the cathode. In some embodiments, the cathode includes LiCoO.sub.2. In some embodiments of the invention, the anode overlays a copper-anode current-collector contact. Another aspect of the invention includes a method including providing an anode substrate having a conductive anode-current-collector contact layer thereon, depositing a LiPON electrolyte/barrier layer over the anode-current-collector contact layer, providing a polymer electrolyte, and providing a cathode substrate having a cathode-current-collector contact layer, depositing a lithium intercalation material on the cathode current-collector contact layer, depositing a LiPON electrolyte/barrier layer over the cathode-current-collector contact layer, and forming a sandwich of the anode substrate and the cathode substrate with the polymer electrolyte therebetween. In some embodiments, a structure is provided having a plurality of anode substrates and a plurality of cathode substrates with polymer electrolyte between each pair of anode and cathode substrates. Another aspect of the invention includes an apparatus that includes a substrate having an anode current-collector contact, a LiPON electrolyte separator deposited on the anode current-collector contact, and a plated layer of lithium anode material between the LiPON and the anode current-collector contact. In some embodiments, the anode current-collector contact includes copper and the substrate includes a polymer. Another aspect of the invention includes an apparatus including a deposition station that deposits LiPON onto an anode current-collector contact, a plating station that plates lithium onto the anode current-collector contact to form an anode substrate, a cathode-deposition station that deposits a cathode material onto a substrate and deposits LiPON onto the cathode material to form a cathode substrate, and an assembly station that assembles the anode substrate to the cathode substrate using a polymer electrolyte material sandwiched between the cathode substrate and the anode substrate. In some embodiments of the invention, the deposition station comprises sputter deposition of LiPON. In some embodiments, the LiPON is deposited onto the anode current-collector contact with a thickness of between about 0.1 microns and about 1 micron. In some embodiments, the anode's LiPON layer is less than 0.1 microns thick. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.2 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.0 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.2 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.0 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.2 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 3.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 4.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 5.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 10 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is more than 10 microns. In some embodiments, the LiPON is deposited onto the cathode current-collector contact with a thickness of between about 0.1 microns and about 1 micron. In some embodiments, the cathode's LiPON layer is less than 0.1 microns thick. In some embodiments, this UPON layer is about 0.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.2 microns. In some embodiments, this UPON layer is about 0.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 0.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.0 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.2 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.6 microns. In some embodiments, this UPON layer is about 1.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 1.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.0 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.1 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.2 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 2.9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 3 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 3.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 4 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 4.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 5.5 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 6 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 8 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 7 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 9 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is about 10 microns. In some embodiments, this LiPON layer is more than 10 microns. In some embodiments, the plating station performs electroplating at densities of about 0.9 mA/cm.sup.2 and voltage of about 40 mV at 0.6 mA between a lithium counterelectrode and the plated lithium of the anode. In some embodiments of the invention, during a precharge of the anode, the lithium is conducted through a liquid propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 (or other suitable lithium salt) electrolyte solution and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer for the lithium to be wet-bath plated onto the anode connector or conduction layer (e.g., copper foil or a copper layer on an SiO.sub.2 or polymer substrate. FIG. 6A is a perspective view of an electrode 600 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. In some embodiments, a starting substrate such as 721 shown in FIG. 7B has its metal layer 720 (e.g., copper) photolithographically defined to form patterned metal layer 620 having contact pad 629, used for plating (such as shown in FIG. 6C) and for connecting to the external electrical conductor in the finished battery. In some embodiments, on top of patterned metal layer 620 is a patterned (e.g., photolithographically) hard electrolyte layer 624 (e.g., such as a hard electrolyte layer 124 described in FIG. 1C, but with some of its lateral edges removed). In some embodiments, an optional mask layer 119 is formed and/or patterned over the metal via between the main body of patterned metal layer 620 (which will be plated with lithium through patterned hard electrolyte layer 624 (e.g., LiPON)). In some embodiments, mask 119 prevents lithium from plating on the via, thus leaving sealed the interface between patterned hard electrolyte layer 624 and the metal via (otherwise, water vapor or air could cause the lithium plated in this area to corrode, leaving a gap that could cause more corrosion of the main body of the lithium on patterned metal layer 620. Because the patterned hard electrolyte layer 624 extends laterally beyond the lateral extent of patterned metal layer 620 on the rest of its periphery, no mask is required in those areas, since the lithium will not plate there and the sealed interface between patterned hard electrolyte layer 624 and the underlying non-conductive substrate remains intact and sealed. FIG. 6B is a perspective view of another electrode 601 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. In some embodiments such as shown here, the entire substrate surface is metal, so a mask 119 is deposited and/or patterned over the outer periphery of hard electrolyte layer 124 (e.g., LiPON), mask 119 with an interior opening 129 through which lithium will plate through the LiPON layer 124 to most of the central portion of the face of substrate 120 (e.g., a metal foil). In some embodiments, mask 119 is a photoresist layer that is patterned and left in place during plating. In other embodiments, mask 119 is another material (such as deposited SiO.sub.2) that is patterned using photoresist, which is then removed. In still other embodiments, mask 119 is a material (such as SiO.sub.2) that is deposited directly on the metal substrate 120, and is patterned using photoresist that is then removed before deposition of the hard electrolyte layer 124 (e.g., LiPON), thus preventing lithium from plating around the periphery (i.e., the mask 119 is under the LiPON, in some embodiments). FIG. 6C is a perspective view of a plating system 610. In some embodiments, one or more electrodes 600 and/or electrodes 601 are partially or completely submerged in a liquid electrolyte 606 (e.g., propylene carbonate and/or ethylene carbonate with dissolved LiPF.sub.6 or other suitable electrolyte). In some embodiments, a sacrificial block of lithium 605 is kept submerged in the electrolyte 606, and a suitable plating voltage is applied between the lithium block 605 and electrode(s) 600 and/or 601. In some embodiments, the contact pad 629 is kept out of the liquid to prevent lithium from plating there. FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, and 7F are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication (shown as a series 700 of operations) of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a substrate of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 7A shows a cross-section view of the starting substrate 710 (e.g., silicon, alumina, stainless steel, aluminum, or polymer, or a composite of different materials). In some embodiments, an aluminum-foil substrate (or other metal that could spontaneously alloy with lithium and thereby degrade performance of the battery) or an insulator or non-conductor (such as silicon or polymer, which does not conduct the electricity from the battery) is coated with copper or nickel (or other metal that conducts electricity and does not readily alloy with lithium and thereby helps maintain performance of the battery). In some embodiments, a cathode starting material contains no lithium (e.g., a copper foil, screening, or insulator coated with a copper conduction layer, then coated with a high-surface area carbon or Cu.sub.xO.sub.x (which has a high volumetric energy density) or other material useful as a lithium-battery electrode, optionally infused with polyPN). In some embodiments, (see FIG. 7B) a metal layer 720 (e.g., copper, nickel, or other suitable metal that does not readily alloy with lithium during charging or discharging of the battery) is deposited (e.g., by sputtering copper with no oxygen) on one or more major faces (e.g., the top and/or bottom surfaces shown in the figures) of a substrate 710 (e.g., a silicon wafer optionally having an SiO.sub.2 insulation layer on one or both sides, an alumina or glass wafer, or a polymer film), to form a metal-coated substrate 721. In some embodiments, metal-coated substrate 721 can be used as the current collector base (rather than metal foil 111 or 121) for either the anode or cathode of any of the above-described embodiments. In some embodiments, the starting substrate includes a plurality of metal layers (e.g., aluminum or copper moisture-barrier layers) alternating with a smoothing layer (e.g., spun-on photoresist or polyurethane) between each pair of metal layers to form a barrier stack (e.g., see U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/031,217 filed Jan. 6, 2005, entitled "LAYERED BARRIER STRUCTURE HAVING ONE OR MORE DEFINABLE LAYERS AND METHOD", which is incorporated herein by reference), wherein the top-most metal layer of this stack is a metal that (unlike aluminum) does not readily alloy with lithium during battery charging or discharging (e.g., a metal such as copper). Such a moisture-barrier stack is particularly useful for sealing a substrate that transmits some moisture and/or oxygen over time (e.g., a polymer film substrate such as polyethylene or Kapton.TM.), where the barrier stack. For some embodiments using a lithium-free starting cathode, copper is then is sputtered in a partial O.sub.2 atmosphere onto metal-coated substrate 721 (in some embodiments, the concentration of oxygen is increased over time such that the first material deposited is mostly copper, and gradually the material includes more and more oxygen in the copper-copper-oxide matrix) in argon (e.g., forming an atomic-scale mixture of copper, Cu.sub.4O in layer 722 (see FIG. 7C), Cu.sub.2O in layer 724 (see FIG. 7D), Cu.sup.+O.sup.- and/or CuO in layer 728 (see FIG. 7E), or a succession of the copper substrate 720, then mostly Cu.sub.4O in layer 722, then mostly Cu.sub.2O in layer 724, then Cu.sup.+O.sup.- and then CuO in layer 728 and/or an atomic-scale matrix of copper and copper oxides). In some embodiments, a layer of hard electrolyte 714 (see FIG. 7F), such as LiPON, is deposited across the finished cathode material. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication (shown as a series 800 of operations) of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a copper-foil substrate of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, (see FIG. 8A) a copper foil 711 or film is the starting material. In some embodiments, the starting foil is sputtered with argon to clean the surface(s) to be used for cathodes (e.g., the top and/or bottom surfaces shown), then copper is sputtered in a partial O.sub.2 atmosphere (in some embodiments, the concentration of oxygen is increased over time such that the first material deposited is mostly copper, and gradually the material includes more and more oxygen in the copper-copper-oxide matrix) in argon (e.g., forming an atomic-scale mixture of copper, Cu.sub.4O 722 (see FIG. 8B), Cu.sub.2O 724 (see FIG. 8C), Cu.sup.+O.sup.- and/or CuO 728 (see FIG. 8D), or a succession of the copper substrate 720, then mostly Cu.sub.4O 722, then mostly Cu.sub.2O 724, then Cu.sup.+O.sup.- and then CuO 728 and/or an atomic-scale matrix of copper and copper oxides). In some embodiments, a layer of hard electrolyte 714 (see FIG. 8E) such as LiPON is deposited across the finished cathode material. In some such embodiments, the copper metal spreads through the copper oxides (which intercalate lithium, in some embodiments), providing better electrical conductivity as the lithium migrates in and out of the cathode. In some embodiments, the anode is precharged by electroplating lithium through the LiPON electrolyte that has been deposited thereon. In other embodiments, one or more copper oxides and/or copper powder are powder-pressed onto a copper substrate or screen (i.e., the cathode conduction layer). In still other embodiments, an ink, having one or more copper oxides and/or copper powder, is printed, sprayed, doctor-bladed, or otherwise deposited on the cathode conduction layer. In some embodiments of the invention, the cathode material is charged with lithium that is conducted through a liquid propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer for the lithium to be plated onto/into the cathode material and/or connector or conduction layer. FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected foil-substrate-cathode -current-collector contact thin-film battery 900 of some embodiments of the invention. Battery 900 includes two cells connected in parallel, where two-sided anode current collector 120 has anode material 122 (e.g., lithium metal) that has been electroplated through hard electrolyte layers 124 (e.g., LiPON) on both sides of central current collector layer 120 (e.g., a metal foil or metal-coated polymer film), as defined by masks 119. In some embodiments, two cathode current collectors 110 each have cathode material 112 (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2) deposited and photolithographically patterned and covered with hard electrolyte layers 124 (e.g., LiPON). Pinhole 992 in hard electrolyte layer 124 and/or pinhole 991 in hard electrolyte layer 124 would cause failures of a typical single-layer electrolyte battery, but in the present invention, the pinholes do not align (e.g., vertically in the figure) with one another, and, in some embodiments, are filled with the soft polymer electrolyte 130, which acts to fill such holes and automatically "heal" the battery. Other details of this battery are as described above for FIG. 3. FIG. 10A is a schematic cross-section view of an encapsulated surface-mount single-cell micro-battery device 1000 of some embodiments of the invention (other embodiments use stacks of cells as described above). In some embodiments, a silicon wafer substrate has a plurality of such cells fabricated on it, and is diced apart to form silicon substrate 1011 having a metal current collector 1010 on its surface, which then has cathode material 112 and hard electrolyte layer 114 deposited thereon to form the cathode component. A foil anode component having foil substrate 120, anode metal 122, and hard electrolyte layer 124 is then laminated to the cathode component using a soft polymer electrolyte glue 130. This battery is then connected to a lead frame having cathode connector 1051 and anode connector 1052 and encapsulated in encapsulant material 1050, and the leads formed as gull-wing leads as shown or bent into J-shaped leads that curl under the package. Surface-mount-device 1000 can then be soldered to a circuit board to provide small amounts of battery power to other components on the circuit board (such as real-time clocks or timers, or static random-access memories, RFID circuits, and the like). In other embodiments, a plurality of foil battery cells is used instead and encapsulated to form a surface-mount chip-like battery having higher current and/or higher voltage capabilities. FIG. 10B is a perspective view of the outside of encapsulated surface-mount micro-battery device 1000 (described above in FIG. 10A), of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, a stack of foil battery cells (e.g., such as those described in FIG. 3, FIG. 4, FIG. 5A, and/or FIG. 5B, and, in some embodiments, with or without a silicon wafer substrate) is encapsulated in this form factor to create a surface-mount chip-like battery having higher current and/or higher voltage capabilities. FIG. 11 is a flow chart of a method 1100 for making a battery cell according to some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, method 1100 includes providing 1110 a first sheet (e.g., 121) that includes an anode material and a hard electrolyte layer covering the anode material, providing 1112 a second sheet (e.g., 111) having a cathode material and a hard electrolyte layer covering the cathode material, and sandwiching 1114 a soft (e.g., polymer) electrolyte material between the hard electrolyte layer of the first sheet and the hard electrolyte layer of the second sheet. Some embodiments of the method 1100 further include the functions shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 12 is a flow chart of a method 1200 for making a stacked battery according to some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, method 1200 includes performing 1210 the method 1100 of FIG. 11, providing 1212 a third sheet that includes an anode material and a hard electrolyte layer covering the anode material, providing a fourth sheet that includes a cathode material and a hard electrolyte layer covering the cathode material, sandwiching 1216 a polymer electrolyte material between the hard electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the third sheet and the hard electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the fourth sheet, and between the hard electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the first sheet and the hard electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the fourth sheet. FIG. 13 is a perspective exploded view of information-processing system 1300 (such as a laptop computer) using battery device 1330 (which, in various embodiments, is any one or more of the battery devices described herein). For example, in various exemplary embodiments, information-processing system 1300 embodies a computer, workstation, server, supercomputer, cell phone, automobile, washing machine, multimedia entertainment system, or other device. In some embodiments, packaged circuit 1320 includes a computer processor that is connected to memory 1321, power supply (energy-storage device 1330), input system 1312 (such as a keyboard, mouse, and/or voice-recognition apparatus), input-output system 1313 (such as a CD or DVD read and/or write apparatus), input-output system 1314 (such as a diskette or other magnetic media read/write apparatus), output system 1311 (such as a display, printer, and/or audio output apparatus), wireless communication antenna 1340, and packaged within enclosure having a top shell 1310, middle shell 1315, and bottom shell 1316. In some embodiments, energy-storage device 1330 is deposited (e.g., as vapors forming thin-film layers in a vacuum deposition station) or laminated (as partially assembled electrode films) as thin-film layers directly on and substantially covering one or more surfaces of the enclosure (i.e., top shell 1310, middle shell 1315, and/or bottom shell 1316). FIG. 14 shows an information-processing system 1400 having a similar configuration to that of FIG. 13. In various exemplary embodiments, information-processing system 1400 embodies a pocket computer, personal digital assistant (PDA) or organizer, pager, Blackberry.TM.-type unit, cell phone, GPS system, digital camera, MP3 player-type entertainment system, and/or other device. In some embodiments, packaged circuit 1420 includes a computer processor that is connected to memory 1421, power-supply battery device 1430, input system 1412 (such as a keyboard, joystick, and/or voice-recognition apparatus), input/output system 1414 (such as a portable memory card connection or external interface), output system 1411 (such as a display, printer, and/or audio output apparatus), wireless communication antenna 1440, and packaged within enclosure having a top shell 1410 and bottom shell 1416. In some embodiments, battery device 1430 (which, in various embodiments, is any one or more of the battery devices described herein) is deposited as film layers directly on and substantially covering one or more surfaces of the enclosure (i.e., top shell 1410 and/or bottom shell 1416). In some embodiments, at least one of the hard electrolyte layers is a glass-like layer that conducts lithium ions. In some such embodiments, at least one of the hard electrolyte layers includes LiPON. In some embodiments, the first hard electrolyte layer and the second hard electrolyte layer are both LiPON. In some such embodiments, each of the hard electrolyte layers is formed by sputtering from a LiPON source onto substrates having one or more electrode materials. In some such embodiments, each of the hard electrolyte layers is formed by sputtering from a lithium phosphate source in a nitrogen atmosphere onto substrates having one or more electrode materials. In some embodiments, each of the hard electrolyte layers is formed by sputtering from a lithium phosphate source in a nitrogen atmosphere, using an ion-assist voltage, onto substrates having one or more electrode materials. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes one or more polymers having a gel-like consistency at room temperatures. In some embodiments, the soft layer includes a polyphosphazene polymer. In some such embodiments, the soft layer includes co-substituted linear polyphosphazene polymers. In some such embodiments, the soft layer includes polyphosphazene polymers having a gel-like consistency at room temperatures. In some such embodiments, the soft layer includes MEEP (poly[bis(2-(T-methoxyethoxy ethoxy)phosphazene]). In some embodiments, the soft-electrolyte layer is formed by depositing soft-electrolyte material onto the hard-electrolyte layer on the positive electrode, depositing soft-electrolyte material onto the hard-electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, and pressing the soft-electrolyte material on the positive electrode and the soft-electrolyte material on the negative electrode against each other. In some embodiments, the soft layer includes a polymer matrix infused with a liquid and/or gel electrolyte material (e.g., polyPN). In some such embodiments, the polymer matrix is formed by waffle embossing (micro-embossing to leave raised structures, e.g., about 0.1 microns high to about 5 microns high: in some embodiments, about 0.1 microns, about 0.2 microns, about 0.3 microns, about 0.4 microns, about 0.5 microns, about 0.6 microns, about 0.7 microns, about 0.8 microns, about 0.9 microns, about 1.0 microns, about 1.2 microns, about 1.4 microns, about 1.6 microns, about 1.8 microns, about 2.0 microns, about 2.2 microns, about 2.4 microns, about 2.6 microns, about 2.8 microns, about 3.0 microns, about 3.5 microns, about 4 microns, about 4.5 microns, about 5 microns, about 6 microns, about 7 microns, about 8 microns, about 9 microns, or about 10 microns high) a heated polymer material onto at least one of the positive electrode and the negative electrode. In some such embodiments, the waffle embossing forms a pattern of dots. In some such embodiments, the waffle embossing forms a pattern of lines. In some such embodiments, the waffle embossing forms a two-directional/two-dimensional pattern of lines (e.g., in some embodiments, intersecting lines forming squares, triangles, hexagons, and/or the like, while in other embodiments, non-intersecting geometric patterns such as circles, squares, triangles, and/or the like). In other embodiments, a one-directional pattern of lines is microembossed in one direction on the positive electrode and in another direction on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a thin (e.g., 0.5 to 5.0 microns thick) polymer sponge or screen (e.g., a polypropylene sponge) infused with a liquid and/or gel electrolyte material (e.g., polyPN) and placed between the two hard electrolyte layers. In some such embodiments, the soft-electrolyte layer is formed by depositing a thin soft-electrolyte layer onto the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode, depositing a thin soft-electrolyte layer onto the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, and pressing the soft electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and the soft electrolyte layer on the negative electrode against each other. In some such embodiments, at least one of the thin soft-electrolyte layers is formed by doctor blading. In some such embodiments, at least one of the thin soft-electrolyte layers is formed by spraying. In some such embodiments, at least one of the thin soft-electrolyte layers is formed by silk-screening. In some such embodiments, at least one of the thin soft-electrolyte layers is formed by printing. In some embodiments, the battery includes a positive electrode that includes a LiCoO.sub.2 layer deposited on a copper current-collector layer, about 1 micron of LiPON deposited on the LiCoO.sub.2 layer, a layer of between about 1 micron and three microns of polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material, and about 1 micron of LiPON on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the negative electrode includes a copper current collector onto which LiPON is deposited and that is precharged by wet plating lithium onto the copper current collector through the LiPON layer. In some embodiments, the layer of polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material is formed by depositing about 1 micron of polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material on the LiPON deposited on the positive electrode, depositing about 1 micron of polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material on the LiPON on the negative electrode and contacting the polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material on the positive electrode to the polyphosphazene/lithium-salt electrolyte material on the negative electrode. In some such embodiments, the contacting includes pressing between rollers. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a battery cell having a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte structure therebetween, wherein the electrolyte structure includes a soft electrolyte layer and at least one hard electrolyte layer. In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, and the soft electrolyte layer is sandwiched between the positive electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some such embodiments, the invention omits the hard electrolyte covering on the positive electrode. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a polyphosphazene. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes MEEP. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer also includes a metal salt, such as LiPF6, LiBF4, LiCF3SO4, CF3SO3Li (lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, also called triflate), lithium bisperfluoroethanesulfonimide, lithium (Bis) Trifluoromethanesulfonimide, or the like or a mixture or two or more such salts, for example. In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and a hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, and the soft electrolyte layer is sandwiched between the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the thicknesses of the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and of the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode are each about one micron or less. In some embodiments, the thicknesses of the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and of the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode are each about 0.5 microns or less. In some embodiments, the thickness of the soft electrolyte layer is about three microns or less. In some embodiments, the thickness of the soft electrolyte layer is about two microns or less. In some embodiments, the thickness of the soft electrolyte layer is about one micron or less. In some embodiments, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode includes is substantially the same material as the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode includes is substantially the same thickness as the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode includes LiPON and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode includes UPON. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a gel. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a gel that includes a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVdF), propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. PVdF is a polymer that does not conduct lithium ions, that is, lithium salts will not dissolve in PVdF. However, PVdF can be swollen with a liquid such as propylene carbonate in which a lithium salt has been dissolved. The gel that results can be used as a soft electrolyte. Some embodiments further include an encapsulating material surrounding the battery cell, and one or more electrical leads connecting from the battery cell to an exterior of the encapsulating material. Some embodiments further include an electronic device and a housing holding the electrical device, wherein the battery cell is within the housing and supplies power to the electronic device. Some embodiments of the invention include a method that includes providing a positive electrode component, providing a negative electrode component, coating at least the negative electrode component with a hard electrolyte layer, and forming a battery cell using the positive electrode component, the negative electrode component that is coated with the hard electrolyte layer, and a soft electrolyte layer in between. Some embodiments of the method further include coating the positive electrode component with a hard electrolyte layer, wherein an electrolyte structure of the battery cell includes the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode, and the soft electrolyte layer which is sandwiched between the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments of the method, the electrolyte structure includes a hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and a hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode, and the soft electrolyte layer is sandwiched between the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments of the method, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode includes LiPON and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode includes LiPON. In some embodiments of the method, the soft electrolyte layer includes a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes MEEP and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the lithium salt includes LiPF6, LiBF4, LiCF3SO4, CF3SO3Li (lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, also called triflate), lithium bisperfluoroethanesulfonimide, lithium (Bis) Trifluoromethanesulfonimide, or the like or a mixture or two or more such salts, for example. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a positive electrode component coated with a hard electrolyte layer, a negative electrode component coated with a hard electrolyte layer, and electrolyte means for connecting the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component to the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component to form a battery cell. In some embodiments, the means for connecting further includes means for fixing defects in one or more of the hard electrolyte layers. In some embodiments, the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode includes LiPON and the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode includes LiPON. In some embodiments, the means for connecting includes MEEP. In some embodiments, the means for connecting includes a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the means for connecting includes MEEP and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the lithium salt includes LiPF6, LiBF4, LiCF3SO4, CF3SO3Li (lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, also called triflate), lithium bisperfluoroethanesulfonimide, lithium (Bis) Trifluoromethanesulfonimide, or the like or a mixture or two or more such salts, for example. Some embodiments further include an encapsulating material surrounding the battery cell, and one or more electrical leads connecting from the battery cell to an exterior of the encapsulating material. Some embodiments further include an electronic device, wherein the battery cell supplies power to at least a portion of the electronic device. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a first battery cell having a negative electrode, a positive electrode, and an electrolyte structure, wherein the negative electrode includes an anode material and a LiPON layer covering at least a portion of the negative electrode, the positive electrode includes a cathode material and a UPON layer covering at least a portion of the positive electrode, and the electrolyte structure includes a polymer electrolyte material sandwiched between the LiPON layer of the negative electrode and the LiPON layer of the positive electrode. In some embodiments, the cathode material includes LiCoO2 that is deposited on a positive electrode current-collector material, and the LiPON layer of the positive electrode is deposited on the LiCoO2. In some such embodiments, the positive electrode current-collector contact material includes a metal mesh around which the cathode material is deposited. In some embodiments, the negative electrode includes a negative-electrode current collector made of a metal that does not readily alloy with lithium during a plating operation, and lithium metal is plated onto the negative-electrode current collector through the LiPON layer covering the negative electrode. In some such embodiments, the metal of the negative-electrode current collector includes copper. In some such embodiments, the negative electrode includes a mask layer covers a periphery of the negative-electrode current collector and lithium metal is plated through the LiPON layer covering the negative electrode onto an area of the metal negative-electrode current collector defined by the mask. In some embodiments, the negative electrode includes a current-collector metal layer, and the anode material includes lithium metal deposited on at least one of two major faces of the metal layer that is at least partially covered by the LiPON layer of the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the anode material is deposited on both major faces of the metal layer of the negative electrode, each face at least partially covered by the LiPON layer of the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the positive electrode includes a current-collector metal layer, and the cathode material is deposited on both major faces of the metal layer and is at least partially covered by the LiPON layer. In some embodiments, the negative electrode includes a current-collector metal layer, and the anode material includes lithium metal plated onto both major faces of the negative-electrode current-collector metal layer through the LiPON layer covering the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the negative electrode includes a current-collector contact foil coated with the LiPON layer of the negative electrode, the lithium anode material includes lithium metal plated onto a first major face of the current-collector contact foil through the LiPON layer covering the current-collector contact foil, the lithium cathode material of a second battery cell is deposited onto a second major face of the current-collector contact foil of the negative electrode of the first battery cell, and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the second battery cell is then deposited by sputtering. In some embodiments, the positive electrode includes a current-collector foil, the lithium cathode material is deposited onto both major faces of the positive electrode current-collector contact foil, and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the positive electrode is then deposited by sputtering. In some embodiments, the positive electrode includes a current-collector contact mesh, the lithium cathode material is deposited onto both major faces of the cathode current-collector contact mesh, and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the positive electrode is then deposited by sputtering. Some embodiments of the invention include a method that includes providing a first sheet that includes an anode material and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material, providing a second sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material, and sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the first sheet and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the first cathode sheet. Some embodiments of the method further include providing a third sheet that includes an anode material and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material, providing a fourth sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material, sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the third sheet and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the fourth sheet, and sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the first sheet and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the fourth sheet. In some embodiments of the method, the anode is deposited as a layer on a copper anode current-collector contact layer through a LiPON layer. In some embodiments of the method, the deposition of a lithium anode is done by electroplating in a propylene carbonate/LiPF6 electrolyte solution. In some embodiments of the method, the first sheet includes a cathode material on a face opposite the anode material and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material, and the second sheet includes an anode material that includes lithium on a face opposite the cathode material and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material, wherein the method further includes providing a third sheet that includes an anode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material on a first face, and an anode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material on a second face opposite the first face, and sandwiching a polymer electrolyte material between the UPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material of the first sheet and the LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the third sheet. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a first sheet that includes an anode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material on a first face of the first sheet, a second sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material on a second face of the second sheet, and means for passing ions between the LiPON layer on the first face of the first sheet and the LiPON layer on the second face of the second sheet to form a first battery cell. In some embodiments, the first sheet includes a LiPON layer on a second face of the first sheet, and the apparatus further includes a third sheet that includes an anode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material on a first face of the third sheet, a fourth sheet that includes a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material on a second face of the fourth sheet and a cathode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material on a first face of the fourth sheet, means for passing ions between the LiPON layer on the first face of the third sheet and the LiPON layer on the second face of the fourth sheet to form a second battery cell, and means for passing ions between the LiPON layer on the second face of the first sheet and the LiPON layer on the first face of the fourth sheet to form a third battery cell. In some embodiments, the first sheet includes a copper anode current-collector layer, and the anode material includes lithium deposited as a lithium-metal layer on the copper anode current-collector layer through the LiPON layer of the first sheet. In some embodiments, a periphery of the lithium-metal layer is defined by a mask, and the deposition of a lithium anode is done by electroplating in a liquid propylene carbonate/LiPF6 electrolyte solution. In some embodiments, the first sheet includes a cathode material on a second face opposite the anode material on the first face and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the cathode material of the first sheet, and the apparatus further includes a third sheet having an anode material that includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electrolyte layer covering the anode material on a first face of the third sheet, and means for passing ions between the LiPON layer on the second face of the first sheet and the LiPON layer on the first face of the third sheet to form a series-connected pair of battery cells. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a deposition station that deposits a hard electrolyte layer on a negative electrode component, a deposition station that deposits a hard electrolyte layer on a positive electrode component, and a lamination station that laminates the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component to the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component with a soft electrolyte layer therebetween to form a composite electrolyte structure. Some embodiments further include a deposition station that deposits a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a polyphosphazene. Some embodiments further include a deposition station that deposits a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component, and a deposition station that deposits a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component. In some embodiments, the deposition station that deposits the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode deposits a material that includes LiPON, the deposition station that deposits the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component deposits a material that includes LiPON, and the deposition station that deposits the soft electrolyte layer deposited on the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component and the deposition station that deposits the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode deposits a material that includes a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes MEEP. In some embodiments, the deposition station that deposits the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode deposits a material that includes LiPON and the deposition station that deposits the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode deposits a material that includes LIPON. Some embodiments further include a deposition station that deposits a LiCoO2 layer on the positive electrode before the hard electrolyte layer is deposited on the positive electrode component. Some embodiments further include an electroplating station that plates a lithium metal layer on the negative electrode through the hard electrolyte layer after the hard electrolyte layer is deposited on the negative electrode component. Some embodiments further include a patterning station that deposits a photoresist layer and patterns a mask that defines an area on the negative electrode component to which a lithium metal layer can be formed. Some embodiments of the invention include a method that includes providing a positive electrode component, providing a negative electrode component, depositing a hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component, depositing a hard electrolyte layer on a positive electrode component, and laminating the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode to the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode with a soft electrolyte layer therebetween to form a composite electrolyte structure. In some embodiments of the method, the depositing of the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component includes sputtering a LiPON layer, and the depositing of the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component includes sputtering a LiPON layer. In some embodiments of the method, the soft electrolyte layer includes a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. Some embodiments further include depositing a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component, and depositing a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on a positive electrode component, and wherein the laminating presses the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component against the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component. In some embodiments, the depositing of the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component includes doctor blading. In some embodiments, the depositing of the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component includes spraying soft electrolyte material in a liquid form. In some embodiments, the depositing of the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component includes spin coating soft electrolyte material in a liquid form. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a source of a positive electrode component, a source of a negative electrode component, means for depositing a hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component, means for depositing a hard electrolyte layer on a positive electrode component, and means for laminating the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode to the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode with a soft electrolyte layer therebetween to form a composite electrolyte structure. Some embodiments further include means for depositing a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component, and means for depositing a soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on a positive electrode component, and wherein the means for laminating presses the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component against the soft electrolyte layer on the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component. In some embodiments, the hard electrolyte layer deposited on the positive electrode component includes LiPON and the hard electrolyte layer deposited on the negative electrode component includes LiPON. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layers include a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layers include MEEP. Some embodiments of the invention include an apparatus that includes a battery cell having an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte structure, wherein the anode includes an anode material that, when the battery cell is charged, includes lithium and a LiPON barrier/electroly 2 7,931,989 Thin-film batteries with soft and hard electrolyte layers and method United States Patent 7,931,989 Klaassen April 26, 2011 Abstract A method and apparatus for making thin-film batteries having composite multi-layered electrolytes with soft electrolyte between hard electrolyte covering the negative and/or positive electrode, and the resulting batteries. In some embodiments, foil-core cathode sheets each having a cathode material (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, and foil-core anode sheets having an anode material (e.g., lithium metal) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, are laminated using a soft (e.g., polymer gel) electrolyte sandwiched between alternating cathode and anode sheets. A hard glass-like electrolyte layer obtains a smooth hard positive-electrode lithium-metal layer upon charging, but when very thin, have randomly spaced pinholes/defects. When the hard layers are formed on both the positive and negative electrodes, one electrode's dendrite-short-causing defects on are not aligned with the other electrode's defects. The soft electrolyte layer both conducts ions across the gap between hard electrolyte layers and fills pinholes. Inventors: Klaassen; Jody J. (Minneapolis, MN) Assignee: CYMBET Corporation (Elk River, MN) Appl. 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Primary Examiner: Yuan; Dah-Wei D Assistant Examiner: Best; Zachary Attorney, Agent or Firm: Kagan Binder, PLLC Parent Case Text CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This invention claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/699,895 filed Jul. 15, 2005, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. This is also related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/895,445 entitled "LITHIUM/AIR BATTERIES WITH LiPON AS SEPARATOR AND PROTECTIVE BARRIER AND METHOD" filed Oct. 16, 2003 by J. Klaassen, the inventor of the present application, and to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/031,217 entitled "LAYERED BARRIER STRUCTURE HAVING ONE OR MORE DEFINABLE LAYERS AND METHOD" filed Jan. 6, 2005, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/458,093 entitled "THIN-FILM BATTERIES WITH POLYMER AND LiPON ELECTROLYTE LAYERS AND METHOD" and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/458,097 entitled "APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR MAKING THIN-FILM BATTERIES WITH SOFT AND HARD ELECTROLYTE LAYERS", filed on even date herewith, which are all incorporated herein in their entirety by reference. Claims What is claimed is: 1. A method of forming a battery cell having a composite electrolyte structure comprising: a) providing a positive electrode component; b) providing a negative electrode component; c) depositing a first electrolyte layer having randomly spaced defects therein on the negative electrode component; d) depositing a second electrolyte layer having randomly spaced defects therein on a positive electrode component; e) providing a third electrolyte material that comprises a polymer or a gel that is soft compared to the first and second electrolyte layers; f) laminating the first electrolyte layer on the negative electrode to the second electrolyte layer on the positive electrode using the third soft electrolyte material to at least partially fill and fix the defects in at least one of the first and second electrolyte layers to form the composite electrolyte structure of the battery cell. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising laminating two or more battery cells together to form a laminated battery device. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the laminated battery device comprises a stack of two-sided anode current collectors and two-sided cathode current collectors that are connected in parallel. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the laminated battery device comprises a stack of two-sided anode current collectors and two-sided cathode current collectors that are connected in series. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the third electrolyte layer is an adhesive that provides a structural connection between the first and second electrolyte layers. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the positive electrode component comprises a current collector onto which is deposited a cathode material. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the negative electrode component comprises a current collector, and wherein a layer of lithium is formed as an active portion of the negative electrode component after assembly of the battery cell. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and second electrolyte layers are LiPON. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the third electrolyte layer is sticky. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the third electrolyte layer comprises polyvinylidene difluoride, propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the third electrolyte layer comprises MEEP. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the cathode electrode component includes LiCoO.sub.2 that is deposited on a positive electrode current-collector material, and the second electrolyte layer on the positive electrode component is a layer of LiPON that is deposited on the LiCoO.sub.2. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the negative electrode component includes a negative-electrode current collector made of a metal that does not readily alloy with lithium during a plating operation, and lithium metal is plated onto the negative-electrode current collector through the first electrolyte layer on the negative electrode component. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the third electrolyte layer comprises a polyphosphazene and a lithium salt. Description FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to solid-state energy-storage devices, and more specifically to a method and apparatus for making thin-film (e.g., lithium) battery devices with a soft (e.g., polymer) electrolyte layer, and one or more hard layers (e.g., LiPON) as electrolyte layer(s) and/or protective barrier(s), and the resulting cell(s) and/or battery(s). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Electronics have been incorporated into many portable devices such as computers, mobile phones, tracking systems, scanners, and the like. One drawback to portable devices is the need to include the power supply with the device. Portable devices typically use batteries as power supplies. Batteries must have sufficient capacity to power the device for at least the length of time the device is in use. Sufficient battery capacity can result in a power supply that is quite heavy and/or large compared to the rest of the device. Accordingly, smaller and lighter batteries (i.e., power supplies) with sufficient energy storage are desired. Other energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors, and energy conversion devices, such as photovoltaics and fuel cells, are alternatives to batteries for use as power supplies in portable electronics and non-portable electrical applications. Another drawback of conventional batteries is the fact that some are fabricated from potentially toxic materials that may leak and be subject to governmental regulation. Accordingly, it is desired to provide an electrical power source that is safe, solid-state and rechargeable over many charge/discharge life cycles. One type of an energy-storage device is a solid-state, thin-film battery. Examples of thin-film batteries are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,314,765; 5,338,625; 5,445,906; 5,512,147; 5,561,004; 5,567,210; 5,569,520; 5,597,660; 5,612,152; 5,654,084; and 5,705,293, each of which is herein incorporated by reference. U.S. Pat. No. 5,338,625 describes a thin-film battery, especially a thin-film microbattery, and a method for making same having application as a backup or first integrated power source for electronic devices. U.S. Pat. No. 5,445,906 describes a method and system for manufacturing a thin-film battery structure formed with the method that utilizes a plurality of deposition stations at which thin battery component films are built up in sequence upon a web-like substrate as the substrate is automatically moved through the stations. U.S. Pat. No. 6,805,998 entitled "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR INTEGRATED BATTERY DEVICES" (which is incorporated herein by reference) issued Oct. 19, 2004, by Mark L. Jenson and Jody J. Klaassen (the inventor of the present application), and is assigned to the assignee of the present invention, described a high-speed low-temperature method for depositing thin-film lithium batteries onto a polymer web moving through a series of deposition stations. K. M. Abraham and Z. Jiang, (as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,510,209, which is incorporated herein by reference) demonstrated a cell with a non-aqueous polymer separator consisting of a film of polyacrylonitrile swollen with a propylene carbonate/ethylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution. This organic electrolyte membrane was sandwiched between a lithium metal foil anode and a carbon composite cathode to form the lithium-air cell. The utilization of the organic electrolyte allowed good performance of the cell in an oxygen or dry air atmosphere. As used herein, the anode of the battery is the positive electrode (which is the anode during battery discharge) and the cathode of the battery is the negative electrode (which is the cathode during battery discharge). (During a charge operation, the positive electrode is the cathode and the negative electrode is the anode, but the anode-cathode terminology herein reflects the discharge portion of the cycle.) U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237 entitled "Polyphosphazenes as gel polymer electrolytes" (which is incorporated herein by reference), issued to Allcock, et al. on Aug. 12, 2003, and describes co-substituted linear polyphosphazene polymers that could be useful in gel polymer electrolytes, and which have an ion conductivity at room temperature of at least about 10.sup.-5 S/cm and comprising (i) a polyphosphazene having controlled ratios of side chains that promote ionic conductivity and hydrophobic, non-conductive side chains that promote mechanical stability, (ii) a small molecule additive, such as propylene carbonate, that influences the ionic conductivity and physical properties of the gel polymer electrolytes, and (iii) a metal salt, such as lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, that influences the ionic conductivity of the gel polymer electrolytes, and methods of preparing the polyphosphazene polymers and the gel polymer electrolytes. Allcock et al. discuss a system that has been studied extensively for solid-polymer electrolyte (SPE) applications, which is one that is based on poly(organophosphazenes). This class of polymers has yielded excellent candidates for use in SPEs due to the inherent flexibility of the phosphorus-nitrogen backbone and the ease of side group modification via macromolecular substitution-type syntheses. The first poly(organophosphazene) to be used in a phosphazene SPE (solid polymer electrolyte) was poly[bis(2-(2'-methoxyethoxy ethoxy)phosphazene] (hereinafter, MEEP). This polymer was developed in 1983 by Shriver, Allcock and their coworkers (Blonsky, P. M., et al, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 106, 6854 (1983)) and is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237. Also, the following U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,052,805 (Polymer electrolyte having acidic, basic and elastomeric subunits, published/issued on May 30, 2006); 6,783,897 (Crosslinking agent and crosslinkable solid polymer electrolyte using the same, Aug. 31, 2004); 6,727,024 (Polyalkylene oxide polymer composition for solid polymer electrolytes, Apr. 27, 2004); 6,392,008 (Polyphosphazene polymers, May 21, 2002); 6,369,159 (Antistatic plastic materials containing epihalohydrin polymers, Apr. 9, 2002); 6,214,251 (Polymer electrolyte composition, Apr. 10, 2001); 5,998,559 (Single-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes, and conductive compositions and batteries made therefrom; Dec. 7, 1999); 5,874,184 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, Feb. 23, 1999); 5,698,664 (Synthesis of polyphosphazenes with controlled molecular weight and polydispersity, Dec. 16, 1997); 5,665,490 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, Sep. 9, 1997); 5,633,098 (Batteries containing single-ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes, May 27, 1997); 5,597,661 (Solid polymer electrolyte, battery and solid-state electric double layer capacitor using the same as well as processes for the manufacture thereof, Jan. 28, 1997); 5,567,783 (Polyphosphazenes bearing crown ether and related pod and side groups as solid solvents for ionic conduction, Oct. 22, 1996); 5,562,909 (Phosphazene polyelectrolytes as immunoadjuvants, Oct. 8, 1996); 5,548,060 (Sulfonation of polyphosphazenes, Aug. 20, 1996); 5,414,025 (Method of crosslinking of solid state battery electrolytes by ultraviolet radiation, May 9, 1995); 5,376,478 (Lithium secondary battery of vanadium pentoxide and polyphosphazenes, Dec. 27, 1994); 5,219,679 (Solid electrolytes, Jun. 15, 1993); 5,110,694 (Secondary Li battery incorporating 12-Crown-4 ether, May 5, 1992); 5,102,751 (Plasticizers useful for enhancing ionic conductivity of solid polymer electrolytes, Apr. 7, 1992); 5,061,581 (Novel solid polymer electrolytes, Oct. 29, 1991); 4,656,246 (Polyetheroxy-substituted polyphosphazene purification, Apr. 7, 1987); and 4,523,009, (Polyphosphazene compounds and method of preparation, Jun. 11, 1985), which are all incorporated herein by reference. Each discuss polyphosphazene polymers and/or other polymer electrolytes and/or lithium salts and combinations thereof U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/895,445 entitled "LITHIUM/AIR BATTERIES WITH LiPON AS SEPARATOR AND PROTECTIVE BARRIER AND METHOD" by the inventor of the present application (which is incorporated herein by reference) describes a method for making lithium batteries including depositing LiPON on a conductive substrate (e.g., a metal such as copper or aluminum) by depositing a chromium adhesion layer on an electrically insulating layer of silicon oxide by vacuum sputter deposition of 50 nm of chromium followed by 500 nm of copper. In some embodiments, a thin film of LiPON (Lithium Phosphorous OxyNitride) is then formed by low-pressure (<10 mtorr) sputter deposition of lithium orthophosphate (Li.sub.3PO.sub.4) in nitrogen. In some embodiments of the Li-air battery cells, LiPON was deposited over the copper anode current-collector contact to a thickness of 2.5 microns, and a layer of lithium metal was formed onto the copper anode current-collector contact by electroplating through the LiPON layer in a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution. In some embodiments, the air cathode was a carbon-powder/polyfluoroacrylate-binder coating (Novec-1700) saturated with a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 organic electrolyte solution. In other embodiments, a cathode-current-collector contact layer having carbon granules is deposited, such that atmospheric oxygen could operate as the cathode reactant. This configuration requires providing air access to substantially the entire cathode surface, limiting the ability to densely stack layers for higher electrical capacity (i.e., amp-hours). There is a need for rechargeable lithium-based batteries having improved protection against dendrite formation and with improved density, electrical capacity, rechargeability, and reliability, and smaller volume and lowered cost. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In some embodiments, the present invention includes a battery having an electrolyte structure that combines a plurality of layers of different electrolytes (e.g., hard-soft-hard). In some embodiments, a thin (0.1 to 1.0 micron) LiPON electrolyte layer serves as a hard coating on the negative electrode preventing the formation of lithium dendrites (especially when paired with a corresponding LiPON electrolyte layer coating on the positive electrode) and/or providing an even (smooth), hard layer of lithium metal on, or as part of, the negative electrode when the battery is charged. In some embodiments, a thin (0.1 to 1.0 micron) LiPON electrolyte on only one electrode (e.g., the negative electrode) may not prevent the formation of lithium dendrites over the long term (e.g., many thousands of discharge-recharge cycles), since the lithium growing through a pinhole may only need to grow about 3 microns or less across the electrolyte to short the battery (i.e., providing a metal electrical conduction path directly from anode to cathode). When LiPON is also used as a coating at the positive electrode (e.g., an electrode that includes LiCoO.sub.2) the random locations of the pinholes will not line up (e.g., across the electrolyte from anode to cathode) so lithium would also need to grow sideways in the electrolyte, which doubly ensures that lithium plating at a defect site (which would typically form a dendrite) will not short the battery. In some embodiments, a soft electrolyte layer bridges the gap between the hard electrolyte layer on the negative electrode and the hard electrolyte layer on the positive electrode. At both electrodes, the LiPON layer also provides an improvement in environmental resistance to water vapor and oxygen, especially during manufacture before the battery is completed and otherwise sealed. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte includes a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) layer that is located between and contacts with the LiPON layer on the positive electrode and the LiPON layer on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a polymer electrolyte such as PEO-LiX (poly-ethylene oxide lithium-X, where LiX=a metal salt, such as LiPF6, LiBF.sub.4, LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.4, CF.sub.3SO.sub.3Li (lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate, also called triflate), lithium bisperfluoroethanesulfonimide, lithium(Bis)Trifluoromethanesulfonimide, and/or the like, for example). In some embodiments, the electrolyte structure includes a polymer electrolyte such as polyPN-LiX (Polyphosphazene with lithium-X, where LiX=LiPF.sub.6, LiBF.sub.4, LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.4, and/or the like, for example). In some embodiments, a small-molecule additive, such as propylene carbonate, that influences the ionic conductivity and physical properties of the polymer electrolytes is added to form a gel electrolyte that better fills defects and acts as an adhesive. The present invention provides both a method and an apparatus for making thin-film batteries having composite (e.g., multi-layered) electrolytes with a soft electrolyte layer between hard electrolyte layers covering the negative and/or positive electrodes, and the resulting batteries. In some embodiments, metal-core cathode sheets each having a cathode material (e.g., LiCoO2) deposited on a metal foil, screen, or mesh (e.g., copper, nickel, or stainless steel) or a metal-covered insulator (e.g., a sputtered metal film on a polymer film, a SiO2-covered silicon wafer, or an alumina or sapphire substrate) and is covered by a hard electrolyte (some embodiments form such electrodes on both sides of the substrate), and foil-core anode sheets having a anode material (e.g., lithium metal) deposited on a metal foil (e.g., copper, nickel, or stainless steel) or a metal-covered insulator (e.g., a sputtered metal film on a polymer film, a SiO2-covered silicon wafer, or an alumina or sapphire substrate) and is also covered by a hard electrolyte (some embodiments form such electrodes on both sides of the substrate), and such sheets are laminated using a soft (e.g., polymer gel) electrolyte sandwiched between alternating cathode and anode sheets. In some embodiments, a hard glass-like electrolyte layer obtains a smooth hard positive-electrode lithium-metal layer upon charging, but when such a layer is made very thin, will tend to have randomly spaced pinholes/defects. When the hard layers are formed on both the positive and negative electrodes, one electrode's dendrite-short-causing defects on are not aligned with the other electrode's defects. The soft electrolyte layer conducts ions across the gap between hard electrolyte layers and/or fills pinholes, thin spots, and other defects in the hard electrolyte layers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 100 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 101 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 1C is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 102 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium-battery manufacturing process 200 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected lithium battery 300 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 4 is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected lithium battery 400 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5A is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected screen-cathode current-collector contact lithium-battery 500 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5B is a schematic cross-section view of a series-connected screen-cathode-current-collector contact lithium-battery 501 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6A is a perspective view of an electrode 600 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. FIG. 6B is a perspective view of another electrode 601 having a hard-electrolyte-covered current collector with a plating mask 119. FIG. 6C is a perspective view of a plating system 610. FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, and 7F are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a substrate of some embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 8D, and 8E are schematic cross-sectional views of the fabrication of an atomic level matrix of copper and copper oxides as cathodes on a copper foil substrate of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-section view of a parallel-connected foil-cathode-current-collector contact lithium battery 900 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 10A is a schematic cross-section view of an encapsulated surface-mount micro-battery 1000 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 10B is a perspective view of an encapsulated surface-mount micro-battery 1000 of some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 11 is a flow chart of a method 1100 for making a battery cell according to some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 12 is a flow chart of a method 1200 for making a stacked battery according to some embodiments of the invention. FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of a device as part of a system. FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a device as part of a portable system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Although the following detailed description contains many specifics for the purpose of illustration, a person of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that many variations and alterations to the following details are within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the following preferred embodiments of the invention are set forth without any loss of generality to, and without imposing limitations upon the claimed invention. In the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which are shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. It is understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. The leading digit(s) of reference numbers appearing in the Figures generally correspond to the Figure number in which that component is first introduced, such that the same reference number is used throughout to refer to an identical component, which appears in multiple Figures. Signals (such as, for example, fluid pressures, fluid flows, or electrical signals that represent such pressures or flows), pipes, tubing or conduits that carry the fluids, wires or other conductors that carry the electrical signals, and connections may be referred to by the same reference number or label, and the actual meaning will be clear from its use in the context of the description. Terminology In this description, the term metal applies both to substantially pure single metallic elements and to alloys or combinations of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metallic element. The term substrate or core generally refers to the physical structure that is the basic work piece that is transformed by various process operations into the desired microelectronic configuration. In some embodiments, substrates include conducting material (such as copper, stainless steel, aluminum and the like), insulating material (such as sapphire, ceramic, or plastic/polymer insulators and the like), semiconducting materials (such as silicon), non-semiconducting, or combinations of semiconducting and non-semiconducting materials. In some other embodiments, substrates include layered structures, such as a core sheet or piece of material (such as iron-nickel alloy and the like) chosen for its coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) that more closely matches the CTE of an adjacent structure such as a silicon processor chip. In some such embodiments, such a substrate core is laminated to a sheet of material chosen for electrical and/or thermal conductivity (such as a copper, aluminum alloy and the like), which in turn is covered with a layer of plastic chosen for electrical insulation, stability, and embossing characteristics. An electrolyte is a material that conducts electricity by allowing movement of ions (e.g., lithium ions having a positive charge) while being non-conductive or highly resistive to electron conduction. An electrical cell or battery is a device having an anode and a cathode that are separated by an electrolyte. A dielectric is a material that is non-conducting to electricity, such as, for example, plastic, ceramic, or glass. In some embodiments, a material such as LiPON can act as an electrolyte when a source and sink for lithium are adjacent the LiPON layer, and can also act as a dielectric when placed between two metal layers such as copper or aluminum, which do not form ions that can pass through the LiPON. In some embodiments, devices include an insulating plastic/polymer layer (a dielectric) having wiring traces that carry signals and electrical power horizontally, and vias that carry signals and electrical power vertically between layers of traces. In some embodiments, an anode portion of a thin-film solid-state battery is made (as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/895,445 discussed above) using a method that includes depositing LiPON on a conductive substrate (e.g., a metal such as copper or aluminum) that is formed by depositing a chromium adhesion layer on an electrically insulating layer of silicon oxide (or on a polymer sheet) using vacuum-sputter deposition of 50 nm of chromium followed by 500 nm of copper. In some embodiments, a thin film of LiPON (Lithium Phosphorous OxyNitride) is then formed by low-pressure (<10 mtorr) sputter deposition of lithium orthophosphate (Li.sub.3PO.sub.4) in nitrogen, or by sputtering from a LiPON source. In some embodiments LiPON is deposited over the copper anode current-collector contact to a thickness of between 0.1 microns and 2.5 microns. In some embodiments, a layer of lithium metal is formed onto the copper anode current-collector contact by electroplating through the LiPON layer (which was earlier deposited on the copper anode current-collector contact) in a propylene carbonate/LiPF.sub.6 organic electrolyte solution. The LiPON acts as a protective layer during fabrication of the battery, and in the assembled battery, it operates as one layer of a multi-layer electrolyte. (In other embodiments, the layer of lithium metal of the anode is formed by an initial charging operation after the battery is assembled.) In some embodiments, a cathode portion of the thin-film solid-state battery is made sputtering LiCoO.sub.2 onto a first of metal foil from a LiCoO.sub.2 source, over which is deposited a LiPON layer, which in the assembled battery, operates as another layer of the multi-layer electrolyte. In some embodiments, a solid or gel polymer electrolyte is used as a structural connection or adhesive between the two LiPON electrolyte layers, as well as forming an ion-conductive path between the positive and negative electrodes of the battery. It is desirable, in some embodiments, to form a very thin electrolyte. If a single very thin layer of LiPON is used, it tends to have defects (e.g., thin spots or pinholes) and lithium ions will preferentially travel through these paths of least resistance and plate to spike-shaped lithium-metal dendrites that short out the battery. If a single very thin solid or gel polymer electrolyte layer is used, any surface irregularities (e.g., bumps or ridges in the anode or cathode material) will tend to connect through the electrolyte and short the battery. By having two independently formed very thin LiPON (hard) electrolyte component layers, one formed on the battery's anode and another formed on the battery's cathode, any such thin spots or pinholes in one layer will not line up with a thin spot or pinhole in the other layer. The third electrolyte layer (e.g., a soft polymer electrolyte that conducts lithium ions between the two LiPON layers) made of a solid and/or gel polymer electrolyte material does not get shorted out by bumps or other irregularities in either electrode since those irregularities will tend to be coated with LiPON and/or the corresponding spot on the other side will be coated with LiPON. Accordingly, one or more (even all) of the plurality of layers can be made very thin without the danger of having an initial short (from a polymer electrolyte that is too thin allowing the anode and cathode to touch) or a later-developed short (from a pinhole in a LiPON electrolyte layer that allows formation of a lithium-metal dendrite after one or more charge/discharge cycles). Further, the dense, hard, glass-like LiPON layer causes the lithium ions that pass through it to form a lithium-metal layer that is dense and smooth. In other embodiments, one or more other hard and/or glass-like electrolyte layers are used instead of one or more of the LiPON layers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,605,237 entitled "Polyphosphazenes as gel polymer electrolytes" discusses MEEP (poly[bis(2-(2'-methoxyethoxy ethoxy)phosphazene]) and other polymers, which are used in some embodiments of the present invention as structural connector and polymer electrolyte sublayer between two LiPON sublayers. The polyphosphazene (herein called polyPN) used as the connective layer is soft and sticky. Its adhesive properties are what allow the electrode to be and to remain joined. Its softness allows for defect correction and/or for defects to not cause poor battery performance and reliability. In other embodiments, other soft or gel-like ion-conducting polymers are used. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,523,009, 5,510,209, 5,548,060, 5,562,909, 6,214,251, 6,392,008 6,605,237, and 6,783,897 (which are all incorporated herein by reference) each discuss polyphosphazene polymers and/or other polymer electrolytes and/or various lithium salts and compounds that can be used as, or included in, one or more component layers of an electrolyte in some embodiments of the present invention. The term vertical is defined to mean substantially perpendicular to the major surface of a substrate. Height or depth refers to a distance in a direction perpendicular to the major surface of a substrate. FIG. 1A is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 100 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, cell 100 includes a first sheet 111 (a cathode or positive-electrode subassembly) having a first metal foil 110 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of cathode material 112, such as, for example, LiCoO.sub.2, for example, by sputtering from a LiCoO.sub.2 target, and over which is deposited a relatively hard LiPON layer 114 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader). In some embodiments, cell 100 includes a second sheet 121 (an anode or negative-electrode subassembly) having a second metal foil 120 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of LiPON 124 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader and as an environmental barrier for lithium that is later plated through this layer), and a layer of lithium 122 (which forms the active portion of the anode or negative-electrode) is plated through the LiPON film 124 (either before or after the entire battery is assembled: if the cathode contains sufficient lithium to start, then the anode lithium layer is formed after assembly by the initial charging of the battery, while if the cathode has little or no lithium to start with, then the anode lithium layer is formed before assembly, e.g., by electroplating in a liquid electrolyte or solution from an external sacrificial lithium-metal electrode). In some embodiments, a sheet or layer of polymer electrolyte 130 is sandwiched between the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121. In some embodiments, the layer of the polymer electrolyte is deposited onto LiPON layer 114, LiPON layer 124, or a portion of the polymer electrolyte is deposited onto both LiPON layer 114 and LiPON layer 124, and then the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121 are pressed together or otherwise assembled (in some embodiments, two or more of the sheets are squeezed together between a pair of rollers). In some embodiments, it is the hard-soft-hard combination of electrolyte layers that provide a low-cost, high-quality, high-reliability, highly rechargeable battery system. In some embodiments, the hard layers act as protective barrier layers during manufacture and as current spreader electrolytes that obtain a smooth hard layer of lithium on the anode upon charging. In some embodiments, the hard layers are or include a glass or glass-like electrolyte material (e.g., LiPON). When they are made very thin (in order to increase cell conductivity and reduce cell resistance), these hard layers tend to have randomly spaced pinholes, bumps, or other defects (thicker layers can eliminate many such defects, but will have decreased cell conductivity and increased cell resistance). When the hard layers are formed on both the positive electrode and the corresponding negative electrode, the pinholes and defects of the electrolyte covering one electrode will tend not to be aligned with the pinholes and defects of the electrolyte covering the other electrode. The soft electrolyte layer both conducts ions across the gap between hard layers and tends to fill the pinholes and defects of the hard electrolyte coverings. In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer can be a solid or gel polymer electrolyte (these also act as adhesives to hold the cells together and as seals to reduce contamination of the cell from environmental factors and to reduce leakage of the soft electrolyte layer), or can be a liquid electrolyte, optionally infused in a structural element (such as a sponge, screen, or ridges formed of a host solid-polymer (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, fluoroethylene or the like) on one or more of the hard electrolyte layers (e.g., by microembossing). In some embodiments, the soft electrolyte layer includes a gel that includes a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVdF), propylene carbonate, and a lithium salt. PVdF is a polymer that does not conduct lithium ions, that is, lithium salts will not dissolve in PVdF. However, PVdF can be swollen with a liquid such as propylene carbonate in which a lithium salt has been dissolved. The gel that results can be used as a soft electrolyte. In some embodiments, the thickness of each of the hard electrolyte layers is one micron or thinner, and the thickness of the soft electrolyte layer is about three microns or thinner. The structure shown in FIG. 1A is also represented in the following Table 1: TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Reference Function or Number Property Example Materials . . . optionally, more battery layers stacked above . . . 110 cathode metal foil (e.g., one that does not current alloy with Li, such as copper, collector nickel, stainless steel and the like), metal screen, or metal film on polymer film or SiO.sub.2 layer on Si wafer, (can have electrode formed on both sides for battery stack) 112 cathode LiCoO.sub.2 (sputtered or powder-pressed in material place), carbon powder, CuO powder (any of the above can be infused with polyPN electrolyte material to increase conductivity and lithium transport), or atomic matrix of copper and copper oxides (which, in some embodiments, includes a tapered composition Cu and O structure with more copper towards the top and more oxygen towards the bottom, e.g., Cu metal gradually mixed to . . . Cu.sub.4O . . . Cu.sub.2O . . . Cu.sup.+O.sup.-- . . . CuO) 114 hard LiPON or other lithium-glass material electrolyte 130 soft polyPN with lithium (e.g., LiPF.sub.6), or electrolyte other polymer (e.g., PEO, polypropylene, etc.) electrolyte material 124 hard LiPON or other lithium-glass material electrolyte 122 anode Lithium, (can be plated through the material hard (e.g., LiPON) layer before or after assembly) (could be zinc with suitable changes to electrolytes and cathode material) 110 anode metal foil (e.g., copper), metal screen, current or metal film on polymer film or SiO.sub.2 collector layer on Si wafer, (can have electrode formed on both sides for battery stack) . . . optionally, more battery layers stacked below FIG. 1B is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 101 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, cell 101, which is assembled in an uncharged state, includes a first sheet 111 (a cathode or positive-electrode subassembly) similar to that of FIG. 1A, except that the hard electrolyte 114 extends laterally over first metal foil 110 well beyond the lateral edges of the film of cathode material 112. In some embodiments, the lateral extent of cathode material 112 (such as, for example, LiCoO.sub.2, for example) is defined using photoresist and lithographic processes similar to those used for semiconductor integrated circuits (e.g., the cathode material is masked using photoresist, or a hard material such as SiO.sub.2 covered by photoresist and etched and the photoresist is removed so that the hard layer (e.g., SiO.sub.2) acts as the mask, to define the lateral extent of cathode material 112 (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2), and the mask is then removed. The hard electrolyte layer 114 (e.g., LiPON) is deposited on the cathode material 112 as well as onto substrate 110 around the sides of cathode material 112. This sideward extension of the hard LiPON layer 114 acts as a seal to the sides of the lithium in the cathode to protect it from environmental contaminants such as oxygen or water vapor. In some embodiments, cell 101 includes a second sheet 121 (an anode or negative-electrode subassembly similar to that of FIG. 1A, except that no lithium is yet present) having a second metal foil 120 (which acts as a current collector) onto which is deposited a film of LiPON 124 (which acts as a hard-electrolyte current spreader and as an environmental barrier for lithium that is later plated through this layer), and a mask layer 119 around all of the sides of what will be plated lithium layer 122 (see FIG. 1C) that is later plated through the portions of LiPON film 124 not covered by mask 119 (after the entire battery is assembled). (In other embodiments, mask layer 119 is an electrical insulator, such as SiO.sub.2, deposited directly on metal foil 120, and photolithographically patterned to expose the metal substrate in the center, and the hard electrolyte layer LiPON film 124 is deposited on top of the mask layer). In some embodiments, the mask material 119 is photoresist and/or an insulator such as SiO.sub.2 that have lateral extents that are photolithographically defined. As above, in some embodiments, a layer of soft polymer electrolyte 130 (either a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) or a gel or liquid polymer electrolyte) (such as polyphosphazene having lithium salts such as LiPF.sub.6 to assist lithium conductivity) is sandwiched between the first sheet 111 and the second sheet 121. FIG. 1C is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium cell 102 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, the lithium metal layer 122 is plated before assembly (a combination of the methods described for FIG. 6C and FIG. 2 below). In other embodiments, a battery 101 (such as shown in FIG. 1B) is assembled before any lithium metal is in the anode assembly 121, and is initially charged by plating lithium from the cathode 112 through electrolyte layers 114, 130, and 124 and onto the anode current collector 120 to form lithium metal layer 122. FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-section view of a lithium-battery manufacturing process 200 of some embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments, one or more double-sided anode sheets 121 are alternated with one or more cathode sheets 111 (wherein an cathode material 112 is deposited on both major faces of foil 110 inside of LiPON layer 114), with a polymer layer 130 placed or form 3 7,931,985 Water soluble polymer binder for lithium ion battery United States Patent Muthu , 7,931,985 et al. April 26, 2011 Abstract An electrode for a rechargeable lithium ion battery includes an electro-active material, a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer, and a conductive additive. A battery using the inventive electrode is also disclosed. Inventors: Muthu; Milburn Ebenezer Jacob (Breinigsville, PA), Mamari; Monira (Allentown, PA), Crane; Chester (Bangor, PA) Assignee: International Battery, Inc. (Allentown, PA) Appl. No.: 12/941,100 Filed: November 8, 2010 Current U.S. Class: Current International Class: 429/217 ; 429/212; 429/231.1; 429/231.95; 429/232 H01M 4/62 (20060101); H01M 4/58 (20060101) Field of Search: 429/217,212,209,231.1,231.95,231.3,232,223,224,218.1 428/474.4,476.9,492,522 References Cited [Referenced By] U.S. Patent Documents 3625759 December 1971 Williams 5150283 September 1992 Yoshida et al. 5175222 December 1992 Betso 5514488 May 1996 Hake et al. 5707756 January 1998 Inoue et al. 5795558 August 1998 Aoki et al. 5866279 February 1999 Wada et al. 6007947 December 1999 Mayer 6031712 February 2000 Kurihara et al. 6159636 December 2000 Wang et al. 6183908 February 2001 Miyasaka et al. 6235427 May 2001 Idota et al. 6282081 August 2001 Takabayashi et al. 6372387 April 2002 Kawakami et al. 6399246 June 2002 Vandayburg et al. 6497979 December 2002 Iijima et al. 6602742 August 2003 Maletin et al. 6616903 September 2003 Poles et al. 6627252 September 2003 Nanjundiah et al. 6697249 February 2004 Maletin et al. 6770397 August 2004 Maeda et al. 6852449 February 2005 Nagata et al. 6881517 April 2005 Kanzaki et al. 6946007 September 2005 Bendale et al. 6955694 October 2005 Bendale et al. 7052629 May 2006 Maeda et al. 7052803 May 2006 Kato et al. 7083829 August 2006 Hoke et al. 7227737 June 2007 Mitchell et al. 7267907 September 2007 Kim 7316864 January 2008 Nakayama et al. 7393476 July 2008 Shiozaki et al. 7419745 September 2008 Chaturvedi et al. 7422826 September 2008 Xing et al. 7425386 September 2008 Takezawa et al. 7481991 January 2009 Kawasato et al. 7508651 March 2009 Mitchell et al. 7531272 May 2009 Park et al. 7547491 June 2009 Ham et al. 7558050 July 2009 Roh et al. 7749658 July 2010 Isono et al. 2002/0110732 August 2002 Coustier et al. 2003/0091883 May 2003 Peled et al. 2003/0118904 June 2003 Hosokawa et al. 2003/0138696 July 2003 Peres et al. 2003/0172509 September 2003 Maletin et al. 2004/0020763 February 2004 Kanzaki et al. 2004/0023115 February 2004 Kato et al. 2004/0121232 June 2004 Kato et al. 2004/0234850 November 2004 Watarai et al. 2005/0069763 March 2005 Hong et al. 2005/0069769 March 2005 Nakayama et al. 2005/0074669 April 2005 Park et al. 2005/0142446 June 2005 Yamamoto et al. 2006/0058462 March 2006 Kim et al. 2006/0166093 July 2006 Zaghib et al. 2006/0194116 August 2006 Suzuki et al. 2006/0228627 October 2006 Nakayama et al. 2006/0275661 December 2006 Kim et al. 2007/0055023 March 2007 Han et al. 2007/0264568 November 2007 Ryu et al. 2007/0264573 November 2007 Yamada et al. 2007/0292765 December 2007 Inoue et al. 2008/0089006 April 2008 Zhong et al. 2008/0090138 April 2008 Vu et al. 2008/0118834 May 2008 Yew et al. 2008/0118840 May 2008 Yew et al. 2008/0160415 July 2008 Wakita et al. 2008/0212260 September 2008 Roh et al. 2008/0254362 October 2008 Raffaelle et al. 2008/0299461 December 2008 Kim 2009/0080141 March 2009 Eilertsen 2009/0148772 June 2009 Kawasato et al. 2009/0155694 June 2009 Park 2009/0214952 August 2009 Wakita et al. 2009/0220678 September 2009 Kono et al. 2009/0258296 October 2009 Kawasato et al. 2009/0268377 October 2009 Choi et al. 2009/0317718 December 2009 Imachi et al. 2010/0009258 January 2010 Hasegawa et al. 2010/0047690 February 2010 Tsuchiya et al. 2010/0075229 March 2010 Atsuki et al. 2010/0112441 May 2010 Fukumine et al. 2010/0117031 May 2010 Akagi et al. 2010/0136430 June 2010 Lee 2010/0140554 June 2010 Oki et al. 2010/0143799 June 2010 Park Foreign Patent Documents 573266 Dec., 1993 EP 1172878 Jan., 2002 EP 62270337 Nov., 1987 JP 8069791 Mar., 1996 JP 10208729 Aug., 1998 JP 11149929 Jun., 1999 JP 2002226505 Aug., 2002 JP 2004185826 Jul., 2004 JP 2007142579 Dec., 2007 WO Other References Title: "Effect of pH on the Synthesis of LiCoO2 with Malonic Acid and Its Charge/Discharge Behavior for a Lithium Secondary Battery" Source: Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society 2000, vol. 21, No. 11 pp. 1125-1132. cited by other. Primary Examiner: Alejandro; Raymond Attorney, Agent or Firm: Design IP Claims What is claimed is: 1. A battery comprising: a positive electrode mix comprising: a positive electrode active material; and a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer; and a negative electrode mix comprising: a negative electrode active material; and a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer; and an electrolyte. 2. The battery according to claim 1, wherein the positive electrode active material comprises between about 80 and about 95 percent (by weight) of the positive electrode mix. 3. The battery according to claim 2, wherein the conductive additive material comprises between about 1 and about 20 percent (by weight) of the positive electrode mix. 4. The battery according to claim 3, wherein the water soluble binder comprises between about 1 and about 10 percent (by weight) of the positive electrode mix. 5. The battery according to claim 1, wherein the negative electrode active material comprises between about 80 and about 95 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix. 6. The battery according to claim 5, wherein the conductive additive material comprises between about 0 and about 20 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix. 7. The battery according to claim 6, wherein the water soluble binder comprises between about 1 and about 10 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix. 8. The battery according to claim 1, wherein the water soluble binder is provided in the absence of a thickening agent. 9. The battery according to claim 1, wherein the water soluble binder is provided in the absence of a wetting agent. 10. The battery according to claim 1, wherein each of the positive electrode mix and the negative electrode mix further comprises a conductive additive. 11. A battery comprising: a positive electrode comprising: a positive active material selected from the group consisting of LiNiCoAlO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNi.sub.yCo.sub.xM.sub.zO, where M.dbd.Mn, Al, Sn, In, Ga or Ti and 0.15<x<0.5, 0.5<y<0.8 and 0<z<0.15, Li[Li.sub.(1-2y)/3Ni.sub.yMn.sub.(2-y)/3]O.sub.2, Li[Li.sub.(1-y)/3Co.sub.yMn.sub.(2-2y)/3]O.sub.2 and Li[Ni.sub.yCo.sub.1-2yMn.sub.y]O.sub.2 where x=(2-y)/3 and 0<y<0.5, LiNiCoO.sub.2.MnO.sub.2, lithium rich compounds Li.sub.1+y(Ni.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and xLi.sub.2MnO.sub.3(1-x)Li(NiCoMn)O.sub.2 and Li.sub.(1+y)(Ni.sub.0.5Co.sub.0.2Mn.sub.0.3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and LiMPO.sub.4, where M is one or more of the first row transition-metal cations selected from the group consisting of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and combinations thereof; a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer; and a conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, graphite, and combinations thereof; a negative electrode comprising: a negative active material selected from the group consisting of graphite, hard carbon, silicon, silicon alloy, tin, tin alloy, and lithium titanate; a water soluble binder comprising the (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer; and the conductive additive; and an electrolyte comprised of lithium salt in cyclic and linear carbonates. 12. The battery according to claim 11, wherein a mole ratio of acrylonitrile units to acrylamide units is between about 3:1 and about 1:1. 13. The battery according to claim 11, wherein a mole ratio of styrene units to butadiene units is between about 0.5:1.5 and about 1.5:0.5. 14. The battery according to claim 11, wherein an average molecular weight of the polymer is between about 10,000 and 1,000,000. 15. The battery according to claim 14, wherein the average molecular weight of the polymer is between about 100,000 and 200,000. 16. The battery according to claim 11, wherein the water soluble binder is provided in the absence of a thickening agent. Description FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates to a water soluble polymer binder for use in a rechargeable lithium ion battery and the battery in which the binder is used. BACKGROUND Rechargeable batteries use polymer binders to bind the active particulate material together and adhere this particulate material to the current collector in the fabrication of battery electrodes. The binder is generally comprised of one or more polymers. The binders commonly used in commercial li-ion batteries are polyvinyledene fluoride (PVDF), ethylene-propylene and a diene (EPDM). These polymers are generally insoluble in water and, thus are dissolved in an organic solvent such as N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP). The organic solvent additionally serves as a dispersion medium for the active materials. Some disadvantages of using organic solvents are that they have relatively high cost, can possess negative environmental impacts, and pose disposal issues. Further, PVDF is highly unstable and tends to break down at high temperatures. Known water soluble binders, such as carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), require a thickening agent to control the viscosity of the binder. Further, they exhibit only marginal adhesion capability. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) based water soluble binders also exhibit poor adhesion and do not exhibit good cycle life. Further, other known binders undergo hydrolysis under acid or basic conditions. To avoid the hydrolysis and to improve the dispersion, adhesion to the current collector, in a water-based blending process, the pH must therefore be tightly controlled. Accordingly, there is a need for a water soluble polymer binder in rechargeable lithium batteries. This water soluble binder should exhibit stability throughout a wide pH range, which results in greater ease in preparing slurry for electrode fabrication. SUMMARY Briefly, the present invention provides an electrode comprising an electro-active material, a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer; and a conductive additive. The present invention also provides a battery comprising a positive electrode mix comprising a positive electrode active material and a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer. A negative electrode mix comprises a negative electrode active material and a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer. The battery further comprises an electrolyte. Further, the present invention provides a battery comprising a positive electrode comprising a positive active material selected from the group consisting of LiNiCoAlO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNi.sub.yCo.sub.xM.sub.zO, where M.dbd.Mn, Al, Sn, In, Ga or Ti and 0.15<x<0.5, 0.5<y<0.8 and 0<z<0.15, Li[Li.sub.(1-2y)/3Ni.sub.yMn.sub.(2-y)/3]O.sub.2, Li[Li.sub.(1-y)/3Co.sub.yMn.sub.(2-2y)/3]O.sub.2 and Li[Ni.sub.yCo.sub.1-2yMn.sub.y]O.sub.2 where x=(2-y)/3 and 0<y<0.5, LiNiCoO.sub.2.MnO.sub.2, lithium rich compounds Li.sub.1+y(Ni.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and xLi.sub.2MnO.sub.3(1-x)Li(NiCoMn)O.sub.2 and Li.sub.(1+y)(Ni.sub.0.5Co.sub.0.2Mn.sub.0.3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and LiMPO.sub.4, where M is one or more of the first row transition-metal cations selected from the group consisting of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and combinations thereof, a water soluble binder comprising a (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer, and a conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, graphite, and combinations thereof. A negative electrode comprises a negative active material selected from the group consisting of graphite, hard carbon, silicon, silicon alloy, tin, tin alloy, and lithium titanate. The negative electrode further comprises a water soluble binder comprising the (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer and the conductive additive. The battery also includes an electrolyte comprised of lithium salt in cyclic and linear carbonates or other solvents used in the Li-ion battery electrolyte BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawing certain embodiments of the present invention. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements shown. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a battery formed in a jellyroll configuration according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1A is a schematic view of the battery of FIG. 1 with the electrolyte; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional representation of a prismatic electrochemical cell according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a positive electrode, a separator and a negative electrode-bi-cell configuration of the exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In describing the embodiments of the invention illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology will be used for the sake of clarity. However, the invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terms so selected, it being understood that each specific term includes all technical equivalents operating in similar manner to accomplish similar purpose. It is understood that the drawings are not drawn exactly to scale. The following describes particular embodiments of the present invention. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the embodiments detailed herein. Generally, the following disclosure refers to lithium ion batteries and a water soluble binder for use in lithium ion batteries. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 1A, a rechargeable lithium ion battery 100 according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention includes a positive electrode 112 formed from a positive electrode mix 110, a negative electrode 122 formed from a negative electrode mix 120, and an electrolyte 130. While FIG. 1 illustrates battery 100 formed in a "jellyroll" configuration, those skilled in the art will recognize that other formations, such as, for example, a prismatic configuration, which is illustrated in FIG. 2, may also be used within the teaching of the present invention. Positive electrode mix 110 includes a positive electrode active material selected from the group consisting of LiNiCoAlO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNi.sub.yCo.sub.xM.sub.zO, where M.dbd.Mn, Al, Sn, In, Ga or Ti and 0.15<x<0.5, 0.5<y<0.8 and 0<z<0.15, Li[Li.sub.(1-2y)/3Ni.sub.yMn.sub.(2-y)/3]O.sub.2, Li[Li.sub.(1-y)/3Co.sub.yMn.sub.(2-2y)/3]O.sub.2 and Li[Ni.sub.yCo.sub.1-2yMn.sub.y]O.sub.2 where x=(2-y)/3 and 0<y<0.5, LiNiCoO.sub.2.MnO.sub.2, lithium rich compounds Li.sub.i+y(Ni.sub.1/3Co.sub.1/3Mn.sub.1/3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and xLi.sub.2MnO.sub.3(1-x)Li(NiCoMn)O.sub.2 and Li.sub.(1+y)(Ni.sub.0.5Co.sub.0.2Mn.sub.0.3).sub.1-yO.sub.2, where y=(x/(2+x) and x=0-0.33, and LiMPO.sub.4, where M is one or more of the first row transition-metal cations selected from the group consisting of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and combinations thereof. In an exemplary embodiment, the positive electrode active material is between about 80 and about 90 percent (by weight) of the positive electrode mix 110. Positive electrode mix 110 may further include a conductive additive or additives selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, graphite and combinations thereof. In an exemplary embodiment, the conductive additive material is between about 0 and about 20 percent (by weight) of the positive electrode mix 110. Positive electrode mix 110 also includes a water soluble polymer comprising a copolymer of (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide), and water. The binder is mixed with the positive electrode active material, the conductive additive, and water to form a slurry. Polystyrenebutadiene rubber is less susceptible than other water soluble binders to hydrolysis under acidic or basic conditions (i.e., pH less than 5 or greater than 10). It has been found that the combination of poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) into the polystyrenebutadiene rubber, forming a four-monomer-based copolymer, results in a water soluble binder with even more stability than polystyrenebutadiene rubber over a broader pH range. This attribute makes slurry preparation easier than when using prior art water soluble binders because the pH of the slurry does not have to be as tightly controlled throughout the blending process as it had in prior art slurries. An exemplary (polystyrenebutadiene rubber)-poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) polymer has the chemical formula: ##STR00001## where a, b, m, and n are each greater than zero and are percentages that add up to 100 percent (or "1"). In an exemplary embodiment, a=b=m=n=0.25. In another exemplary embodiment, a>b and m>n. In an exemplary embodiment, a=0.3, b=0.2, m=0.333, and n=0.167. In an exemplary embodiment, the mole ratio of styrene units to butadiene units (a:b) is between about 0.5:1.5 and about 1.5:0.5 and the mole ratio of acrylonitrile units to acrylamide units (m:n) is between about 0.5:1.5 and about 1.5:0.5. Further, an exemplary mole ratio of polystyrenebutadiene units to (acrylonitrile-co-acrylamide) units (a+b):(c+d) is between about 0.25:0.75 and about 0.75:0.25. In an exemplary embodiment, an average molecular weight of the polymer is between about 10,000 and 1,000,000 and in another exemplary embodiment, the average molecular weight of the polymer is between about 100,000 and 200,000. In an exemplary embodiment, the water soluble binder is between about 1 and about 10 percent (by weight) of positive electrode mix 110. The water soluble binder is used to make the slurry in the absence of a thickening agent or any external reagent to control its viscosity. An exemplary binder has a viscosity ranging between about 3,000 centipoise and about 50,000 centipoise. The water soluble binder is also provided in the absence of a wetting agent or any other additives to improve the active material and conductive additive dispersion. The slurry is coated on an aluminum current collector or a carbon coated aluminum current collector to form positive electrode 112. The slurry pH can range between about 7 and about 11.7 without significant reaction with the current collector. Negative electrode mix 120 comprises a negative electrode active additive or additives material selected from the group consisting of graphite, hard carbon, silicon, silicon alloy, tin, tin alloy, and lithium titanate. In an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode active material is between about 80 and about 95 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix 120. Negative electrode mix 120 may further include a conductive additive selected from the group consisting of carbon black, acetylene black, graphite and combinations thereof. In an exemplary embodiment, the conductive additive material is between about 0 and about 20 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix 120. Negative electrode mix 120 further comprises the water soluble binder as described above with respect to the positive electrode mix 110. In an exemplary embodiment, the water soluble binder is between about 1 and about 10 percent (by weight) of the negative electrode mix 120. The binder is mixed with the negative electrode active material, the conductive additive, and water to form a slurry. The slurry is coated on a copper current collector to form negative electrode 122. An exemplary electrolyte 130 may be comprised of lithium salts such as LiBF.sub.4, LiPF.sub.6, LiBOB, LiTFSI or LiFSI or mixtures thereof in cyclic and linear carbonates or other solvent combinations To form battery 100, after positive electrode 112 and negative electrode 122 are formed, positive electrode 112 and negative electrode 122 are each then compressed or calendared for specific thickness. Electrodes 112, 122 are stacked as shown in FIG. 3, with separator 140 between each positive electrode 112 and negative electrode 122. The stack is dried in a vacuum oven until the moisture is below 2000 ppm, and most preferably below 200 ppm. The electrode may also be dried separately and stacked inside the dry room. The electrode stack may be inserted into a polyethylene or polypropylene cell housing 150, shown in FIG. 2, and filled with electrolyte 130, forming battery 100. Battery 100 is then charged and discharged to complete the forming process. EXAMPLES The following examples are given purely as an illustration and should not be interpreted as constituting any kind of limitation to the invention. The preparation of the binder was by water-phase precipitation polymerization. K.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.8--Na.sub.2S.sub.2O.sub.5 was used as the initiator system in the presence of Fe.sup.2+. A round-bottom flask was charged with a solution of 0.225 g (0.8 mmol) potassium persulfate, 0.105 g (0.6 mmol) sodium metabisulfite, and 1 ppm ferrous sulfate in 150 mL of deionized water. A solution of 18.44 g (0.177 mol) styrene, 9.58 g (0.177 mol) butadiene, 9.40 g (0.177 mol) acrylonitrile, and 12.59 g (0.177 mol) acrylamide in 150 mL of deionized water was added to the reaction mixture while being mixed with an overhead stirrer. The reaction was conducted under a nitrogen atmosphere for 2 hours in a water bath controlled at 50.degree. C. The polymer was then filtered and washed with deionized water to remove the unreacted monomers and initiator. The yield was about 53 percent. The positive active material mix is prepared by mixing between about 10 and about 90 weight percent of active material, between about 0 and about 20 weight percent of conductive additive and between about 1 and about 10 weight percent of the binder polymer disclosed above, and water ranging between 20 to 80 weight percent. High pH is a major problem in the positive active materials, which contains mostly cobalt and nickel or combinations thereof with other transition metals. To control the pH of the positive active material slurry, diluted polymeric acid is added to the slurry very slowly until the pH of the slurry was between about 7 and about 11.7, and most preferably between about 7 and about 10. The reduced pH of the slurry helps to improve the dispersion and the reaction with the current collector is suppressed. Some examples of this carboxylic acid are: Polylactic acid (PLA), Polyacrylic acid, Polysuccinic acid, poly maleic acid and anhydride, poly furoic (pyromucic acid), poly fumaric acid, poly sorbic acid, poly linoleic acid, poly linolenic acid, poly glutamic acid, poly methacrylic acid, poly licanic acid, poly glycolic acid, poly aspartic acid, Poly amic acid, poly formic acid, poly acetic acid, poly propoionic acid, poly butyric acid, poly sebacic acid, and copolymers thereof. The list of polymer acid examples may be equally applied to any other exemplary embodiment(s) of this specification as suitable, and is not exclusive. The negative active mix is prepared by mixing between about 10 and about 95 weight percent active material, between about 0 and about 20 weight percent of conductive additive and between about 1 and about 10 weight percent of the binder polymer disclosed above. The negative electrode slurry pH is between about 7 and about 10. pH control for the negative active mix is not necessary. The electrolyte in the exemplary embodiment was lithium salt in cyclic and linear carbonates. The cells were built as described in FIGS. 1-3. The cells were then filled with electrolyte 130. While the principles of the invention have been described above in connection with preferred embodiments, it is to be clearly understood that this description is made only by way of example and not as a limitation of the scope of the invention. 4 7,923,895 Electrochemical methods, devices, and structures United States Patent Chiang , 7,923,895 et al. April 12, 2011 Abstract The present invention provides devices and structures and methods of use thereof in electrochemical actuation. This invention provides electrochemical actuators, which are based, inter-alia, on an electric field-driven intercalation or alloying of high-modulus inorganic compounds, which can produce large and reversible volume changes, providing high actuation energy density, high actuation authority and large free strain. Inventors: Chiang; Yet-Ming (Framingham, MA), Hall; Steven R. (Burlington, MA), Koyama; Yukinori (Cambridge, MA), Song; Kyungyeol (Seoul, KR), Chin; Timothy E. (Cambridge, MA), Rhyner; Urs (Schindellegi, CH), Sapnaras; Dimitrios (Baden Wuerttemberg, DE), Tubilla; Fernando (Cambridge, MA) Assignee: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA) Appl. 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Available at http://www.valeritas.com/epatch.shtml. cited by other . [No Author Listed] CODMAN 3000. Johnson & Johnson Company. 2 pages. cited by other . Osborne, Valeritas' Insulin Patch Takes Aim At Type II Drug Resisters. BioWorld Financial Watch. 2006;14(36):1 page. cited by other. Primary Examiner: Budd; Mark Attorney, Agent or Firm: Wolf, Greenfield & Sacks, P.C. Parent Case Text CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/150,477, filed Jun. 13, 2005, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/578,855, filed Jun. 14, 2004 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/621,051, filed Oct. 25, 2004, which are hereby incorporated in their entirety. Claims What is claimed is: 1. An electrochemical actuator, comprising: a. a negative electrode; b. a positive electrode; and c. an intercalating species; wherein, when said electrochemical actuator is subjected to an applied voltage or current, or is permitted to discharge from an initially charged state, intercalation or deintercalation of said species in at least one of the electrodes of said actuator results in a volumetric or dimensional change of said actuator and linear strain of at least 1% is produced. 2. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein said volumetric or dimensional change is in said negative electrode, said positive electrode, or a combination thereof. 3. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein said negative electrode or positive electrode undergoes a phase change, anisotropic expansion, or anisotropic contraction upon intercalation. 4. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein said negative electrode, positive electrode, or combination thereof is lithium or a lithium-metal alloy, which may be crystalline, nanocrystalline, or amorphous. 5. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein an electrode comprises carbon in the form of graphite, a carbon fiber structure, a glassy carbon structure, a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, a disordered carbon structure, or a combination thereof. 6. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein the intercalating species is an ion. 7. The electrochemical actuator of claim 1, wherein the intercalating species is a proton, an alkali metal, or an alkaline earth metal. 8. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises aluminum, silver, gold, boron, bismuth, gallium, germanium, indium, lead, antimony, silicon, tin, or a combination thereof. 9. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises aluminum. 10. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises silver. 11. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises gold. 12. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises boron. 13. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises bismuth. 14. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises gallium. 15. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises germanium. 16. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises indium. 17. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises lead. 18. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises antimony. 19. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises silicon. 20. The electrochemical actuator of claim 4, wherein said negative electrode comprises lithium metal and said positive electrode comprises tin. Description FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention provides devices and structures and methods of use thereof in electrochemical actuation. This invention provides electrochemical actuators, which are based, inter-alia, on an electric field-driven intercalation or alloying of high-modulus inorganic compounds, which can produce large and reversible volume changes, providing high actuation energy density, high actuation authority and large free strain. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Actuation is essentially a mechanism whereby a device is turned on or off, or is adjusted or moved by converting various types of energies such as electric energy or chemical energy into mechanical energy. Mechanical energy can be stored as elastic energy in a material or a device, or can be used to produce useful mechanical work, which is defined as the product of stress and strain. Thus a useful measure of the potential for actuation of a given material or device is the actuation energy density (energy per unit volume). The actuation energy density is also useful for distinguishing the capabilities of different actuation methods. The specific (or gravimetric) energy is readily obtained from the energy density knowing the density of the materials or device. While the "free strain," or strain produced under zero or nearly zero stress conditions, is sometimes used to characterize actuators or actuation materials, this is an inadequate measure of actuation capability since no mechanical work is done. Thus, the capability for mechanical work can only be known when the strain produced against a known mechanical stress, or the stress produced under known conditions of strain, are known. Different types of actuators are categorized by the manner in which energy is converted. For instance, electrostatic actuators convert electrostatic forces into mechanical forces. Piezoelectric actuators use piezoelectric material to generate kinematic energy. Electromagnetic actuators convert electromagnetic forces into kinematic energy using a magnet and coil windings. Actuation, in theory, would find application in the production of adaptive and morphing structures, though practically such an application has not produced ideal results. Piezoelectric actuation provides high bandwidth and actuation authority but low strain (much less than 1% typically), and requires high actuation voltages. Shape memory alloys (SMAs), magnetostrictors, and the newly developed ferromagnetic shape-memory alloys (FSMAs) are capable of larger strain but produce slower responses, limiting their applicability. Actuation mechanisms that are based on field-induced domain motion (piezos, FSMAs) also tend to have low blocked stress. All the above actuation methods are based on the use of active materials of high density (lead-based oxides, metal alloys), which negatively impacts weight-based figures of merit. Thus there is currently a great need for a technology capable of providing high actuation energy density, high actuation authority (stress), large free strain, and useful bandwidth. Certain methods of actuation using electrochemistry have previously been described. For example, K. Oguro, H. Takenaka and Y. Kawami (U.S. Pat. No. 5,268,082) have described using surface electrodes to create ion motion under applied electric field across an ion-exchange membrane resulting in deformation of the membrane. W. Lu, B. R. Mattes and A. G. Fadeev (U.S. Patent Application No. 2002/0177039) have described using ionic liquid electrolytes in conjugated polymers to obtain dimensional change. R. H. Baughman, C. Cui, J. Su, Z. Iqbal, and A. Zhakidov (U.S. Pat. No. 6,555,945) have used double-layer charging of high surface area materials to provide for mechanical actuation. D. A. Hopkins, Jr. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,671,905) has described an actuator device in which electrochemically generated gas pressure is used to provide for mechanical motion. H. Bauer, F. Derisavi-Fard, U. Eckoldt, R. Gerhrmann and D. Kickel (U.S. Pat. No. 5,567,284) have similarly used electrochemically-produced gas pressure in a pneumatic actuation device. G. M. Spinks, G. G. Wallace, L. S. Fifield, L. R. Dalton, A. Mazzoldi, D. De Rossi, I. I. Khayrullin, and R. H. Baughman (Advanced Materials, 2002, 14, No. 23, pp. 1728-1732) have described a pneumatic mechanism using carbon nanotubes in which aqueous electrochemistry is used to generate gas within a confined space allowing for mechanical motion. In each of these non-faradaic approaches, the load-bearing actuation materials are inherently a gaseous or liquid phase and may be expected to have low elastic modulus and consequently low actuation energy density and actuation stress, compared to the approach of the present invention. With respect to solid-state electrochemistry, it is well-known to those skilled in the art of solid state intercalation compounds, for instance, those working in the battery field, that certain compounds undergo expansion or contraction as their chemical composition is electrochemically altered by ion insertion or removal (faradaic processes). K. Takada and S. Kondo (Solid State Ionics, Vol. 53-56, pp. 339-342, 1992, and Japanese Patent Application 02248181) have further demonstrated free strain in consolidated solid compounds undergoing electrochemically induced composition change. They reported about 0.1% free strain using Ag.sub.xV.sub.2O.sub.5 as a Ag intercalating compound, which is a Level of strain comparable to that reached by many commercial piezoelectric materials (e.g., those based on lead-zirconium-titanate (PZT)). However, no mechanical load was provided and so mechanical work was not demonstrated despite the observation of displacement. G. Cu, M. Schmid, P.-W. Chiu, A. Minett, J. Fraysse, G.-T. Kim, S. Roth, M. Kolov, E. Munoz and R. H. Baughman (Nature Materials, Vol. 2, pp. 316-319) have used mattes of V.sub.2O.sub.5 nanofibres for actuation using aqueous electrochemistry. In this instance, they reported strain under unloaded conditions of up 0.21%, and the production of stress under nominally zero-strain conditions of up to 5.9 MPa, although whether the process used to generate the stress was faradaic or non-faradaic was not known. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention provides, in one embodiment, an electrochemical actuator, comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein the electrochemical actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage or cessation thereof induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator under conditions of mechanical constraint or loading resulting in the production of useful mechanical energy. In another embodiment, the invention provides a Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator, comprising two or more negative electrode layers, two or more positive electrode layers, and an intercalating species, wherein the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage or cessation thereof induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric change of the actuator resulting in the production of useful mechanical energy. In another embodiment, the invention provides a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator, comprising rolled layers of an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein the rolled layers assume a laminate configuration, and wherein the Rotational Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage produces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator such that the rolled laminate configuration winds or unwinds, and torque is produced. In one embodiment, following when the rolled laminate configuration winds or unwinds, rotary motion is produced. In one embodiment, the rotary motion ranges from 1-360.degree.. In another embodiment, the rotary motion produces 1 or more rotations. In another embodiment, the 1 or more rotations are complete or incomplete. In another embodiment, the rotation is in a clockwise direction or counter clockwise direction, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the invention provides a Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator, comprising a fibrous electrode, a counter electrode and an intercalating species wherein the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage or its cessation induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator, such that said fibrous negative electrode undergoes elongation and produces useful mechanical work. In one embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change is induced in tension as well as in compression. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator is comprised of multiple coated fibers, which are utilized to form a fiber composite. In another embodiment, the composite further comprises a matrix, which, in another embodiment, is a polymer. In another embodiment, the composite of the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator comprises fiber ends, which are uncoated. In another embodiment, the uncoated ends of the fibers enable electrical connections to be applied to the ends of the fibers. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator comprises multiple layers, which, in another embodiment are assembled in parallel or in perpendicular orientation. In another embodiment, the perpendicular orientation allows positive and negative shearing actuation of the actuator, which, in another embodiment, produces torque, or, in another embodiment, produces rotation. In another embodiment, the perpendicular orientation allows for charge transfer between layers when low voltage is applied. In one embodiment of the invention, intercalation of the species in an actuator of this invention can occur upon both application of the voltage and cessation thereof. In another embodiment, the extent of volume change is controlled by controlling the amount of current flow into or out of the actuator. In another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change is in the negative electrode or positive electrode or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change is reversible. In another embodiment, the intercalation produces high strain against a substantial mechanical load. In another embodiment, the negative electrode, or in another embodiment, the positive electrode, serves as a donor or acceptor or combination thereof of the intercalating species. In another embodiment, an electrode of an actuator of this invention is initially enriched in, and may serve as a source for, the intercalating species. In another embodiment, a negative electrode of an actuator of this invention may serve as a source for the intercalating species. In another embodiment, a positive electrode of an actuator of this invention may serve as a source for the intercalating species. In another embodiment, the electrode comprises a high elastic modulus compound. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises an ion transition metal oxide. In another embodiment, the ion in said ion transition metal oxide is a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In another embodiment, the alkali metal is lithium. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises: LiCoO.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4, LiNiO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiMnO.sub.2, LiMnPO.sub.4, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, and their modified compositions and solid solutions. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises: an oxide compound comprising one or more of titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, tin oxide, antimony oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide or iron oxide. In another embodiment an electrode comprises TiSi.sub.2, MoSi.sub.2, WSi.sub.2, and their modified compositions and solid solutions. In another embodiment an electrode comprises a metal or intermetallic compound. In another embodiment an electrode is lithium or a lithium-metal alloy, which may be crystalline, nanocrystalline, or amorphous. In another embodiment the negative electrode is one or more of aluminum, silver, gold, boron, bismuth, gallium, germanium, indium, lead, antimony, silicon, or tin. In another embodiment, an electrode is carbon in the form of graphite, a carbon fiber structure, a glassy carbon structure, a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, a disordered carbon structure or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the intercalating species is an ion. In another embodiment, a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In another embodiment, the negative electrode or positive electrode compound undergoes anisotropic expansion or contraction upon intercalation. In another embodiment, the compound is textured or oriented in the electrodes of the actuator resulting in anisotropic expansion or contraction. In another embodiment, the compound is oriented in the electrodes of the actuator to increase the dimensional change in the primary actuation direction of the actuator upon intercalation or alloying. In another embodiment, the negative or positive electrode compound undergoes a phase change upon intercalation or de-intercalation. In another embodiment, the negative or positive electrode material is in the form of a single crystal, polycrystal, or fine powder. In another embodiment the fine powder is of anisometric particle shape. In another embodiment the fine powder has a platelet or rod-like morphology. In another embodiment the smallest dimension of the powder particles is on average less than about 100 micrometers. In another embodiment, one or more electrodes of the actuator comprise a porous sintered aggregate of the negative or positive electrode compound. In another embodiment, the porous sintered aggregate is a composite comprising also a conductive additive or sintering aid. In another embodiment the sintered aggregate has crystallites of an electrode compound that share a common orientation or texture of their crystal axes, which in one embodiment is uni-axial, and in another embodiment is biaxial. In another embodiment, one or more electrodes of the actuator comprise a composite containing a powder of the negative or positive electrode compound, an organic or inorganic binder, and optionally a conductive additive. In one embodiment the binder is a polymer, and the conductive additive is carbon. In another embodiment, the volume percentage of the electrode compound in the electrode is at least 45%. In another embodiment the particles of the compound are anisometric in shape, and have a preferred common orientation. In another embodiment, the particles of the compound are crystalline, and have a preferred common orientation or texture of their crystal axes, which in one embodiment is uni-axial, and in another embodiment is biaxial. In another embodiment, the composite electrode is fabricated by mixing its constituents in an aqueous or inorganic solvent, coating and drying the mixture, and pressing or calendaring the coating. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises a current collector, which, in another embodiment, comprises a conductive material. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises a separator, which in one embodiment is porous, or in another embodiment, is rigid. In one embodiment, the porous separator comprises a microporous polymer. In another embodiment, the porous separator comprises a porous electronically insulating ceramic material, which in another embodiment is alumina, an aluminosilicate, cordierite, or a silicate glass. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises an electrolyte. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is a solid electrolyte, which in one embodiment is a polymer, and in another embodiment an inorganic crystal or glass. In another embodiment, the electrolyte is a liquid or gel electrolyte. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises an external packaging layer, which may be, in one embodiment, an electrochemically-insulating layer, or, in another embodiment, a protective layer or, in another embodiment, a combination thereof. In another embodiment, this invention provides an actuator device in which an electrochemical actuator of this invention is further used in an actuator structure that provides for stress amplification (strain deamplification) or stress deamplification (strain amplification). In another embodiment, an electrochemically-actuated strain deamplifying (stress amplifying) actuator device having a woven structure is provided. In another embodiment, an electrochemically-actuated strain amplifying (stress deamplifying) lever actuator is provided. In another embodiment, this invention provides a structure or apparatus comprising an actuator of this invention. In one embodiment, the structure or apparatus is adaptive. In another embodiment, the actuator is used as an element to apply stress at a site on the structure or apparatus that is distal to the actuator. In another embodiment, the apparatus amplifies the volumetric or dimensional change induced by the actuator, while in another embodiment, the apparatus deamplifies the volumetric or dimensional change induced by the actuator. In one embodiment, the structure or apparatus moves in or beyond the atmosphere. In one embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be an aircraft, a missile, a spacecraft or a satellite. In another embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be part of an aircraft, a missile, a spacecraft, a worm, a robot or a satellite. In other embodiments, the part may be a wing, a blade, a canard, a fuselage, a tail, an aileron, a rudder, an elevator, a flap, a pipe, a propellor, a mirror, an optical element, or a combination thereof. In other embodiments, the part may be an engine, a motor, a valve, a regulator, a pump, a flow control device, a rotor, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus moves in water. In one embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be a boat, a ship, a submarine or a torpedo. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus is a part of a boat, a ship, a submarine or a torpedo. In another embodiment, the part is a blade, a rudder, a pipe, a propellor, an optical element, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the part is an engine, a motor, a valve, a regulator, a pump, a flow control device, a rotor, a switch or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus is a bomb, a means of transportation, an imaging device, a robotic, a worm, a prosthesis, an exoskeleton, an implant, a stent, a valve, an artificial organ, an in vivo delivery system, or a means of in vivo signal propagation. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of actuation, comprising the step of applying a voltage or current to an actuator comprising a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein controlling the applied voltage or current induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, whereby the intercalation induces a volumetric or dimensional change of said actuator. In one embodiment, an apparatus or structure comprises the actuator. In one embodiment, the method results in a structural change in the structure or apparatus comprising the actuator. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus comprises more than one actuator. In another embodiment, a curvature, bend or twist, or combination thereof is induced in the structure or apparatus. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of producing torque or rotary motion in an apparatus comprising a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator, comprising the step of applying a voltage to a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein applying voltage causes current flow inducing intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator such that the rolled laminate layers unwind, and torque or rotary motion is produced. In another embodiment, this invention provides a pump comprising at least one electrochemical actuator, comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode, an intercalating species, and at least one valve, wherein following application of a voltage causing current flow in said actuator, intercalation of said species produces a change in volume in said actuator, such that fluid is directed through said valve. In one embodiment, the pump comprises a series of actuators. In one embodiment, the actuators are placed in a parallel series. In another embodiment, the actuators are placed in a plane so as to direct fluid through designed channels. In another embodiment, this invention provides a nastic structure comprising at least one electrochemical actuator, comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode, and an intercalating species, wherein following application of a voltage causing current flow in the actuator, intercalation of the intercalating species produces a change in volume in the actuator, such that a bend or other deformity is induced in the nastic structure. In another embodiment, this invention provides for the use of an electrochemical actuator in a microfluidic system, wherein a network of hydraulic actuators is driven by intercalation-induced volume changes in the electrochemical actuator. In another embodiment, this invention provides for the use of at least one electrochemical actuator for flight control of an aircraft, wherein the actuator is positioned on the aircraft, such that following intercalation-induced volume changes in the actuator(s), greater flight control is achieved. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A demonstrates an embodiment of a reversible lithium intercalation with phospho-olivines Li(Fe,Mn)PO.sub.4 to produce large intrinsic (crystallographic) volume changes of 7.4-10% [A. Yamada et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 148, A224 (2001)]. FIG. 1B depicts the expansion upon discharge detected following Li+ intercalation into an LiFePO.sub.4 positive electrode in an actuator with a 100 .mu.m active layer, producing a 2.3% linear strain, well in agreement with the predicted value, in this embodiment of the invention. FIG. 1C depicts the actuation strain in a multilayer Li-polymer battery of .about.5 mm thickness. Strain was measured normal to the plane of the multilayer stack during charge and discharge. The 50 mm reversible displacement corresponds to .about.1% linear strain. FIG. 2 demonstrates an embodiment of a multilayer stacked electrochemical actuator comprised of Li ion-polymer batteries (ATL Corporation). According to this aspect of the invention, the elastic (Young's) modulus measured normal to the face of the cells (in the direction of layer stacking) was very low, .about.30 MPa. FIG. 3 graphically depicts the charge-discharge voltage curves and corresponding strain, obtained under various pre-stress conditions, for actuators of one embodiment of a multilayer stacked design. Maximum strain was .about.0.7% and obtained actuation energy density was .about.12 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 4 graphically depicts the charge-discharge voltage curve and corresponding strain, obtained under 3.5 MPa constant pre-stress, for actuators of one embodiment of a multilayer stacked design. Strain is .about.1% and actuation energy density is .about.35 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 5 shows embodiments of lithium ion rechargeable cells based on LiCoO.sub.2-carbon chemistry, with different internal constructions. FIG. 6 graphically depicts the volume reduction of an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator cells prior to and following isopressing treatment at 45,000 psi. FIG. 7 graphically depicts viscoelastic relaxation of applied stress in an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator. Relaxation in applied stress is measured as a function of time in cells subjected to 10 MPa stress in an Instron test machine. FIG. 8 graphically depicts the volume expansion of an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator having 150 mAh charge capacity, measured by fluid displacement. FIG. 9 graphically depicts the cyclic charge/discharge and corresponding strain of two embodiments of multilayer stacked actuators under 5 MPa uniaxial stress. FIG. 10 graphically depicts the cyclic actuation tests of an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator at 5 and 10 MPa uniaxial stress. FIG. 11 graphically depicts the cyclic actuation tests of an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator at 15 and 20 MPa uniaxial stress. FIG. 12 graphically depicts the strain and energy density of embodiments of multilayer stacked actuators as a function of uniaxial prestress. FIG. 13 graphically depicts strain versus cycle number for constant current cycling of an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator at the given current for 1 and 2 minutes under 2 MPa constant stress. FIG. 14 graphically depicts strain versus cycle number for constant current cycling of a multilayer stacked actuator at the given current for 5 and 10 minutes under 2 MPa constant stress. FIG. 15 shows strain versus the utilized reversible capacity in an embodiment of a multilayer stacked actuator under 2 MPa constant stress. FIG. 16 depicts an embodiment of a bi-layer stacked actuator fabricated from densified single-layer coatings of LiCoO.sub.2 and graphite electrodes. FIG. 17 graphically depicts a charge-discharge voltage curve and corresponding strain measured in an embodiment of a bi-layer stacked actuator under 1 MPa constant prestress. Measured strain is 3-4% and actuation energy density is .about.45 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 18 graphically depicts a charge-discharge voltage curve and corresponding strain measured in an embodiment of a bi-layer stacked actuator under 10 MPa constant pre-stress. Measured strain is 2.5-3% and actuation energy density is .about.300 kJ/m3. FIG. 18 shows actuation strain versus charge/discharge for bilayer stacked actuator, at 10 and 17 MPa applied uniaxial stress. FIG. 19 shows actuation strain versus charge/discharge for an embodiment of a bilayer stacked actuator, at 10 and 17 MPa applied uniaxial stress. FIG. 20 shows strain versus charge and discharge at 1 MPa stress in an embodiment of a multilayer actuator, 6 mm thick, utilizing high density electrodes and a microporous polymer separator. FIG. 21 shows strain versus charge and discharge at 5 MPa stress in an embodiment of a multilayer actuator, 6 mm thick utilizing high density electrodes and microporous polymer separator. FIG. 22 shows strain versus charge and discharge at 10 MPa in an embodiment of a multilayer actuator, 6 mm thick, utilizing high density electrodes and microporous polymer separator. FIG. 23 depicts an embodiment of an actuator comprising multiple square posts laser-micromachined from electrochemical actuation material, here highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) with the c-axis direction aligned with the post axis (longitudinal direction). An LiCoO.sub.2 lithium source is placed adjacent to HOPG posts allowing intercalation of the graphite in the transverse direction, in this embodiment. FIG. 24 graphically depicts the actuation strain measured upon intercalation of lithium into one embodiment of an HOPG-based actuator under 100 MPa constant pre-stress. Actuation energy density is .about.1000 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 25 is an SEM image of an array of posts machined in a piece of HOPG forming active elements of an embodiment of an electrochemical actuator, and schematic side view of the actuator assembly. FIG. 26 shows strain versus discharge/charge voltage for an HOPG actuator under 100 MPa applied stress (1 metric ton per cm2) (A), and strain versus charging voltage for an HOPG laser micromachined actuator under 50 MPa applied stress (B). FIG. 27 schematically depicts an embodiment of an alternate post design for a multi-post actuator. FIG. 28 schematically depicts an embodiment of a large stroke electrochemical lever actuator. FIG. 29 schematically depicts an embodiment of a large stroke electrochemical lever actuator. FIG. 30 schematically depicts views of weave actuator with main parts: (1) active elements, (2) top and bottom fibers and (3) constant-curvature caps. FIG. 31 depicts an experimental setup for a test of an embodiment of an electrochemical woven actuator and results from test, with actuator strain and active element strains shown. FIG. 32 graphically depicts the theoretical stiffness and maximum-strain bounds of an embodiment of the EWA as a function of the ratio of its length (L) and the active element length (w). Actual test results are shown as stars on the figure. FIG. 33 depicts an embodiment of an actuated beam utilizing 27 electrochemical actuators of type shown in FIGS. 2-4, electrically connected in parallel. Layers of fiberglass weave constrain the deformation of the beam on the lower surface. When one end (the base) of the beam was clamped, the tip of the beam was observed to deform 1 mm upon charging or discharging the batteries, corresponding to a surface strain of 400 microstrain. FIG. 34 schematically depicts actuation in a fluidic system, comprising an electrolytic membrane, which pumps an ion from one side to another, producing high actuation forces. In one embodiment, R1 is not equal to R2. FIG. 35 schematically depicts an example of an actuator comprising a positive electrode, separated from an negative electrode by a separator, where the height of the actuator is 200 .mu.m. FIG. 36 is an additional schematic depiction of one embodiment of this invention, showing an actuator 10 comprising a positive electrode 12, in this case LiMPO.sub.4, where M is any metal, separated from an negative electrode 14 by a separator layer 16, and both negative electrode and positive electrode current collectors, 18 and 20, respectively, attached to a power source 22, supplying 4 V. The actuator possesses 200 .mu.m stack thickness, and an E value of 2.times.10.sup.4 V/m. FIG. 37 schematically depicts one embodiment of a solid-state thin-film battery (24) that can be used for actuation. The negative electrode 28 is separated from the positive electrode 30 by an electrolyte layer 32, and current collectors for the negative electrode 34 and positive electrode 36 as well as the other components of the actuator are positioned on a substrate 26. A protective coating 38 covers the actuator, providing a height of 15 .mu.m, in this example. FIG. 38 schematically depicts embodiments of a Multilayer Stacked Actuator of this invention. In this example, a high stiffness bilayer subassembly 40 and multilayer-stacked assembly 54 are depicted. Because the system is composed of ceramic layers 44, 46 and metal electrodes 42, the stack will have high stiffness and a strain capability of several percent. Liquid electrolyte may infiltrate the actuator 48. Current collectors 38, 50 may be present, with a power source 52, as indicated. This actuator would be an all-purpose, high energy density actuator, which could be used in many applications requiring high energy densities at modest bandwidth. FIG. 39 schematically depicts a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator 56, comprising laminates of current collectors 58, negative electrodes 60, positive electrodes 62, and a separator 64. A structural aluminum layer 66 is added and the Rotational Electrochemical Actuator is infiltrated with electrolyte 68. The actuator may be assembled as a spiral 70, around an inner mandrel 72, and covered by an outer shell 74. FIG. 40 schematically depicts an embodiment of a Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator 76 comprised of a fiber composite system, in which the active fibers form the negative electrode 78. The fiber negative electrode is separated from the positive electrode 80, by a polymer or inorganic separator 82, and a liquid or solid electrolyte layer 84. Current collectors 86 and 88, respectively, are connected to the power source 90 in the actuator. FIG. 41 schematically represents another embodiment of a Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator 92 comprised of individual negative electrode fibers 94, coated with a ceramic or polymer electrolyte 96 and a lithiated positive electrode 98, connected to a power supply 100. These fibers can form an active fiber composite 102. FIG. 42 depicts an embodiment of an adaptive structure or apparatus 104 comprising an electrochemical actuator of this invention 106, mounted on its surface 108 (FIG. 10A). In one embodiment, the integration of an actuator within a structure or apparatus 110 may be as schematically depicted in FIG. 10B. The electrochemical actuator, or in another embodiment, actuators 140, may be in one embodiment, thin film, or in another embodiment, thick film laminated electrochemical actuators, which may be oriented normally to the surface, and may be positioned within a stiff surface layer 120, on a substrate 130. Changing the aspect ratio of the expanding and contracting elements of the actuators and strategic positioning may produce greater deformation in the surface plane, in another embodiment, as schematically diagrammed in FIG. 10C, via the positioning of the positive electrode 150 and the negative electrode 160, in another embodiment, which may be evident when viewed looking down the plane of the surface, or in cross-section (10D). FIG. 43A schematically depicts one embodiment of an actuator 170 comprising a carbon or lithium negative electrode 200, which expands when lithiated, and a LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 or LiFePO.sub.4 positive electrode 190, which contracts when de-lithiated, which if bonded to a separator 180, will produce a marked bend in the entire structure. One embodiment of such a use would be in an airfoil 210 where the actuator is positioned, such that the negative electrode is facing outward 230, from the surface 220, such that following actuation, a greater curvature outward occurs (43B). FIG. 44C schematically depicts a structure 240 comprising a silicon wafer 250 that can be lithiated from the surface 260, via the lithium metal or lithiated oxide electrode as the lithium source, in order to induce volumetric expansion hence bending. FIG. 44A schematically depicts one embodiment of a structure or apparatus 280 made to bend around more than one axial direction, by having an array of electrochemical actuators 300 on the surface of the structure or apparatus 290. FIG. 44B depicts an example of how actuators may be utilized to unfurl a wing. FIG. 45 schematically depicts an assembly 310 of possible arrangements of actuators 320 on the wings 330 of an aircraft, which may provide twist to the wing. FIG. 46A schematically depicts a microfluidic pump 340, comprising a positive electrode 350, and negative electrode 360, separated by a liquid electrolyte layer 370. The actuator undergoes a net volume change upon charging and discharging 390, enabling fluid propulsion through the valves 380. A pump or microfluidic device 400 comprising a series of actuators 410, which upon charging and discharging induces fluid flow from intake 420, through exit 430 of the pump (B). Positioning of the actuators is such that channels are designed (14C). FIG. 47 schematically depicts multiple morphing capabilities of the actuators or structures comprising the same of this invention. FIG. 48 depicts embodiments of a morphing plate architecture envisioned for this invention. In A, an overall plate architecture, with 3 actuator orientations is shown. In B, an embodiment depicting an embedded individually addressable multilayer stack actuator array is shown. In C, an embodiment depicting a distributed array of electrochemical fiber actuators applying tensile loads is shown. In D, embodiments depicting actuator designs, which allow for greater expansion or contraction, are shown. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION This invention provides, in one embodiment, methods and structures/apparatuses for actuation that is based on the electric field driven intercalation (ion-exchange) of high-modulus inorganic compounds and produces true, useful, mechanical work. The invention provides, in one embodiment, an electrochemical actuator, comprising a negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein the electrochemical actuator is subjected to an applied voltage or current, whereby application of the voltage or current or cessation thereof induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator. In the context of this invention, and in one embodiment, intercalation is understood to have a broad meaning including the insertion of ions into a structure causing a dimensional change without substantially changing the arrangement of other atoms, insertion forming a disordered or ordered solid solution, insertion forming an alloy, or insertion causing a partial or complete transformation to a new phase. All of these methods of "intercalation" may be useful in providing mechanical actuation. Solid-state ion insertion compounds used in battery systems may undergo large and reversible volume changes (up to .about.15% with high reversibility) as ions (e.g., Li+) are intercalated into the structure, which is exploited by the actuators of this invention, in one embodiment. As one example, FIG. 1 shows the volume changes that occur in the olivine structure compound (Fe,Mn)PO.sub.4 as it is lithiated to the endmember composition Li(Fe,Mn)PO.sub.4. Between the fully lithiated (upper curve) and fully delithiated (lower curve) limits of composition, a volume change of 7.4-10% (linear strain of 2.4-3.2%) is realizable depending on the Fe/Mn ratio. This is just one of numerous new intercalation compounds that have emerged from the battery field, which have promise for the technology here proposed, all of which represent embodiments of this invention. The insertion of ions into such compounds can result in volume expansion or contraction, and such expansion or contraction can be isotropic or anisotropic. The volume change may have a corresponding linear or multiaxial dimensional change that is here exploited for mechanical actuation. Where the dimensional change is anisotropic, the anisotropy may be further exploited to maximize, minimize, or optimize the dimensional change for actuation, by using said compounds in a form in which there is a crystallographic orientation of the compound in the desired directions of actuation. For example, in one embodiment in which graphite is the active material, the expansion upon intercalation of alkali ions occurs primarily normal to the graphene planes of the graphite structure, and maximum expansion and contraction can be produced by having the graphene planes of the graphite oriented in the desired directions of actuation. Table 1 provides exemplary pairs of compounds comprising an electrochemical couple with reversible electrochemical insertion of lithium, for which values for intrinsic linear and volumetric expansions (i.e., crystal constants of the lithiated and delithiated forms) are available. Table 2 provides exemplary individual compounds used as positive and negative electrodes in lithium batteries, and the volume change that occurs for a typical composition to which the compound can be delithiated. Note that in the electrochemical actuators of this invention, compounds are not restricted to being used as the electrode that they would comprise in a battery designed for optimal energy storage; that is, the active materials may comprise either positive or negative electrode in an electrochemical actuator. TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Cell Voltage and Net Volume Change For Charge-Balanced Cells Using Graphite as One Electrode Net Volume Change Electrochemical Charging Cell (Positive electrode + Reaction for Cell Voltage Negative electrode) LiCoO.sub.2 + 3C Li.sub.0.5CoO.sub.2 + 0.5LiC.sub.6 3.6 V +5.8% LiNiO.sub.2 + 4.2C Li.sub.0.3CoO.sub.2 + 0.7LiC.sub.6 3.7 V +5.3% LiFePO.sub.4 + 6C FePO.sub.4 + LiC.sub.6 3.3 V +5.8% LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 + 6C Mn.sub.2O4 + LiC.sub.6 3.8 V +4.2% Li + 6C LiC.sub.6 0.15 V -2.4% TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Selected Lithium Storage Electrodes and Associated Volume Changes Lithium Insertion Limiting Compound Composition* .DELTA.V/V.sub.0 Comments Positive electrodes LiCoO.sub.2 Li.sub.0.5CoO.sub.2 +1.85% Y~400 GPa. LiFePO.sub.4 FePO.sub.4 -7.35% Y~150 GPa. LiNiO.sub.2 Li.sub.0.3NiO.sub.2 -2.82% LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 Mn.sub.2O.sub.4 -7.35% Negative electrodes Li.sub.4/3Ti.sub.5/3O.sub.4 Li.sub.7/3Ti.sub.5/3O.sub.4 0 "Zero-strain" spinel structure electrode. C 1/6 LiC.sub.6 +13.1% Y~15 GPa (polycrystal). Si Li.sub.4.4Si +312% .beta.-Sn Li.sub.4.4Sn +260% *For reversible cycling, except for Si and Sn LiCoO.sub.2, when used as the positive electrode, expands 1.85% when lithium is removed, while most other compounds shrink. Despite a modest volume change, LiCoO.sub.2 is of interest because it can be used with carbon (Table 1) in a highly reliable and well-developed electrochemical system. LiCoO.sub.2 has a hexagonal structure (rhombohedral space group R-3m) in which the lithium planes are parallel to the c-axis. The Young's modulus along the c-axis is 330 GPa while that along the a-axis (which lies in the fast-diffusion plane) is 500 GPa (F. X. Hart and J. B. Bates, J. Appl. Phys., 83[12], 7560 (1998)), hence an aggregate value for randomly-oriented polycrystals of .about.400 GPa can be obtained. Such a value is close to that obtainable for high strength structural ceramics such as Al.sub.2O.sub.3 and SiC. A second example for use as the positive electrode is LiFePO.sub.4, a phospho-olivine that when suitably doped (S. Y. Chung, J. T. Bloking, Y.-M. Chiang, Nature Materials, 1, 123 (2002)) has extremely fast charge-discharge behavior for a lithium battery, retaining .about.50% of its charge capacity (and crystal expansion) at charge-discharge times of .about.1 min (17 mHz). Its elastic properties have not been measured, but the similar mineral phosphate apatite (Ca.sub.5(OH, F)(PO4).sub.3) has a Young's modulus of 150 GPa (G. Simmons and H. Wang, Single Crystal Elastic Constants and Calculated Aggregate Properties, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1971). It is expected that the phospho-olivines will have a higher modulus than apatite due to their denser atomic packing. Another attraction of these compounds is their safety in electrochemical systems. As shown in Table 2, graphite is an excellent candidate for use as the negative electrode of an electrochemical actuator, owing to its .about.13% volume expansion upon lithiation to the limiting composition LiC.sub.6. This family includes not just graphite but also various other forms of disordered carbons, which together constitute widely used negative electrodes in current technology (see for example N. Imanishi, Y. Takeda and O. Yamamoto, and by M. Winter and J. O. Besenhard, Chapters 5 and 6 respectively in Lithium Ion Batteries, Eds. M. Wakihara and O. Yamamoto, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 1998)). Using materials from Table 2, several types of electrochemical actuators are conceived. In one, the volume change of one electrode material is used to perform mechanical work, while the volume change in the counterelectrode is either negligible or is accommodated in a non-load bearing manner. In this instance active materials are selected primarily according to their elastic constants and strains. In a second type, both the positive electrode and negative electrode are load-bearing, and volume changes in both active materials in the electrochemical couple (the positive electrode and the negative electrode) are used, the net volume change of the electrochemical reaction being the relevant quantity. Table 1 lists several electrochemical couples that use carbon as the negative electrode material, from which it is seen that several options give .about.5% volumetric strain in a cell where the relative amounts of each material are adjusted to give a charge-balanced cell. In both designs, other issues such as rate capability (bandwidth), reversibility in cycling, and stability and safety over a wide range of operating temperatures must also be considered in the selection process. Using the materials of Table 2, it is also possible to design actuators of a type that expands upon charging of the electrochemical cell, or one that expands upon discharging. Table 1 provides four examples that expand upon charging of the cell and one that expands upon discharging. As another example of actuators that expand upon discharging, any electrode-active compound that has a lithium insertion potential lower than that of the "zero-strain" material Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12 (Table 2), and which expands upon lithiation, will comprise the negative electrode when used with Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12. Such a cell will spontaneously discharge when electrons are allowed to flow between the electrodes, and lithium will migrate from the Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12 to the other electrode, causing it to expand. Having a cell that either expands or contracts upon spontaneous discharge can be advantageous in designing the actuators of the invention for applications where a particular "default" state is desirable, for example in designing an actuated latch that defaults to an open (or closed) state in the event of an intentional or accidental short-circuit of the electrochemical actuator. The stress that an actuator can be subjected to while producing useful strain, or the "blocked stress" that can be produced by an actuator undergoing zero or small strain, are important performance characteristics that bear directly on the practical utility of the actuator. In this respect, Table 2 and earlier discussion illustrates a particular advantage of the electrochemical actuators of the invention, which is the high elastic modulus of the active materials. In this invention we recognize and design actuators to utilize the fact that electrochemically-induced strains are substantial, and at the same time many ion-storage compounds including graphite, metal alloys, and intercalation oxides have high elastic modulus (50-150 GPa), more than a thousand times greater than other actuator materials such as electroactive polymers or gels, thereby providing for large actuation authority as well as large strain. In addition to high actuation energy density and actuation stress, one measure of actuation authority that permits comparisons with piezoelectric actuator technology is the coefficient e.sup.33, which refers to actuation stress generated per unit electric field (Units: Pa/V/m=C/m.sup.2). (In the case of piezoelectrics, this coefficient is maximized for stresses in the direction of the applied electric fields, signified by the superscript "33."). Consider a laminated electrochemical actuator having cathode and anode thicknesses comparable to those in current lithium ion battery technology, as schematized in FIG. 37. As an example such a device may have an intercalation compound as one electrode, a stiff but porous ceramic separator, and an inorganic negative electrode of high elastic modulus, as shown in FIG. 38. For a 200 micrometer thick layer (typical for battery electrodes) of the electrochemical insertion compound in FIG. 1, when formulated as a powder-based composite electrode, will have a Young's modulus of Y=50 GPa (assumed to be reduced from the single crystal value of .about.150 GPa). Under 3.3V applied voltage this electrode can be fully intercalated to reach a linear strain of .epsilon..about.1.5%, thereby generating e.sup.33=3.8.times.10.sup.4 C/m.sup.2. This value considerably exceeds the e.sup.33 values obtained with the best-known piezoelectrics, of 15-40 C/m.sup.2. The corresponding actuation specific energy, taken as 1/2Y.epsilon..sup.2/.rho., the strain energy density, taken as 1/2Y.epsilon..sup.2/.rho. where .rho. is the material density, is about 2050 J/kg (5.6.times.10.sup.3 kJ/m.sup.3) for the active material layer, and .about.1000 J/kg (2.8.times.10.sup.3 kJ/m.sup.3) for an actuator stack containing one-half by weight or volume of inactive supporting layers. These values also greatly exceed typical values of 13.5 J/kg and 100 kJ/m.sup.3 for a PZT piezoelectric ceramic. At a stack volumetric strain energy density of 2.8.times.10.sup.3 kJ/m.sup.3, and 1.5% linear strain, the equivalent blocked stress is .about.375 MPa. These comparisons illustrate the advantages of the present invention over existing actuation technology where high actuation energy, high actuation authority, and large strain is required, and their usefulness in a wide variety of adaptive structures requiring significant strain coupled with high authority. Since batteries are energy storage devices, the total amount of stored electrical energy is naturally maximized; typical stored energy levels for unpackaged rechargeable lithium ion batteries (i.e., the active "stack" alone without the can) are 550 Wh/liter and 200 Wh/kg. In such cases, and even in electrochemical actuators of the invention designed without regard to electrical energy storage and operating at less than 1V or even less than 0.5V applied voltage, during a charge/discharge cycle the mechanical work done may be only a few percent of the total electrical energy stored. This low level of electromechanical coupling is largely responsible for the high blocked stresses that are achievable, i.e. discharging a charged battery through the application of an external stress is difficult. In one embodiment, the actuator is designed such that the electrical energy is shuttled from the actuator to a storage battery, or in another embodiment, between two actuators acting in concert so that as one is charged the other is discharged, and the positive and negative strains simultaneously produced add to produce a desired deformation. In one embodiment, the invention allows for the use of antagonistic actuators so that as one is charged, another is discharged, having both act beneficially from the point of view of strain while shuttling the electrical energy between the two so that it is not resistively dissipated. Thus, according to this aspect of the invention, the losses in the system may be primarily the low resistive losses that are produced as the charge is shuttled between actuators. In one embodiment, the intercalated material refers to an ion insertion compound, and in one embodiment, a solid-state ion insertion compound such as is used in battery systems, which is intercalated within the structure of the actuator, as described herein. In another embodiment, the intercalating species is a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In one embodiment, the alkali metal is lithium. In another embodiment, the high-modulus inorganic compounds are exemplified by the lithium transition metal oxide positive electrodes (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNiO.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4) and carbon negative electrodes developed as storage electrodes for rechargeable battery systems. These, and in other embodiments, other similar compounds can be intercalated with Li+ ions at low voltages of 1.5-5V to produce large and reversible volume changes of, in some embodiments, 3-13%. In another embodiment, the ion insertion mechanisms may make use of an alloying of lithium with various metals and metalloids, such as, for example, Sn, or Si, which, in another embodiment may result in volume expansions in excess of 250%. In one embodiment, the electrochemically-induced strain produced for actuation, when using intercalation compounds, which are oxides of high elastic modulus (50-150 GPa) will allow large actuation authority as well as large free strain, such that stresses can be produced approaching the intrinsic compressive strength of the materials. Furthermore, these compounds have low densities (3.5-5 g/cm3) compared to lead-based piezoelectrics or metal alloys comprising magnetostrictors and shape memory alloys. In one embodiment, packaged actuators of this invention may have densities of 2-4 g/cm.sup.3, which can produce high actuation authority, suitable for a broad range of applications. In one embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 0.1-300%. In one embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 0.1-10%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 0.1-50%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 0.1-100%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 1-100%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 10-100%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 1-200%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 10-200%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 50-200%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 100-200%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 10-300%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 100-300%, or in another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may range from 50-300%. In another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in an actuator of this invention may be reversible. In one embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in said actuator may be a function of the current flow induced by an applied voltage. In one embodiment, the electrochemical actuator may be subjected to a varying voltage. In one embodiment, increasing the voltage or current over time may result in a gradual increase in volume. In another embodiment, decreasing voltage or current over time results in a gradual decrease in volume, or in another embodiment, in a gradual increase in volume. In another embodiment, cycles of varied voltage may be desired in order to induce discreet changes in volume. In another embodiment, an electrode of an actuator of this invention is initially enriched in, and may serve as a source for, the intercalating species. In another embodiment, a negative electrode of an actuator of this invention may serve as a source for the intercalating species. In another embodiment, a positive electrode of an actuator of this invention may serve as a source for the intercalating species. In another embodiment, the electrode comprises a high elastic modulus compound. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises an ion transition metal oxide. In another embodiment, the ion transition metal oxide is a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In another embodiment, the alkali metal is lithium. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises: LiCoO.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4, LiNiO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiMnO.sub.2, LiMnPO.sub.4, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, and their modified compositions and solid solutions. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises: an oxide compound comprising one or more of titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, tin oxide, antimony oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide or iron oxide. In another embodiment an electrode comprises TiSi.sub.2, MoSi.sub.2, WSi.sub.2, and their modified compositions and solid solutions. In another embodiment an electrode comprises a metal or intermetallic compound. In another embodiment an electrode is lithium or a lithium-metal alloy, which may be crystalline, nanocrystalline, or amorphous. In another embodiment the negative electrode is one or more of aluminum, silver, gold, boron, bismuth, gallium, germanium, indium, lead, antimony, silicon, or tin. In another embodiment, an electrode is carbon in the form of graphite, a carbon fiber structure, a glassy carbon structure, a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, a disordered carbon structure or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the intercalating species is an ion. In another embodiment, a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In another embodiment, the positive or negative electrode compounds exhibit an elastic modulus ranging between 10-500 GPa. In another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 50-150 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 50-350 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 50-450 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 10-250 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 10-350 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 10-450 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 25-250 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 25-500 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 50-500 GPa, or in another embodiment, the compound exhibits an elastic modulus ranging between 50-300 GPa. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises an ion transition metal oxide. In another embodiment, said ion transition metal oxide is a proton, alkali metal, or alkaline earth metal. In another embodiment, the alkali metal is lithium. In another embodiment, an electrode comprises: LiCoO.sub.2, LiFePO.sub.4, LiNiO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiMnPO.sub.4, Li.sub.4Ti.sub.5O.sub.12, or their modified compositions or solid solutions. In another embodiment, the intercalating species is an ion. In another embodiment, a proton or an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. In one embodiment, the electrochemical actuators of this invention have a negative electrode or positive electrode, or combination thereof, comprising a single crystal or, in another embodiment, a polycrystal having preferred crystallographic orientation of its crystallites. In another embodiment, the electrochemical actuators of this invention have a negative electrode or positive electrode, or combination thereof, comprising a multiplicity of individual crystallites or a powder. In another embodiment, the multiplicity of individual crystallites or a powder, wherein there is a preferred crystallographic orientation of the crystallites or powder particles. In another embodiment, the electrochemical actuators of this invention have a negative electrode or positive electrode, or combination thereof, comprising a multiplicity of particles of an amorphous or disordered material. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises a current collector, which, in another embodiment, comprises a conductive material. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises a separator that is electronically insulating, which in one embodiment is porous, or in another embodiment, is rigid. In one embodiment, the porous separator comprises a microporous polymer. In another embodiment, the porous separator comprises a porous electronically insulating ceramic material, which in another embodiment, is alumina, an aluminosilicate, cordierite, or a silicate glass. In another embodiment, the electrodes of an actuator of this invention further comprise a conductive additive. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises an electrolyte. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is a solid electrolyte, or in another embodiment, the electrolyte is a liquid or gel electrolyte. In another embodiment, an actuator of this invention further comprises an external packaging layer, which may be, in one embodiment, an electrochemically-insulating layer, or, in another embodiment, a protective layer or, in another embodiment, a combination thereof. In one embodiment of the invention, intercalation of the species in an actuator of this invention can occur upon both application of the voltage and cessation thereof. In one embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 0.1-15 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 1-5V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 0.1-5 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 1-10 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 1-15 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 5-15 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage is in a range of between 5-10 V. In another embodiment, the applied voltage may be varied, which may, in another embodiment, influence the amount of intercalation, and in another embodiment, the degree of volume change. In another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change in an actuator of this invention is in the negative electrode or positive electrode or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change is reversible. In another embodiment, intercalation in an actuator of this invention produces high strain. In one embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 0.1% to 300%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 1% to 300%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 10% to 300%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 0.1% to 200%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 10% to 300%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 10% to 200%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 50% to 300%, or in another embodiment, the strain produced ranges from 50% to 200%. In another embodiment, a negative electrode, or in another embodiment, a positive electrode, in an actuator of this invention serves as a donor or acceptor or combination thereof of an intercalating species. The electrochemical actuators of the invention may have many different constructions or designs or architectures. In some embodiments they may be implemented with constructions similar to storage batteries. In one embodiment, in a form similar to a thin-film battery, as schematically depicted in FIG. 37. The actuator 24 may be positioned on a substrate 26. The actuator comprises a negative electrode 28, and a positive electrode 30, which is separated from the negative electrode by an electrolyte layer 32. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is a solid electrolyte, or in another embodiment, a liquid electrolyte. Current collectors for the negative electrode 34 and positive electrode 36 may also be provided. A protective coating 38 may be present as well, which may comprise an insulating material. In other embodiments, the actuator may have a design that is similar to multilayered storage batteries of either stacked or wound designs or hybrids thereof, including for example designs where a separator film is continuously wound around a series of sequentially stacked discrete electrodes. Such designs are well-known to those skilled in the art of batteries. In one embodiment, the invention provides a Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator, comprising two or more negative electrode layers, two or more positive electrode layers, and an intercalating species, wherein the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage or cessation thereof induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator. Electrodes may be fabricated for the actuators of the invention by methods similar to those used for storage batteries. In one embodiment, according to this aspect of the invention, the active materials may be cast from powder-based suspensions containing a polymer binder and conductive additive such as, in one embodiment, carbon, then calendered (rolled) under high pressure (for example, several tons per linear inch) to densely compacted layers in which the volume percentage of active material is between 50 and 70%. In one or more embodiments, a multilayer stacked or wound electrochemical actuator may use a porous polymer separator film similar to those used in storage batteries. As exemplified herein, multilayer electrochemical actuators of this invention that use a construction similar to those of storage batteries, in particular having electrodes containing polymer binder and liquid or gel electrolyte, having a porous polymer separator that is load bearing during the function of the actuator, or having external packaging that comprises relatively low modulus polymer materials, will, in some embodiments, have a soft construction compared to other actuators of the invention, due to the low modulus materials used and/or excess internal volume in the multilayer actuator. Under mechanical load, such actuators may exhibit, in some embodiments, plastic deformation or viscous creep or viscoelastic deformation. In order to obtain useful mechanical work from such actuators, according to one aspect of the invention, electrochemical actuators of such design may be mechanically pretreated or processed so as to provide greater stiffness, higher actuation energy density, higher actuation strain, decreased creep deformation, lower hysteresis of strain, improved reversibility of actuation performance over multiple actuation cycles, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, a multilayer actuator is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure to consolidate the actuator, remove free volume, and improve performance. In another embodiment, a uniaxial stress is applied to the multilayer actuator normal to the layers to remove excess internal volume, to consolidate the stack, increase the stiffness of the actuator, or to remove creep deformation. Such applied stresses of hydrostatic or nonhydrostatic nature cannot typically be increased without limit, as internal shorting of the electrode layers or current collectors or tabs may occur. Even at stresses not sufficient to cause internal short circuits, microporous polymer separators or particle-based electrodes may be consolidated to an extent that inhibits the function of the actuator. However, surprisingly it was found as exemplified herein, that a very high preconditioning pressure may be applied to a multistack actuator to improve its performance without causing internal failure. Thus in some embodiments, a uniaxial or hydrostatic pressure is used for preconditioning of an assembled laminated actuator. In some embodiments, the applied pressure may be as high as 10,000 psi (69 MPa), in other embodiments as high as 20,000 psi (138 MPa) or as high as 30,000 psi (207 MPa), or even as high as 45,000 psi (310 MPa), without causing internal failure and improving the performance of the actuator thereafter. In other embodiments of laminated electrochemical actuators incorporating a microporous polymer separator layer between active material electrodes, high mechanical energy densities and high strains are obtained under substantial applied stresses. As illustrated by the Examples, in some embodiments such multilayer stacked actuators are used to provide actuation strains from 0.5% to 5% under stresses from 0.1 MPa to 50 MPa and provide actuation energy densities from 1 to 400 kJ/m.sup.3. For one exemplary actuator and conditions of operation, 4% strain is obtained while actuating under 1 MPa stress, providing 40 kJ/m.sup.3 energy density, and 2.5% strain is obtained while actuating under 10 MPa stress, providing 250 kJ/m.sup.3 energy density. In other Examples and embodiments lower strains and associated stresses and energy densities are obtained that provide the ability to conduct useful mechanical work. In some embodiments an actuator of the invention provides high actuation speed. In some embodiments, an actuator of similar construction to a high charge and discharge rate battery is provided, in which substantially complete charging or discharging of the cell is possible in less than 6 minutes (10 C rate of charging or discharging), or less than 4 min (15 C rate), or less than 3 min (20 C rate). In other such embodiments, ion storage (faradaic) electrode materials are known that are capable of substantially complete charge and discharge in as short as 18 sec (200 C rate), allowing a comparable rate of actuation in an electrochemical actuator using such materials. In some embodiments, the rate of actuation is increased by charging or discharging over times that permit only a portion of the total or reversible charge capacity of the actuator to be reached. As illustrated by the Examples, in some embodiments greater than 1.5% under an applied stress greater than 0.5 MPa, greater than 1.5% as high as 4% under stresses as high as 5 MPa, or as high as 2.5% under stresses as high as 20 MPa, providing for actuation energy densities as high as 400 kJ/m.sup.3. In some embodiments, uniaxial stresses as high as 5 MPa, 10 MPa or even 20 MPa may be applied while conducting actuation without significant loss of actuation energy density or actuation strain or rate of actuation. In other embodiments, when designing some of the electrochemical actuators of the invention, use of materials including separators that have a high elastic modulus, and are capable of withstanding high applied loads without loss of function are employed. Thus the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator 40 may be implemented, in one embodiment, as schematically depicted in FIG. 38. According to this aspect, in one embodiment, the active layer is the positive electrode layer 42, which comprises a thick layer, which in one embodiment may also comprise a binder. An electronically-insulating, separator layer 44 may, in another embodiment, be constructed of a high stiffness porous ceramic, such as a silicate based ceramic, or in this case a porous Al.sub.2O.sub.3, as illustrated in FIG. 38. The counter-electrode 46 may be embedded in the porous separator so that it is not load-bearing, in this case, Li embedded in the porous Al.sub.2O.sub.3. Liquid electrolyte may be infiltrated in the actuator 48. In FIG. 38, 44 is a porous Al.sub.2O.sub.3 structural separator, 46 is Li (non load-bearing) in porous Al.sub.2O.sub.3 insulator, 48 is liquid electrolyte infiltrated, 52 is a power source, and 54 is a 1 cm.sup.3 stacked actuator. In another embodiment, a high stiffness separator comprises a layer of electronically insulating particles, such as particles of an insulating ceramic material. Said layer has greater mechanical flexibility while maintaining porosity under high actuation loads. In one embodiment the porous particulate separator is cast as a particulate or slurry layer on the mating surfaces of one or both electrodes prior to assembly of the layers, using methods well-known to those skilled in the art of ceramic processing or coating technology such as spray deposition, doctor blade coating, screen printing, web coating, comma-reverse coating, or slot-die coating. In one embodiment the particulate separator comprises particles of glass, a silicate ceramic, aluminum oxide, aluminosilicates, or other mixed-metal oxides or nitrides or carbides that are electronically insulating. In another embodiment, the counter electrode 46 may be replaced by an intercalation compound-embedded within a rigid separator, or in another embodiment, by a layer that is mechanically functional. Such substitutions may be utilized in a stacked actuator design, 50. The power source 52 may be connected to aluminum 38, and copper 52 current collectors, respectively. A compact, unitized multilayer actuator 54, such as that demonstrated in this embodiment, may be distributed in adaptive structures in a variety of configurations to impart desired degrees of freedom. In one embodiment, a device that can be prepared in a reduced-volume state (i.e., by charging or discharging), then inserted into a structure can be actuated in expansion. Such unitized actuators could also be easily replaced, simplifying maintenance of an adaptive structure. The energy density of electrochemical actuators (ECAs) may be high, in another embodiment, and the choice of materials will influence the resulting energy densities obtained. The resulting volume changes may range, in one embodiment, from 0.1 to 50%, or in another embodiment, from 0.1 to 1%, or in another embodiment, from 1 to 5%, or in another embodiment, from 5 to 8%, or in another embodiment, from 5 to 10%, or in another embodiment, from 8 to 10%, or in another embodiment, from 10 to 15%, or in another embodiment, from 15 to 20%, or in another embodiment, from 5 to 15%, or in another embodiment, from 5 to 20%, or in another embodiment, from 20 to 25%, or in another embodiment, from 10 to 20%, or in another embodiment, from 10 to 25%, or in another embodiment, from 20 to 35%, or in another embodiment, from 25 to 35%, or in another embodiment, from 15 to 35%, or in another embodiment, from 25 to 40%, or in another embodiment, from 25 to 50%, or in another embodiment, from 35 to 40%, or in another embodiment, from 35 to 50%. The electrochemical actuators of this invention, allow for mechanical energy production. In one embodiment, any electrochemical actuator of this invention, including, for example a Multilayer Stacked Actuator of this invention, allows for mechanical energy production, and can operate under stress conditions. In one embodiment, the volumetric or dimensional change occurs against an applied stress such that mechanical work is conducted, where the mechanical work divided by the initial volume of the actuator (mechanical energy density) exceeds (kJ/m3) values of between 0.1-5000 kJ/m.sup.3. In one embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 1 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 10 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 50 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 100 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 200 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 300 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 500 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 1000 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 1250 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 1500 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 1750 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 2000 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 2250 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 2500 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 2750 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 3000 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 3250 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 3500 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 3750 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 4000 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 4500 kJ/m.sup.3, or in another embodiment, the mechanical energy density exceeds 5000 kJ/m.sup.3, or any range in between. In another embodiment, the electrochemical actuators of this invention have a volumetric or dimensional change occurring against an applied stress, such that mechanical work is conducted, wherein the mechanical work divided by the mass of the actuator (specific mechanical energy) exceeds between 0.04-2,000 J/g. In one embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 0.4 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 2 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 3 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 4 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 5 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 10 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 20 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 40 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 80 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 100 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 200 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 300 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 400 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 500 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 750 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1000 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1200 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1350 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1500 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1600 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 1800 J/kg, or in another embodiment, the specific mechanical energy exceeds 2000 J/kg. The actuators of the invention have in some aspects designs or architectures providing for improved load bearing, or for load bearing by a single active material of the cell. Such designs can also avoid having a porous separator under load as in the laminated designs. Thus in one embodiment, an actuator of this invention may have an electrode compound or composite electrode providing actuation forming a multiplicity of load-bearing members in the primary direction or directions of actuation, wherein each member is exposed to an intercalation compound in one or more directions from the primary direction or directions of actuation. In another embodiment, the members may be formed as a pattern of posts or bars or ridges. In another embodiment, the actuator design comprises an array of posts wherein only one active material is load-bearing. In another embodiment, the actuator design is such that when one electrode performs actuation, the other electrode is buried in a stiff porous separator, such that it (the latter) is not load-bearing. In another embodiment, the lateral dimensions of the members may have at least one half-thickness that is sufficiently small to allow substantial intercalation of the intercalation compound, during a desired time period of actuation. In another embodiment, the intercalation compound source is placed adjacent to a pattern of members or, in another embodiment, between members allowing ion insertion from a direction that is not the primary direction or directions of actuation. In one embodiment, an electrochemical actuator of this invention will have a high load-bearing and stress-generating capacity as well as a high rate of actuation. The actuation compounds of the invention as well as composite electrodes incorporating such actuation compounds are capable of supporting substantial stress in tensile loading, in one embodiment, and in another embodiment, even greater stress in compressive loading. For example, a polycrystalline graphite material may have a compressive failure stress of 100-200 MPa, a highly oriented or single crystal graphite may have compressive failure stress in the c-axis direction (normal to the graphene planes) in excess of 500 MPa or even in excess of 1 GPa, and a densely sintered metal oxide intercalation compound may have compressive failure strength in excess of 400 MPa or even in excess of 1 GPa. In one embodiment, certain applications may require ion insertion to occur from a direction other than the highly loaded directions. For example, in the fiber actuators described herein, in one embodiment, load bearing is primarily along the axis of the fibers, while ion insertion occurs in the transverse direction. According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, actuators are designed to allow ion insertion from a transversely or laterally placed ion source into load-bearing members of an actuator that are supporting compressive or tensile load. The lateral or transverse dimensions of the load-bearing members may be selected on the basis of ion and electron transport kinetics well-known to those skilled in the art of electrochemical materials and devices. In one embodiment, where lithium intercalation compounds are used for electrochemical actuation, the time necessary to lithiate or delithiate a certain cross-section of material to a desired ion concentration and corresponding strain may be readily determined knowing the rate of ion transport into the material. Such determinations may be readily tested experimentally or made theoretically using tabulated or estimated values of properties such as ion diffusion coefficients, ionic and electronic conductivities, and surface reaction rate coefficients. Extremely high stresses and energy densities are achievable using a suitably designed actuator and actuating material, as will be understood by one skilled in the art, and as exemplified herein. In one embodiment, an oriented graphite material is used as a load bearing actuating material, with the c-axis of the graphite oriented substantially in the direction of desired actuation. In one embodiment the graphite has a multiplicity of individual elements together bearing the load, each of which has a smallest cross-sectional width that is 200 micrometers or less, allowing substantial ion intercalation over a useful actuation time. As shown in the Examples, in one such embodiments an actuation strain of as high as 1.2% is obtained under a stress as high as 100 MPa (one metric ton per cm.sup.2), providing an energy density of 1200 kJ/m.sup.3, or 4.3% is obtained under a stress of 30 MPa, providing an energy density of 1290 kJ/m.sup.3. While these Examples demonstrate the capabilities of the present invention for extremely high actuation energy density, it is understood that useful mechanical work can be performed according to the invention while employing much lower strains and actuation energies than the ultimate capabilities of a particular actuator. In another embodiment, the actuator design is such that one or, in another embodiment, both of the materials forming the electrochemical couple, namely the positive and negative electrode materials, may be load bearing material. In some embodiments this is desirable because one of the materials may expand when the cell is charged or discharged while the other contracts. By having the load borne by one active material, a larger net strain and mechanical energy density may be obtained than in the case where the two materials are joined in series in the direction of loading, and the net strain includes that in both materials. By placing the two active materials in a parallel arrangement between the load-bearing surface of the actuator rather than in series, in another embodiment, it is also possible to design the actuator such that both materials contribute to mechanical actuation, but in different proportions or even in different directions (expansion versus contraction) as the state of charge varies. In some applications of electrochemical actuators it is advantageous to provide for rotary motion. In one embodiment, the invention provides a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator, comprising rolled layers of an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein the rolled layers assume a laminate configuration, and wherein the Rotational Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage produces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator such that the rolled laminate configuration winds or unwinds, and torque is produced. The Rotational Electrochemical Actuator 56 would use, in one embodiment, a design similar to that of the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator, comprising laminates of current collectors 58, which, in one embodiment, comprise aluminum and copper, negative electrodes 60, which in another embodiment, comprise carbon, positive electrodes 62, which in another embodiment comprise an oxide, and a separator 64, which in another embodiment, may comprise a polymer film (FIG. 39). In another embodiment, a structural aluminum layer 66 is added, or in another embodiment, the aluminum foil current collector is replaced with structural aluminum. In another embodiment, the copper layer may be structural as well. In another embodiment, the Rotational Electrochemical Actuator is infiltrated with electrolyte 68. The actuator may be assembled as a spiral 70, around an inner mandrel 72, and covered by an outer shell 74. When the system is charged, a significant volume change (.about.5%) would occur, causing the rolled actuator to unwind. The amount of rotary motion induced would be proportional to the product of the volume change and the number of turns in the spiral. As a result, a spiral actuator with, say, 20 layers, would be capable of very high torques, and significant rotary motion. In one embodiment, Rotational Electrochemical Actuator winds, or unwinds, in response to application of voltage, or cessation thereof. In another embodiment, when the rolled laminate configuration winds or unwinds, rotary motion is produced. In another embodiment, the rotary motion ranges from 1-360.degree.. In another embodiment, the rotary motion produces 1 or more rotations, which, in another embodiment, are complete or incomplete. In another embodiment, the rotation is in a clockwise direction or counter clockwise direction, or a combination thereof. It is possible that shear strains may be produced in the lamination, as a result of the construction of the Rotational Electrochemical Actuator. In one embodiment, shear strain is mitigated by using a thick polymer separation layer to allow shearing motions between structural layers. In one embodiment, selection of the polymer layer includes that of a low shear modulus in order to allow the shear, but high bulk modulus to ensure that the actuation energy in not wasted in the compression of the polymer layer. In another embodiment, the spiral may be constructed with an additional elastomeric layer to achieve this result. In some applications of the electrochemical actuators of the invention, it is advantageous to provide for actuation in one or more directions within a plane, or to have the actuator exert a tensile stress. In one embodiment, the invention provides a Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator, comprising a fibrous negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species wherein the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator is subjected to an applied voltage, whereby application of the voltage or its cessation induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator, such that said fibrous negative electrode undergoes elongation. By "continuous fiber" it is understood that the fibers comprising the active material have an aspect ratio of at least 10 to 1 and preferably greater than 20 to 1, and are load bearing along the axis of the fibers. In one embodiment a majority of the fibers continuously span an actuator device comprising at least a positive electrode and negative electrode and electrolyte. In one embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator 76 is comprised of a fiber composite system, similar to graphite fiber composites, in which the active fibers form the negative electrode 78, which, in one embodiment are carbon fibers, and undergo significant elongation under intercalation. (FIG. 40). In one embodiment, disordered carbon fibers are utilized, which, in another embodiment, expand isotropically upon lithium intercalation. The fiber negative electrode may be separated from the positive electrode 80, which in one embodiment, is a lithium-source positive electrode, by a polymer or inorganic separator 82, and a liquid or solid electrolyte layer 84. Current collectors 86 and 88, respectively, may be connected to the power source 90 in the actuator. In one embodiment, the carbon fibers are the primary structural layer, and are anchored at each end to form a completed actuator. In one embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator can actuate in tension as well as in compression. In another embodiment, the actuator 92 is comprised of individual negative electrode fibers 94, such as carbon, are coated with a ceramic or polymer electrolyte 96 and a lithiated positive electrode 98, connected to a power supply 100 as shown in FIG. 41. These fibers could then be used to form, in one embodiment, an active fiber composite 102, which, in another embodiment, uses a conventional matrix (such as epoxy), found, in another embodiment, in graphite-reinforced plastic composites. Masking the ends of the fibers during the coating process would produce step layers, as shown in the figure, allows, in another embodiment, the electrical connections to be applied to the ends of the fibers. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator is comprised of multiple coated fibers, which are utilized to form a fiber composite. In another embodiment, the composite further comprises a matrix, which, in another embodiment, is a polymer. In another embodiment, the composite of the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator comprises fiber ends, which are uncoated. In another embodiment, the uncoated ends of the fibers enable electrical connections to be applied to the ends of the fibers. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator primarily actuates in tension. For example, graphite can be lithiated up to a composition LiC.sub.6 with an accompanying volume expansion of 13.1%, and disordered (isotropic) carbons can be lithiated to still higher concentrations and expansions. A carbon fiber can, according to this aspect of the invention, exhibit axial displacement of about 5%, while possessing a high elastic modulus (>500 GPa for commercially available disordered-carbon fibers). In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator comprises multiple layers, which, in another embodiment are assembled in parallel or in perpendicular orientation. In another embodiment, the perpendicular orientation allows positive and negative shearing actuation of the actuator, which, in another embodiment, produces torque, or, in another embodiment, produces rotation. In another embodiment, the perpendicular orientation allows for charge transfer between layers when low voltage is applied. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator comprising multiple layers, wherein a layer of carbon fibers is added with orientation perpendicular to a first layer. According to this aspect, both positive and negative shearing actuation results, producing an actuator capable of twisting an object, such as, in one embodiment, a wing or in another embodiment a blade in both positive and negative directions. In another embodiment, such an orientation reduces the total power requirements, by allowing charge to be transferred back and forth between layers at a low voltage. In another embodiment, such an actuation system might be capable of 3% elongation in the fiber direction. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator can be constructed as a pack, similar in form factor to active fiber composite (AFC) packs based on piezoelectric fibers, which could be used to actuate a blade or wing, producing significant actuated twist capability (See FIG. 41). In one embodiment, the invention comprises actuators that can deamplify strain, and thereby amplify stress. In one embodiment, depicted in FIG. 30, a woven actuator is provided in which a transverse (or through-thickness) displacement of one or more electrochemical actuators is converted into a longitudinal or in-plane displacement with a strain deamplification factor that is determined by the respective dimensions of the actuator. The design features, construction, and testing of this actuator type is exemplified in Example 9. Such actuators are useful in numerous applications including shape-morphing or beam-bending applications where a relatively thin actuator, for example one sufficiently thin to use in the skin or shell of a fuselage, rotor, wing, watercraft hull, or land vehicle body is desired. In one embodiment, the woven structure comprises metallic wires, or in another embodiment, a composite material, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the composite material comprises graphite fibers, or in another embodiment, fiberglass fibers in a matrix. In one embodiment, "matrix" refers to any matrix known in the art, and may comprise, for example, an epoxy, or in another embodiment, two-part epoxies, temperature cured epoxies, thermoplastics, etc. In one embodiment, a rubberizing agent (see Crawley, E. F. and Ducharme, E. H. ASME, International Gas Turbine Conference and Exhibition, 32nd, Anaheim, Calif.; UNITED STATES; 31 May-4 Jun. 1987. 11 pp. 1987) may be used to lower the matrix modulus, to increase the flexibility of the mechanism. In another embodiment, the amplifying mechanism is a composite structure formed not by interweaving fibers, but by fibers running roughly parallel on the top and bottom sides of one of more electrochemical actuators, with the fibers on opposite sides stitched or sewn together on the left and right of each EC actuator. The high strain of the present electrochemical actuators notwithstanding, many applications benefit from an amplification of strain, which for energy conservation necessitates a deamplification of stress. In another embodiment, the invention comprises actuators that amplify strain. In one specific embodiment, the actuation strain of an electrochemical actuator element or series of actuator elements, here a stack of multilayer actuator devices, is amplified by an assembly incorporating a lever and a fulcrum that also serves as a flexure. In one embodiment the housing for the actuating elements or the lever and fulcrum are formed from one piece of material, for example from an electro-discharge machined piece of a metal or from a formed single body of a polymer or reinforced polymer composite, providing for a compact and economical design. Such actuators may be used singly or multiply as positioners, latches, lifters, or to change the shape of a structure. While actuators having a lever and fulcrum powered by piezoelectric elements are known, for example the commercial products manufactured by Physik Instrumente, the present actuators have a much larger range of motion as shown in Example 8. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of actuation, comprising the step of applying a voltage to an actuator of this invention, comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein applying voltage causes current flow inducing intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator, whereby intercalation induces a volumetric or dimensional change of an actuator of this invention. The amount of actuation is in one embodiment controlled by controlling the voltage, and in another embodiment by controlling the total amount of current flowing into the device. It is to be understood that all the embodiments for the actuators of this invention listed herein, are applicable to methods of actuation using the same, and are to be considered as part of this invention. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method of producing torque or rotary motion in a structure or an apparatus comprising a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator, comprising the step of applying electric current to a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an intercalating species, wherein applying current induces intercalation of the intercalating species in the actuator resulting in a volumetric or dimensional change of the actuator such that said rolled laminate layers unwind, and torque or rotary motion is produced. In another embodiment, this invention provides a structure or apparatus comprising an actuator of this invention. In one embodiment, the structure or apparatus is adaptive. In another embodiment, the actuator is used as an element to apply stress at a site on the structure or apparatus that is distal to the actuator. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus amplifies the volumetric or dimensional change induced by the actuator. In one embodiment the adaptive structure or apparatus 104 comprises an electrochemical actuator of this invention 106, mounted on its surface 108 (FIG. 42A). In one embodiment, a structure such as a beam or plate or any structure of a size ranging from the MEMS scale to, in another embodiment, a large scale structure can be actuated with a surface mounted electrochemical actuator of this invention. In one embodiment, the electrochemical actuators of this invention are designed to produce in-plane deformation or actuation stress. In one embodiment, the deformation produced via planar thin film electrochemical actuators of this invention is normal to the plane of the surface where the actuator is positioned. In one embodiment, deformation in such an orientation is least constrained and construction of the actuator or, in another embodiment, its integration within a structure or apparatus is so designed as to produce a high stress or deformation in the plane of the surface. In one embodiment, the actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 0.1-1000 MPa. In another embodiment, the actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 0.1-10 Mpa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 0.1-100 Mpa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 1-10 MPa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 1-100 MPa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 1-1000 MPa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 10-100 MPa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 10-1000 MPa, or, in another embodiment, actuators of this invention may produce blocked stresses of between 100-1000 MPa. In one embodiment, multiple actuators are distributed in an apparatus. In one embodiment, the distributed electrochemical actuator technology of this invention is capable of imparting multiple degrees of freedom to active structures comprising the actuators. In one embodiment, integration of an actuator within a structure or apparatus 110 is as schematically depicted in FIG. 42B. The electrochemical actuator, or in another embodiment, actuators 140, are in one embodiment, thin film, or in another embodiment, thick film laminated electrochemical actuators, which are oriented normally to the surface, and are positioned within a stiff surface layer 120, on a substrate 130. The positioning and design of the actuators may result in a greater deformation produced in the surface plane, via, in one embodiment, changing the aspect ratio of the expanding and contracting elements (FIG. 42C), the positive electrode 150 and negative electrode 160. Such a construction as depicted in the figure produces a large, in-plane, net deformation upon charging/discharging of the actuator, evident when viewed looking down the plane of the surface (C), or in cross-section (D). In another embodiment, the laminated electrochemical actuator itself undergo deformation. In one embodiment, the deformation is a bending of the actuator itself, as a result of expansion of one electrode concurrent with contraction of another, during the same charge or discharge cycle. For example, and in one embodiment, an negative electrode comprising carbon will expand, as carbon expands when lithiated and a positive electrode comprising LiCoO.sub.2 expands when delithiated, resulting in a partial compensation of any deformation of the actuator comprising the two. In another embodiment, an actuator 170 comprising a carbon or lithium negative electrode 200, which expands when lithiated, and a LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 or LiFePO.sub.4 positive electrode 190, which contracts when de-lithiated, if bonded to a separator 180, will produce a marked bend in the entire structure (FIG. 43A). In another embodiment, a laminated electrochemical actuator of thin film or thick film design of this invention, wherein a volume change in both negative electrode and positive electrode is being utilized simultaneously, will position electrodes yielding maximum expansion, in one embodiment, the negative electrode, facing outward from a surface that is intended to be deformed from lesser to greater convexity. In one embodiment, an airfoil 210 would be designed to comprise actuators assuming such a configuration. According to this aspect, the actuator would be positioned, such that the negative electrode is facing outward 230, from the surface of the apparatus 220, such that following actuation, a greater curvature outward occurs. In one embodiment, such a configuration enables the device to be discharged in the relaxed state. In another embodiment, electrochemical actuation may be performed using a supporting material such as a substrate as the electro-active material itself (FIG. 43C). According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, the structure comprising the actuator 240, comprises a silicon wafer 250 that can be lithiated from the surface 270, via the lithium metal or lithiated oxide electrode as the lithium source, in order to induce volumetric expansion hence bending. In one embodiment, other metalloids, or, in another embodiment, metals (e.g. Al which lithiates to LiAl) or, in another embodiment, oxides may be used similarly. In another embodiment, a structure or apparatus 280 may be made to bend around more than one axial direction, such as, in another embodiment, to twist and curve concurrently, by having an array of electrochemical actuators 300 on the surface of the structure or apparatus 290 and actuating them non-uniformly in a prescribed manner (FIG. 44). In one embodiment, the structure or apparatus will twist about the x-axis and bend about the y-axis, if individual actuators are actuated appropriately to produce this result. According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, if there is a net expansion induced on the surface, then the surface will bend, as a whole in response, and, in another embodiment, if different degrees of bending are induced locally as one progresses down the x-axis, then overall, there will be a twisting along this axis. In another embodiment, according to this aspect of the invention, the structure or apparatus may comprise a series of small actuators so designed as to produce an overall twist in the structure comprising the actuators, wherein the structure may be quite large, and the twisting exerted despite high frictional and other resistance forces exerted on the structure. For example, and in one embodiment, a series of Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuators with an aspect ratio of, in one embodiment, 1, or in another embodiment, 0.5, or in another embodiment, 2.0, or in another embodiment, 1.5, or in another embodiment, between 0.5 to 2, is placed on a substrate, at an angle to the leading edge of the substrate. In one embodiment, the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuator is in the shape of a cube, or in another embodiment, in the shape of a cylinder. In another embodiment, the Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuators range in size between 0.5 to 10 cm, or in another embodiment, between 0.5 to 5 cm, or in another embodiment, 1 to 3 cm. In another embodiment, the substrate is a wing of an aircraft 330, and the actuators of this invention 320 arranged according to this aspect of the invention are used to twist the wing (FIG. 45). In another embodiment, the actuators may be utilized to raise and lower flaps positioned on a wing, for greater flight control. In another embodiment, the actuators of this invention may be utilized to reversibly unfurl a wing (FIG. 44B). According to this aspect of the invention, and in other embodiments, the actuators may be utilized for unfurling a fin or wing on a missile or aircraft. In one embodiment, large strains produced by electrochemical actuation enable the morphing of surfaces. By the term "morphing", it is meant, in one embodiment, to refer to an overall change in structure. In one embodiment, an otherwise rigid wing or fin may be furled when the vehicle is stored, and unfurled when the vehicle is deployed, via the electrochemical actuators of this invention. In another embodiment, significant change in wing sweep is achieved, which, in another embodiment, enables a vehicle comprising the electrochemical actuators of this invention to have both subsonic and supersonic capabilities. In one embodiment, the structure or apparatus moves in or beyond the atmosphere. In one embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be an aircraft, a missile, a spacecraft or a satellite. In another embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be part of an aircraft, a missile, a spacecraft, a worm, a robot or a satellite. In other embodiments, the part may be a wing, a blade, a canard, a fuselage, a tail, an aileron, a rudder, an elevator, a flap, a pipe, a propellor, a mirror, an optical element, or a combination thereof. In other embodiments, the part may be an engine, a motor, a valve, a regulator, a pump, a flow control device, a rotor, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus moves in water. In one embodiment, such a structure or apparatus may be a boat, a ship, a submarine or a torpedo. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus is a part of a boat, a ship, a submarine or a torpedo. In another embodiment, the part is a blade, a rudder, a pipe, a propellor, an optical element, or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the part is an engine, a motor, a valve, a regulator, a pump, a flow control device, a rotor, a switch or a combination thereof. In another embodiment, the structure or apparatus is a bomb, a means of transportation, an imaging device, a robotic, a worm, a prosthesis, an exoskeleton, an implant, a stent, a valve, an artificial organ, an in vivo delivery system, or a means of in vivo signal propagation. For example, and in an embodiment of this invention, high-authority control of helicopter rotor blades may be accomplished via the use of an actuator of this invention. The actuators of this invention may be utilized, in one embodiment of the invention, for producing high-authority, low-bandwidth control required to allow auto-rotation, or to improve hover performance at hover levels in aircraft. In one embodiment, a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator of this invention will produce a 10 degree tip rotation, or more, which may be used in hover applications, which typically require 8-15 degrees of authority. In another embodiment, a Rotational Electrochemical Actuator of this invention will provide an electric, swashplateless rotor for use in hover application. In another embodiment, single bi-layer or stack actuators comprising a rigid porous separator, or a solid electrolyte can be used, which provides high stiffness to the actuator. A series of such actuator elements may be patterned on a substrate, including on silicon glass, or aluminium oxide, or some other such substrate of high stiffness, and used for high force actuation, for production of a nastic structure. In one embodiment, the term nastic structure refers to a structure, which deforms in response to a stimulus. According to this aspect of the invention, a series of actuators may be placed on a substrate which when activated, creates a deformation, in another embodiment, in an overall structure comprising the actuators. In one embodiment, devices that utilize the technology of this invention comprise motors, such as, in one embodiment, a linear, or, in another embodiment, a rotational motor. In another embodiment, the device is a pump, such as, in another embodiment, a microhydraulic pump, or in another embodiment, a microfluidic pump. In another embodiment, the device is a mirror array, or in another embodiment, an optical element used for optical switching. In another embodiment, the device is a photonic device where actuation induces a change in an optical path or properties. In another embodiment, the device is a worm or robot that moves as a result of actuation, moving, in another embodiment, a series of elements in a given sequence. The energy density of electrochemical actuators (ECAs) may be quite high, and the choice of materials will influence the resulting energy densities obtained, with, in another embodiment, the advantage of easier distribution of ECAs throughout a morphing aircraft structure, or, in another embodiment, their production as small units that can be ganged to produce high authority at a single point or distributed widely over a structure to produce localized control. In another embodiment, a structure comprising the ECAs may be able to "morph" in many degrees of freedom, and achieve high performance over a wide range of conditions. In one embodiment, such an application is exploited in constructing parts of an airplane. For example, in one embodiment, one might develop a wing with distributed ECAs that would allow high levels of twist (5 deg or more) which allow the elimination of ailerons, or, in another embodiment, significant sweep changes (20 deg or more) to allow good performance at both subsonic and supersonic speeds, or, in another embodiment, airfoil shape changes (camber and thickness) large enough to optimize wing performance over Mach numbers ranging from low subsonic to supersonic speeds. In another embodiment, this invention provides a pump comprising at least one electrochemical actuator, comprising an negative electrode, a positive electrode, an intercalating species, and at least one valve, wherein following application of a voltage causing current flow in the actuator, intercalation of the intercalating species produces a change in volume in the actuator, such that fluid is directed through the valve. In one embodiment, the pump comprises a series of actuators. In another embodiment, the actuators may be placed in a parallel series. In another embodiment, the actuators may be placed in a plane of a surface so as to direct fluid through designed channels. In one embodiment, a microfluidic pump may be designed, using an electrochemical actuator of this invention, wherein the actuator produces a net volume charge upon charging and discharging (FIG. 46). According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, the microfluidic pump 340, comprises a positive electrode 350, and negative electrode 360, separated by an electrolyte layer 370, which according to this aspect of the invention is a liquid electrolyte. In one embodiment, the electrolyte may itself be the working fluid of the pump, or in another embodiment, the working fluid may be a separate fluid from the electrochemical actuator system. In another embodiment, the actuator undergoes a net volume change upon charging and discharging, following the application of voltage 390, or its cessation, respectively, which enables fluid propulsion through the valves 380. Volume changes that may be achieved, such as those exemplified in Example 3 herein, may range, in one embodiment, from 1 to 10%, or, in another embodiment, from 5 to 10%, or, in another embodiment, from 10 to 15%, or, in another embodiment, from 15 to 20%, or, in another embodiment, from 5 to 10%, or, in another embodiment, from 5 to 10%, or, in another embodiment, from 20 to 25%, or, in another embodiment, from 25 to 30%, or, in another embodiment, from 30 to 35%, or, in another embodiment, from 35 to 40%, or, in another embodiment, from 40 to 45%, or, in another embodiment, from 45 to 50%, or any range as described herein. In one embodiment, an assembly of actuators can be used to create a fluid or gas pump or a microfluidic device. In one embodiment, a series of actuators may be assembled in a plane, wherein actuation produces a net flow of fluid though channels, whose shape is controlled by the actuator design and positioning within the plane (FIG. 46B). In one embodiment, the pump or microfluidic device 400 comprises a series of actuators 410, which upon charging and discharging induce volume changes, which can, in one embodiment, direct fluid flow from intake 420, through exit 420 of the device, through channels whose shape may be controlled, in another embodiment, via specific actuator design, which may comprise assembly on a substrate 430. In one embodiment, operation of the actuators in a series propels the fluid through the device. In another embodiment, positioning of the actuators is such that channels are designed, as depicted in FIG. 46C. Such actuators can be, in one embodiment, of single bi-layer, or, in another embodiment, of stacked design. In one embodiment, the device will comprise a high molecule stack for the actuators. According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, a rigid porous separator or, in another embodiment, a solid electrolyte can be used, such as, in another embodiment, a LIPON electrolyte. In another embodiment, the stacked actuators may comprise thin film batteries in an array on a substrate, in a single bi-layer (single electrochemical cell) or multilayer stack sequence. In one embodiment, the substrate on which the actuators are patterned may comprise silicon glass, aluminium oxide, or any substrate of high stiffness, and may, in another embodiment, be used for high force actuation, or, in another embodiment, in microfluidic devices for fluid propulsion. In another embodiment, according to this aspect of the invention, a nastic structure is thus designed, in which a series of gas or liquid filled chambers are actuated so as to create deformation of the overall structure. In another embodiment, actuation is via a fluidic system, which comprises an electrolytic membrane, which pumps an ion from one side to another, producing a liquid rather than a gas in the process, as exemplified herein in Example 4 and FIG. 15. By pumping a liquid, much higher actuation forces can be produced since liquids have much lower compressibility. Actuators of this kind can be used, in one embodiment, in fluidic, or in another embodiment, in micro fluidic devices, or, in another embodiment, in micro hydraulic devices, or in another embodiment, in nastic structures or, in another embodiment, in compressing cellular micro-fluidic or, in another embodiment, in micro hydraulic devices. In one embodiment, such an electrochemical actuator, will comprise an negative electrode, a positive electrode and an electrolytic membrane and an ion, wherein application of voltage to the electrochemical actuator or its cessation induces pumping of the ion from one side of the membrane to the other side, resulting in the generation of a liquid, thereby producing a volumetric or dimensional change in the actuator. In one embodiment, the ion is a proton (H+). In another embodiment, the liquid comprises H.sub.2O.sub.2, or in another embodiment, the liquid comprises H.sub.2O. In another embodiment, this invention provides a morphing plate, or in another embodiment, morphing beam architecture comprising the actuators of this invention. According to this aspect of the invention, and in one embodiment, a plate architecture containing distributed electrochemical actuators is provided, which may yield, in another embodiment, a multiple shape target (FIG. 47). In one embodiment, the plate may comprise three orientations of in-plane, independently-addressable actuators, such as, for example, 0.degree., +60.degree., -60.degree., as illustrated by the red-green-blue motif in FIG. 48A. This hexagonal network does not necessarily represent actual physical cell walls or boundaries (although such an assembly represents one embodiment of this invention), but may, in another embodiment, describe a distribution of "unit cells", each acted upon by a single actuator of a given orientation. Many degrees of morphing freedom are possible in a plate, in another embodiment, as schematized in FIG. 48B, in which the surfaces contain such arrays of embedded addressable actuators. In one embodiment, the construction in FIG. 48B may, for example, be a 10.times.10 array of actuators embedded in each side of a monolithic plate made of a polymer or structural metal, or a composite plate. Shape changes could be induced, in one embodiment, as follows: If all actuators are simultaneously charged (discharged) so that they expand (contract), the plate will expand (contract) biaxially. According to this aspect of the invention, there may be a lesser extent of thickness expansion (contraction), determined primarily by the expansion anisotropy designed into the multilayer actuator. The net macroscopic expansion of the plate depends, according to this aspect, and in one embodiment, on the area or volume fraction of actuators and details of load transfer. The actuator fraction may be, in one embodiment, 50% or more, so that an actuator exhibiting 10% volume expansion results in a 5% expansion of the plate. In one embodiment, the lengthening, shortening, shear, or combination thereof, of the plate along any direction in the plane of the plate may be accomplished by actuating the three orientations non-uniformly. In another embodiment, curvature about any axis or axes may be produced by actuating the two sides of a plate in a non-uniform manner. For example, if all actuators on one surface are expanded equally, while those on the opposing surface either contract equally or are not activated, the plate will cup in a uniform (macroscopically spherical) curvature. The net curvature may depend, in another embodiment, on the strain induced at each surface, the thickness of the plate or combination thereof; for example, a 2 cm thick plate having +5% expansion at one surface and -5% contraction at the other may exhibit a radius of curvature of 20 cm. In another embodiment, twisting, saddle curvatures, or more complex topologies may be produced by actuating the two sides of a plate appropriately, which, in another embodiment, may manifest in the depicted shape changes as shown in FIG. 47. In another embodiment, the Continuous Fiber Electrochemical Actuator may be arrayed such that it is applied to the surface of a plate, in one embodiment, along the 3 orientations herein described, and actuated to provide multiple morphing capability (FIG. 48C). In another embodiment, a combination of stacked and fiber actuators may be used. Higher morphing performance may be achieved, in another embodiment, by increasing the actuator density within the plate. In another embodiment, the array may be constructed such that each hexagonal cell is virtually filled by actuator, for example, as depicted in FIG. 48D. To impart greater thickness expansion or contraction capability (including varying thickness changes along the plate), the cross-section of the plate may, in another embodiment, also contain stacked actuators (for example, as depicted in 48D, panel 2). It is to be understood that the present invention encompasses any embodiment, or combinations of embodiments for what is to be considered an electrochemical actuator of this invention, and the invention includes any structure, fabric, device, etc. comprising the same, or multiples thereof. It is to be understood that several actuators may be incorporated within a single structure, apparatus, device, fabric, that the actuators may differ, in terms of their type, materials used to construct the actuator, actuation energy provided, preconditioning, stress amplification, or strain amplification properties, etc., and are encompassed by the present invention. While only a few embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art that many changes and modifications may be made thereunto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, and numerous applications of the methods and devices of the invention are apparent, and to be considered as part of this invention. The following examples are presented in order to more fully illustrate the preferred embodiments of the invention. They should, in no way be construed, however, as limiting the broad scope of the invention. EXAMPLES Example 1 Electrochemical Actuator Utilizing LiFePO.sub.4-Based Electrode and Porous Ceramic Separator FIG. 1, from Yamada [J. Electrochem. Soc., 148, A224 (2001)] shows the volume changes that occur in the olivine structure compound (Fe,Mn)PO.sub.4 as it is lithiated to the end-member composition Li(Fe,Mn)PO.sub.4. Between the fully lithiated (upper curve) and fully delithiated (lower curve) limits of composition, a volume change of 7.4-10% (linear strain of 2.4-3.2%) is realizable depending on the Fe/Mn ratio. FIG. 4 illustrates a design of electrochemical actuator in which a positive electrode is used with a porous alumina separator of high stiffness and load bearing ability. The negative electrode comprises Li metal, which is deposited within the pores of the porous load-bearing actuator so that it is not load bearing, while still providing a source and sink for Li ions during the operation of the actuator. An actuator of this design was constructed using a positive electrode for a rechargeable lithium battery having a 100 .mu.m thick composite layer comprising an LiFePO.sub.4-based cathode active powder, polymer binder, and carbon conductive additive, deposited on an aluminum foil current collector of about 15 micrometer thickness. The electrode had an area of about 1 cm.sup.2. A 2 mm thick porous alumina separator was used, sectioned from a glass-bonded alumina abrasive product (Norton Company, Worcester, Mass.). On the negative electrode side of this separator, a small amount of Li metal was mechanically squeezed into the pores of the separator, and a copper foil negative current collector was applied. The assembly was infiltrated with a liquid electrolyte used for lithium rechargeable cells (LP40), sealed in a polymer envelope, and subjected to 1 MPa uniaxial prestress applied normal to the layers of the actuator. The actuator was cycled over a voltage range of 2.0-4.0V at a constant 0.2 mA current. The actuator required 8 charge/discharge cycles for the layers to adjust, and on the 9.sup.th cycle, the expected expansion upon discharge was seen as Li+ was intercalated into the LiFePO.sub.4 positive electrode, FIG. 1B, with 2.3% linear strain being observed, in good agreement with the expected value. In another example, a 200 mm thick layer (typical for battery electrodes) of the electrochemical insertion compound in FIG. 1, when formulated as a powder-based composite electrode, will have a Young's modulus of Y=50 GPa (reduced from the single crystal value of .about.150 GPa). Under 3.3V applied voltage this electrode can be fully intercalated to reach a linear strain of .epsilon..about.1.5%, thereby generating e.sup.33=3.8.times.10.sup.4 C/m.sup.2. The strain energy density (FIG. 4), taken as 1/2Y.epsilon..sup.2/.rho. where .rho. is the material density, is estimated at .about.2050 J/kg (5.6.times.10.sup.6 J/m3) for the active material layer, and .about.1000 J/kg (2.8.times.10.sup.6 J/m.sup.3) for an actuator stack containing one-half by weight or volume of inactive supporting layers. For a stack volumetric strain energy density of 2.8.times.10.sup.6 J/m.sup.3, at 1.5% linear strain the equivalent blocked stress should be .about.375 MPa. Example 2 Multilayer Stacked Actuator Using LiCoO.sub.2 and Carbon as Active Materials In FIG. 1C, actuation is shown in a multilayer stacked actuator in which the positive electrode is LiCoO2 and the negative electrode is carbon. These devices are commercially available batteries fabricated according to the "Bellcore" gel-electrolyte technology in which positive electrode and negative electrode layers (about 30 layers total) are bonded together with a bondable separator film, following which the multilayer stack is packaged in polymer. Typical cells are shown in FIG. 2. The laminates are oriented normal to the plane of the cell. This battery is elastically soft due to the materials used; it is a relatively low energy density device containing a large fraction of soft polymer components to facilitate manufacturing. The cells were tested in the as-received state with no preconditioning prior to electromechanical testing. The cells were tested in an apparatus designed to apply a constant pre-stress between two parallel-faced rams while the cells were charged and discharged. The deformation of the cells in the direction of applied stress was measured with a precision displacement transducer. Under 1 MPa applied pressure, a reversible 1% linear expansion was measured, as shown in FIG. 1C, providing for an energy density of 10 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 3 shows results for a cell under various values of pre-stress from 1 MPa to 5 MPa. For this cell the strain is .about.0.7% at 1 MPa, and decreases as the pre-stress is increased. In the as-received condition, the cells have a Young's modulus measured in the direction of actuation (normal to the face of the cells and the planar electrode layers) of .about.30 MPa. The maximum actuation energy density in this device is .about.12 kJ/m.sup.3. FIG. 4 shows results from a cell that exhibited higher energy density. In this instance the applied pre-stress is 3.5 MPa, and the strain exhibited by the cell is .about.1%, yielding a mechanical energy density of .about.35 kJ/m.sup.3. This actuation energy density is approximately one-half that of a typical well-engineered PZT piezoelectric actuator. Example 3 Multilayer Stacked Actuators and Preconditioning for Improved Performance Multilayer stacked actuators can have several different internal constructions, as exemplified in the following. FIG. 5 shows several lithium ion rechargeable cells based on LiCoO.sub.2-carbon chemistry, each of which has a different internal construction. Each of these designs was demonstrated to be capable of performing substantial mechanical work, and furthermore, to have improved performance after preconditioning treatments described herein. Several samples of each cell were double-vacuum-bagged in plastic and placed in an isostatic press, and the pressure raised to 45,000 psi and held for 5 minutes. After testing, the open circuit voltage of the cells was measured, and all cells were found to have survived the pressure treatment without suffering an internal short. The capacity of the batteries changed only slightly after the isopressing treatment, showing a reduction in capacity measured between 3.0 and 4.2V at a C/5 or C/2.5 rate of <3% for the 120 mAh and 150 mAh cells, and .about.8% for the 200 mAh cells. A significant volume reduction was seen for each cell. FIG. 6 is a plot of the volume reduction for 10 cells of one type, in which volume reductions ranging from 3.45% to 10.25% were observed. An excess volume in the cell may exist, which can be reduced by the pressing treatment. FIG. 6 also tabulates the macroscopic densities measured by the Archimedes method of each cell type before and after isopressing. The average volume reduction ranges from 1.4% to 5.4%. It is also seen that the density of the actuators is low, from 2.15 to 2.39 g/cm.sup.3, which may be compared to the density of a PZT piezoelectric actuator of approximately 7.5 g/cm.sup.3. These multilayer cells were found to exhibit viscoelastic deformation under a uniaxial stress applied normal to the largest face of the prismatic cell, which is normal to the plane of the electrode in the stacked cases. Both as-received and isopressed cells exhibited viscoelastic relaxation. FIG. 7 shows the relaxation in applied stress over time when a cell is subjected to 10 MPa stress in an Instron test machine. The stress is ramped to 10 MPa at a crosshead speed of 0.002 in/min, and then the crosshead is stopped so that no further displacement occurs. Over time, the stress then relaxes substantially. However, with each successive stressing and relaxation cycle, the amount of stress relaxation decreases, and eventually the cell is able to sustain nearly the full applied pressure of 10 MPa. Furthermore, the thickness of the cells increased after the stress was removed at the end of the test, and increased by 2.5 to 4% over a period of several hours. These results show that multilayer stacked actuators of such design using powder composite electrodes, microporous polymer separators, and polymer packaging exhibit viscoelastic relaxation properties, but that the dimensions of the cells can be stabilized by applying stress over an extended time prior to using them as electrochemical actuators. Under uniaxial applied stress, these cells were found to be able to withstand extremely high applied stresses before internal short-circuiting. Using the Instron apparatus, stress was increased at a constant crosshead speed while the cell voltage (at a 3.8 Vstate of charge initially) was continuously monitored. For the 120 mAh, 150 mAh, and 200 mAh cells respectively, the voltage did not decrease until pressures of 37 MPa, 57 MPa, and 67 MPa respectively were reached. Thus electrochemical actuators of these designs may be expected to be tolerant to high and abusive stress conditions. The apparent Young's modulus was measured on these cells in the direction normal to the largest area faces after the isopressing treatments. The cells showed two characteristic slopes in the stress-strain relationship, a lower slope between zero and 5 MPa exhibiting a modulus of 50-60 MPa, and a higher slope above 10 MPa exhibiting a modulus of 220-320 MPa. Clearly, a more compressible component or components of the cells provide for the Lower stiffness, which after compression transfers load to higher modulus constituents. It is also shown that even the lower modulus value is greater than the modulus of .about.30 MPa measured in as-received cells prior to preconditioning, thereby demonstrating a benefit of the preconditioning treatment. These results show that there exist regimes of lower and higher stiffness for the multilayer stacked actuators, in which the accessible actuation energy densities may accordingly vary. The volume expansion of the cells was precisely measured in a fluid displacement apparatus. FIG. 8 shows the reversible volumetric expansion of .about.1.5% that was measured on a 150 mAh cell. Other cells showed similar values of reversible volume expansion. Thus, these measurements show the capability of electrochemical actuators to perform volume expansion mechanical work as described in multiple embodiments of the present invention. These test results also show that for a multilayer stacked actuator, the expansion is anisotropic, since the volumetric expansion is less than the linear expansion described below. Anisotropic expansion is advantageous for certain applications of electrochemical actuators. The charge-discharge curves, corresponding strain, and strain energy density of these multilayer stacked actuators measured after the preconditioning treatment are shown in FIGS. 9-12. The measurements were made with an Instron apparatus under conditions where a constant stress was applied, and the displacement was allowed to vary, with charging and discharging of the cells at a C/5 rate. In FIG. 9, there was nearly constant cyclic strain on top of creep strain. The capacity remains constant with cycling. 1.5%-1.9% strain and an energy density of 75-95 kJ/m.sup.3 was observed. In general, a cyclic strain paralleling the charge-discharge cycle is observed, which is superimposed upon a background creep relaxation as noted earlier. As shown in FIG. 12, at up to about 10 MPa stress, strains of 1.5% or larger are readily obtained, and energy densities increase with applied stress up to 10 MPa, reaching peak values of about 150 kJ/m.sup.3. At higher stresses, such as 15 and 20 MPa, actuation strain is diminished but so is the capacity of the cell, indicating that the limiting factor is ion transport rather than the ability of the active material to be charge/discharged under the particular applied stress. It is probable that the higher applied stresses cause the porosity in the separator and/or the particle-based electrodes to be decreased, thereby lowering the rate capability of the cells. Thus, the use of higher modulus separators and electrode constructions as embodied else where in this patent application can allow electrochemical actuation to higher stresses. Example 4 High Rate Actuation in Multilayer Stacked Electrochemical Actuators In order to demonstrate that multilayer stacked actuators can exhibit high strains and actuation energy densities with rapid rates of actuation and that substantial actuation performance can be obtained using only partial charge and discharge of an electrochemical cell, a different actuator was used. The cells tested were commercially available LiCoO.sub.2-carbon lithium ion cells (Kokam), having a prismatic form factor with dimensions of 59.times.33.5.times.5.4 mm.sup.3. The cells have a nominal capacity quoted by the manufacturer of 740 mAh and are rated for up to 20 C continuous discharge. They use a microporous polymer separator in an accordion-folded construction alternating layers of the electrodes, as shown for the bottom cell in FIG. 5. An aluminum current collector is used at the positive electrode, and a copper current collector at the negative electrode. Tests were conducted under a constant 2 MPa uniaxial stress. These cells exhibit actuation strains of about 2% under a 2 MPa constant stress. The cells were cycled at 2.96 A (4 C), 3.70 A (5 C), and 4.44 A (6 C) for five cycles for a specified amount of time (1 min, 2 min, 5 min, 10 min). Between charging and discharging, a 5 minute rest period was used to allow the voltage to relax. Before charging, a constant voltage discharge to 3 V was used to ensure a fully discharged cell, however, a constant voltage hold was not used in the charged state before discharging. FIGS. 13 and 14 show the cyclic actuation strain obtained versus the cycle number, at different values of constant current. At higher currents, more capacity is achieved in the charge/discharge time, and the strain increases. In all of the plots, testing conducted using lower current followed by successively higher current. Note that substantial strains are obtained in very short actuation times, for example at the 4.44 A rate (6 C) rate, 0.3%, 0.65%, 1.25%, and 1.75% strain are obtained in 1, 2, 5, and 10 minutes respectively. FIG. 15 shows the charging actuation strain versus capacity. It is noted that the strain increases monotonically with the capacity to which the cell is charged, such that a desired strain level can be selected by charging for a selected time. In all cases, that discharge capacity (and strain) is less than charge capacity may be due to differences in the total current passed during the charge and discharge cycles under test conditions, and can be readily adjusted by changing the charge and discharge profile, as described in other embodiments. For this cell, the manufacturer's prescribed charge profile is to use CC-CV at 0.5 C to 4.2 V. However, the fastest charge to any capacity is obtained by a direct constant voltage charge at 4.2 V, with a limiting current set to the maximum rated 14.8 A. Example 5 Stacked Actuator from High Density Electrodes LiCoO.sub.2-based and graphite-based electrodes of conventional design typical of those used in the lithium ion battery field were used to form a bi-layer stacked actuator, shown in FIG. 16. This actuator differs from those in preceding examples which have used commercially available cells in that the electrode formulation has been selected according to methods well-known to those skilled in the art to provide a higher packing density and a higher stiffness. Accordingly, the completed actuator exhibits higher stiffness and lower viscoelastic relaxation than in the preceding examples. In addition, the negative electrode uses a platelet graphite which during processing takes on a preferred crystallographic texture with the c-axis preferentially aligned in the desired actuation direction. Consequently, the strains obtained are greater than in the commercially available cells, and may be greater than expected for the LiCoO.sub.2-graphite system under the conditions where the graphite is not preferentially aligned. The electrodes were prepared by coating a formulation incorporating a powder of the respective active material, a polymer binder, and a conductive carbon additive, dispersed in an organic solvent. The LiCoO.sub.2 coating (510) was applied to one side of an aluminum foil current collector (570) while the graphite coating (530) was applied to one side of a copper foil current collector (560). The Al was laminated on a polymer film. The LiCoO.sub.2 on Al foil had the following properties: 125 um, 55 vol %, .about.1 cm.times..about.1 cm. The graphite on Cu-foil had the following properties: 85 um, 70.3% vol %, .about.1 cm.times..about.1 cm. After drying and pressing, a cell was assembled as shown in FIG. 16. A conventional polymer separator (520) was used, and a conventional organic carbonate electrolyte (LP30) (550) was used. The active thickness of the electrode was 210 um and the total thickness was .about.0.6 mm. The measured electrode modulus is .about.100 mPa (14.5 ksi). FIGS. 17 and 18 show the charge-discharge voltage curves and the corresponding strain measured in this cell, measured under 1 MPa and 10 MPa pre-stress respectively. Under 1 MPa pre-stress, FIG. 17, a strain of 3-4.3% was observed, corresponding to an actuation energy density of .about.45 kJ/m3. Under 10 MPa prestress, FIG. 18, a strain of 2-3% was observed, corresponding to an actuation energy density of .about.300 kJ/m3. FIG. 19 shows results from another actuator of the same type, tested under 10 MPa and 17 MPa uniaxial applies stress. In this instance, 2.3% and 1.8% strain, and 230 kJ/m.sup.3 and 300 kJ/m.sup.3 energy density, are obtained respectively at 10 and 17 MPa. It is further noted that under 17 MPa, the rate of strain with capacity is the same as at the lower pressures even though the total strain is less, which indicates that the full capacity of the cell is not reached for kinetic reasons such as the compression of porosity in the polymer separator, but that the active material has not substantially changed its actuation performance. It is understood that with improvements in design as described in other embodiments, still higher strains and strain energy densities may be obtained from actuators using electrodes of this type. The electrodes of this example were further coated on both sides of their respective current collector foils and assembled into a multilayer stacked actuator having a thickness of about 6 mm. These cells were tested under varying prestress levels, using a so-called CCCV profiles in which the voltage range was 3.0-4.2V, and a constant C/5 current was applied until the 4.2 charge voltage or 3.0 discharge voltage was reached, at which point the voltage was held constant until the current decayed to less than C/50. A 10 minute rest at constant voltage and zero current was also conducted between charge and discharge portions. FIGS. 20 to 22 show the strain obtained under 1, 5 and 10 MPa stress, at corresponding portions of the charge-discharge curve. Note that at 1 MPa, a high strain of 4.1% is obtained. At 10 MPa, the strain is still 2.5%, and the corresponding energy density is 249 kJ/m.sup.3. Here also, the capacity of the cell decreases with increasing stress, showing that it is charge/discharge kinetics that are limiting the achieved strain and mechanical energy density and not the intrinsic capability of the active materials used. Example 7 Segmented Multi-Element Electrochemical Actuator Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), which is a near-single-crystal form of graphite, was used as the actuation material. The direction of actuation was selected to be normal to the graphene sheets, namely along the c-axis of graphite, as shown in FIG. 23. Along this direction, the free strain of graphite is 10.4% and the Young's modulus is 35 GPa. In order to have high mechanical loading along this direction while intercalating ions transverse to this direction, the HOPG was laser-machined into a square array of 25 square posts, each of 0.2 mm.times.0.2 mm dimension at the top, and 0.4 mm height. Lithium was used as the ion intercalant. A conventional LiCoO.sub.2 composite electrode on aluminum foil current collector was assembled proximally to the HOPG posts as shown in FIG. 23. The two electrodes were separated by an insulating polymer separator film, and packaged in polymer sheet as shown for the actuator in FIG. 16. FIG. 24 shows the actuation strain of this actuator under 100 MPa pre-stress. While only partial lithiation of the graphite was achieved, the resulting strain was .about.1%, yielding an actuation energy density of .about.1000 kJ/m3. This is more than 10 times the typical actuation energy density of a PZT piezoelectric actuator. In another actuator of this type, an array of small posts was carved from a piece of HOPG, which was 1 cm square and 1 mm thick, by laser micromachining. The dimensions of the posts were 0.2 mm square at the top and 0.7 mm square at the bottom, and the height was 0.4 mm. The surface of the substrate part and that at the top of the posts were parallel to the graphite layers. A SEM image of the sample is shown in FIG. 25. A three layer assembly of copper foil, polypropylene membrane and another copper foil was attached on the substrate, surrounding the HOPG posts. The lower copper foil was attached on the surface of the substrate part. Lithium foil was put on the upper copper foil and used as a counter electrode. The polypropylene membrane insulated the two copper foils. FIG. 25 schematically shows the cross-section of the sample. The sample was sealed in a bag of aluminum-laminate film filled with liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte used was 1.33 M LiPF.sub.6 dissolved in a mixed solvent of ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and ethyl methyl carbonate (4:1:3:2 by volume). The sample was measured in a strain apparatus in which various preloads could be applied along the normal to the surface. The sample was cyclically charged and discharged, and the change in thickness was simultaneously measured by a precision displacement transducer equipped on the apparatus. FIG. 26 shows strain and voltage as functions of time during a charge-discharge cycle by a constant current of 0.4 mA under a mechanical preload of 100 MPa. The sample was first discharged until voltage became less than 0.01 V, then it was charged until voltage became more than 2 V. The curves clearly show that the strain was induced by the charge and discharge. The linear strain is 1.2% during the discharge, and this corresponds to a mechanical energy density of 1,200 kJ/m.sup.3. In another sample of this type, a layer of HOPG was bonded to an alumina plate. A piece of HOPG, which was 5 mm square and 0.4 mm thick, was first bonded to an alumina substrate, which was 12 mm square and 0.6 mm thick, with 25 .mu.m thick copper foil at 650.degree. C. for 1 hour in vacuum under a stress of 50 MPa. The HOPG piece was bonded so that the graphite layers were parallel to the surface of the substrate. An array of small posts was carved from the HOPG part by laser micromachining. The dimensions of the posts were 0.2 mm square at the top and 0.35 mm square at the bottom, and the height was 0.4 mm. A triple layer of copper foil, polypropylene membrane and another copper foil was attached on the substrate, surrounding the HOPG posts. The lower copper foil was attached to the copper layer that was used to bond the HOPG part. Lithium foil was put on the upper copper foil and used as a counter electrode. The polypropylene membrane insulated the two copper foils. The sample was sealed in a bag of aluminum-laminate film filled with liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte used was 1.33 M LiPF.sub.6 dissolved in a mixed solvent of ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and ethyl methyl carbonate (4:1:3:2 by volume). The sample was measured in a strain apparatus in which various preloads could be applied along the normal to the surface. The sample was cyclically charged and discharged, and the change in thickness was simultaneously measured by a precision displacement transducer equipped on the apparatus. FIG. 26B shows strain and voltage as functions of time during a charge-discharge cycle under a preload of 30 MPa. The sample was discharge at a current of 0.05 mA until voltage became 0.01 V, followed by additional discharge at a voltage of 0.01 V until the current decayed to less than 0.005 mA. Then, it was charged at a current of 0.05 mA until the voltage became more than 1 V, followed by additional charge at 1 V until the current decayed to less than 0.005 mA. The linear strain is 4.3% during and mechanical energy density is 1,290 kJ/m.sup.3. It is understood that with engineering improvements well-understood to those skilled in the art of electrochemical materials and devices, greater intercalation and greater corresponding strain is achievable. For example, the width of the posts may be narrowed in order to increase the extent of lithiation under a given current rate. At complete lithiation giving .about.10% linear expansion, the actuation energy density under 100 MPa pre-stress is 10,000 kJ/m.sup.3. It is also understood that many segmentation patterns may be applied to this basic actuator design to improve load-bearing and intercalation. FIG. 27 shows one alternative design in which the posts are more widely spaced so as to distribute the load over a larger macroscopic area, in which instance the lithiation source may be placed between the load-bearing posts. Example 8 Large Stroke Electrochemical Lever Actuator Large stroke electrochemical lever actuators may be prepared, and represent additional embodiments of the invention. A lever and fulcrum mechanism are used to amplify the induced strain of multilayer electrochemical actuators, hereafter referred to as the "active elements" to distinguish from the actuator, which comprises these as well as a mechanical assembly and optionally other sensors and controls for controlling the performance of the actuator. This actuator benefits from a simple amplification mechanism, easy method of applying prestress at the actuator output, and an ideal and compact form factor for placing the actuator in small spaces, exemplified by, but not limited to, such applications as actuating a rotor blade spar for trailing edge or rotor blade twisting actuation, deploying flaps in aircraft, watercraft, and land vehicles, deforming a mirror in an adaptive optical device, deploying solar panels in a satellite, latching or unlatching a door or lid, or opening and closing a valve. Measurements of displacement under preload, actuation force, and device stiffness have been conducted on the ELA. The results show that actuators based on this approach are capable of performing significant mechanical work. The mechanical performance of the electrochemical lever actuator (ELA) was characterized using different kinds of active elements. The results show that electrochemical actuators based on solid state active compounds should be attractive for applications where high strain, high energy density and high actuation authority are desirable. The design of the ELA is shown schematically in FIG. 28a, and with dimensional details in FIGS. 29a and 29b. While an actuator of similar design in which piezoceramics are used as the active materials is available commercially for micropositioning applications (Physik Instrumente, there are, in some embodiments, functional advantages in using electrochemical actuation elements in an actuator of this type, including but not limited to the ability to generate much larger stroke. Referring to FIG. 28a, the amplification ratio, given by the ratio of the displacement at the actuator output relative to the displacement of the active elements (here a stack of individual elements), is given by b/(a/2). The actuator of the example was designed to have an amplification ratio of six. A stiffness analysis illustrates advantages of the present actuator compared to comparable piezo-powered devices. As shown by E. F. Prechtl and S. R. Hall (Design of a high efficiency, large stroke electromechanical actuator, MIT, Cambridge, Mass. 1998), to obtain the highest coupling efficiency the stiffness of the expansive element, in this case the active elements, should be much lower than the stiffness of the coupler, in this case the elastic flexure. This is readily accomplished in the present case since, as shown in preceding examples, electrochemical actuators can be fabricated with stiffness much lower than that of many structural metals, ceramics, and composites. In addition, in order to reduce performance losses due to bending in the lever arm, the bending moment in the flexure should be low compared to the bending moment in the lever arm. These considerations led to the design shown in FIG. 27. Although the flexure can in principle be fabricated from numerous materials, in this example the frame was constructed of stainless steel with a Young's modulus of E=170 GPa. This frame, having outer dimensions 130 mm.times.32 mm.times.50 mm, transmits the load from the actuation elements to the actuator output. A cavity of dimensions of 80 mm.times.20 mm.times.40 mm was machined in the frame to accommodate the actuation elements. The flexure having the dimensions in FIG. 27 was then realized by making a series of precision wire-EDM (Electric Discharge Machining) cuts (Model: ROBOFIL240CC from Charmilles Technologies SA). End caps were made of the same stainless steel as the support frame. They have a spherical surface with a radius of 20 mm and a thickness of 15 mm for one end cap and 10 mm for the other. The radius of the end caps can also be increased to reduce Hertzian losses at the contacts. Shims were also made of stainless steel in thicknesses from 0.1 mm to 0.8 mm and were used to fulfil the preload methodology of the ELA. A preload is applied easily at the actuator output, see FIG. 27. A compressive preload is necessary to eliminate mechanical backlash, and to maximize the actuator force and stroke output. When the electrochemical active elements exhibit creep strain under load, shims can be used between the end caps and the actuator element stack to ensure that the creep strain is taken up under compressive preload. A multitude of tests were conducted to characterize the performance of the ELA, using actuator elements of prismatic form factor similar to those discussed in preceding examples. Displacement tests were carried out with different compressive preloads. The preload was applied with an Instron apparatus (Model 5550 and Bluehill control software) at a load rate of 460 N/h for most tests. After a desired peak preload value was reached, a rest period was used to allow for creep deformation of the active elements. The active elements were connected in parallel and simultaneously charged and discharged for multiple cycles at various rates, using the CCCV protocol. The amplified displacement at the actuator output was measured by the Instron crosshead, using a test rod with a spherical surface of 5 mm diameter made of tungsten was used to transmit the induced displacement and load from the actuator output to the strain gage and the load cell of the Instron crosshead. For example, the output strain measured under a load of 270N results in a stress of 4 MPa on the active elements. The output average displacement during charging is 3.42 mm, and for discharging is 3.72 mm, approximately an order of magnitude greater than can be expected from a lever actuator using piezoceramic elements. With these values and the amplification factor we calculate a battery stack strain of approx. 1.5%, which is consistent with the strains shown in preceding examples for these active elements under a few MPa stress. This implies a much higher stiffness for the frame than for the active elements, as is desired, and a high mechanical efficiency for the device. Example 9 Electrochemical Woven Actuator An Electrochemical Woven Actuator (EWA) was designed, as part of this invention, whose properties allow for very large stroke and high force actuation. While the embodiment described herein, for this actuator was developed for operation in a helicopter rotor blade, it is also suitable for other engineering applications requiring large stroke actuation. One of the main challenges in developing a novel actuator with the intercalation compounds was that the induced strain of the compounds has an actuation direction not identical to the direction required for many engineering applications. Considering this limitation, the development of actuation mechanisms that transform the principal strain direction of the active element (i.e., a multilayer electrochemical actuator) into the appropriate direction required for the application was sought. One desirable aspect of the actuator sought was to enclose the active elements with a layer of woven fibers, and to generate the strain and force of the actuator in the horizontal direction by extending the active element vertically. FIG. 30 shows the schematic view of the actuator, where three active elements (1) are enclosed by two alternating fibers (2). On the top and bottom surfaces of each active element, a cap with a constant curvature (3) is attached to provide a uniform normal stress. Clearly, a vertical extension of the active element reduces horizontal displacement of the actuator, and therefore, a contraction force is generated in the horizontal direction. We constructed a first prototype EWA by using stainless steel wires as the weaving material, and tested its performance to validate its concept. The active elements comprised three commercial batteries, each one of them with its caps machined from aluminum and attached with epoxy glue. The geometry of the EWA was chosen to maximize the energy efficiency of the device, while the resulting thickness of the EWA is acceptable. In order to test the performance of the EWA, it was subjected to a constant load while the batteries were charged, as shown in FIG. 31(a). The actuator strain was measured and compared with the strain in one of the batteries. The measurements showed a smaller strain than expected, due to some creep which was produced in large part by the commercial lithium ion cells used as active elements. If, however, the creep is removed from the data, a strain very close to the predicted value is obtained. FIG. 31(b) shows the graph obtained from the test, with the creep portion removed. FIG. 31 provided predicted values, and in FIG. 32 the expected stiffness and strain bounds were plotted against the ratio of the actuator length L and the battery length w, which demonstrated good correspondence. Example 10 Actuated Beams It was also of interest to construct an actuated beam, as shown in FIG. 33. One face of the beam was mechanically constrained by two layers of a fiberglass weave. 27 actuators were arrayed as shown in FIG. 33, and epoxy resin was poured as the matrix for the beam. The 27 actuators were electrically joined in parallel, and a power source was used to charge and discharge them within the voltage limits specified by the manufacturer (ATL Corporation). The beam was tested by clamping one end and using a laser beam as a "light lever" to measure the deflection of the other end. Upon charging and discharging, the tip of the beam deformed by 1 mm. This corresponds to a surface strain of 400 microstrain. Thus it is demonstrated that the electrochemical actuators of the invention can be used to provide mechanical actuation in a beam structure. Example 11 Electrochemically Based Fluidics Actuator While electrochemical pumping of a gas with a solid electrolyte has been used in prior art to perform actuation, a high stress is not possible, due to the compressibility of the gas. Since liquids have much less compressibility than gases their utilization produces greater actuation authority. In this concept an electrolytic membrane, which pumps an ion from one side of a device to another, generating a liquid rather than a gas in the process, is used. By pumping a liquid, much higher actuation forces can be produced since liquids have much lower compressibility. Actuators of this kind can be used in fluidic and micro fluidic devices, micro hydraulic devices, nastic structures compressing cellular micro-fluidic or micro hydraulic devices, and others. A proton-conducting membrane may be utilized to transport hydrogen ions to produce water, resulting in a net volume expansion (FIG. 34). Upon charging, for each mole of H+ transported across the membrane, producing one mole of water, from one half mole of OH, there is a net volume change: .times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times ..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..t imes. ##EQU00001## .times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times. .times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..times..t imes.- .times..times..times..times..times..times. ##EQU00001.2## Thus the volume expansion is: .times..times..times..times..times..times. ##EQU00002## 5 7,909,893 Electrode for a lithium battery, method for production of such an electrode and lithium battery comprising said electrode United States Patent Le Cras , 7,909,893 et al. March 22, 2011 Abstract The invention relates to a lithium battery, comprising at least one lithium intercalation compound, made up of crystallites and obtained by a production method, comprising at least the following steps: formation of a homogeneous mixture of at least one precursor for the lithium intercalation compound with a given adjunct, chemically stable with relation to crystallites and designed to limit the growth of crystallites or crystallite precursors during the formation thereof, thermal treatment of the homogeneous mixture for the synthesis of the lithium intercalation compound in the form of crystallites and to give a composite material comprising at least two phases formed respectively by the lithium intercalation compound and the adjunct and forming of the composite material to give said electrode. The invention further relates to an electrode obtained by said method and lithium battery comprising such an electrode. Inventors: Le Cras; Frederic (Notre Dame de l'Osier, FR), Martinet; Sebastien (Grenoble, FR), Bourbon; Carole (Saint-Michel de Saint-Geoirs, FR), Launois; Sebastien (Grenoble, FR) Assignee: Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (Paris, FR) Appl. No.: 11/631,168 Filed: July 21, 2005 PCT Filed: July 21, 2005 PCT No.: PCT/FR2005/001889 371(c)(1),(2),(4) December 29, 2006 Date: PCT Pub. No.: WO2006/018514 PCT Pub. Date: February 23, 2006 Foreign Application Priority Data Jul 26, 2004 [FR] 04 08246 Current U.S. Class: Current International Class: Field of Search: 29/623.1 ; 429/231.95; 502/101 4/58 H01M 4/82 (20060101); H01M (20100101); H01M 4/88 (20060101) 29/623.1,623.3-623.5 429/208-209,218.1-227,229,231,231.2-231.95 502/101 References Cited [Referenced By] U.S. Patent Documents 5432029 July 1995 Mitate et al. 6235427 May 2001 Idota et al. 6451482 September 2002 Watanabe et al. 6824922 November 2004 Park et al. 6933077 August 2005 Sudano et al. 2002/0039687 April 2002 Barker et al. 2002/0182497 December 2002 Kohzaki et al. 2003/0077517 April 2003 Nakanishi et al. 2003/0091889 May 2003 Sotomura et al. 2003/0170540 September 2003 Ohzuku et al. 2003/0219652 November 2003 Yoshida 2004/0131940 July 2004 Suzuki et al. 2005/0079419 April 2005 Jan et al. 2005/0196334 September 2005 Saidi et al. 2009/0104530 April 2009 Shizuka et al. Foreign Patent Documents 1 296 391 Mar., 2003 EP 1 372 202 Dec., 2003 EP 1 403 944 Mar., 2004 EP Other References Wang, Zhaoxiang et al. "Structural and electrochemical characterizations of surface-modified LiCoO2 cathode materials for Li-ion batteries," Solid State Ionics, vol. 148, 335-342 pp (2002). cited by other . Schlyakhtin, O.A., et al. "Particle size control of LiCoO2 powders by powder engineering methods," Journal of the European Ceramic Society, vol. 23, 1893-1899 pp (2003). cited by other . Bewlay, S.L., et al. "Conductivity improvements to spray-produced LiFePO4 by addition of a carbon source," Materials Letters, vol. 58, 1788-1791 pp (2004). cited by other . Sengupta, S., et al. "Low Temperatures Synthesis, Characterization and Evaluation of LiMn2O4 for Lithium Ion Batteries," Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, vol. 43, No. 1, 89-94 pp (2004). cited by other. Primary Examiner: Yuan; Dah-Wei D Assistant Examiner: (Rademaker) Roe; Claire L Attorney, Agent or Firm: Oliff & Berridge, PLC Claims The invention claimed is: 1. A method for production of an electrode for a lithium battery including a composite material, the composite material comprising a first phase formed by a lithium intercalation compound made up of crystallites and a second phase constituted by a selected specific additional compound, the method comprising at least the following steps: forming the composite material, wherein forming the composite material comprises: forming a homogeneous mixture of at least one precursor of the lithium intercalation compound with the selected specific additional compound; and synthesizing the lithium intercalation compound by heat treatment of the homogeneous mixture, wherein the selected specific additional compound is different from the precursor and is chemically stable with respect to crystallites and to said precursor under the synthesis conditions of the lithium intercalation compound, to limit the growth of the crystallites, and wherein the selected specific additional compound is selected from the group consisting of oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides and silicides of at least one chemical element selected from manganese, calcium, yttrium, lanthanum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, aluminum, cerium, iron, boron and silicon; and shaping of the composite material so as to obtain said electrode. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the specific additional compound is selected from the group consisting of Y.sub.2O.sub.3, Al.sub.2O.sub.3, TiO.sub.2, ZrO.sub.2, CeO.sub.2, HfO.sub.2, Cr.sub.2O.sub.3, La.sub.2O.sub.3, Fe.sub.2O.sub.3, FeAl.sub.2O.sub.4, CaO, MgO, MgAl.sub.2O.sub.4, MgCr.sub.2O.sub.4 and Y.sub.2TiO.sub.5, TiC, B.sub.4C, SiC, ZrC, WC, NbC and TaC, TiN, BN, Si.sub.3N.sub.4 and AlN, TiB.sub.2 and VB.sub.2 and MoSi.sub.2. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the shaping step comprises at least application of the composite material on a metallic support. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least one further compound selected from the group consisting of carbon and metals is added to the composite material between the thermal treatment step and the shaping step. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the composite material has a weight ratio between the proportion of the additional compound and the proportion of the lithium intercalation compound is lower than or equal to 0.2. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the crystallites have a size less than or equal to 2 .mu.m in the composite material. 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the size of the crystallites in the composite material is less than or equal to 200 nm. 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the additional compound is in form of a film having a thickness less than or equal to 200 nm, the crystallites being dispersed in said film. 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the thickness of the film is less than or equal to 20 nm. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the additional compound is in the form of particles having a diameter less than or equal to 200 nm and separating the crystallites. 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the diameter of the particles of the additional compound is less than or equal to 20 nm. Description BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a method for production of an electrode for a lithium battery comprising at least a lithium intercalation compound made up of crystallites. The invention also relates to an electrode obtained by one such method and to a lithium battery comprising one such electrode. STATE OF THE ART Lithium batteries are tending to replace nickel-cadmium (Ni--Cd) or nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) storage batteries as autonomous energy source in portable equipment. The performances and more particularly the specific and volume energy densities of lithium batteries and of lithium-ion batteries are in fact higher than those of Ni--Cd and Ni-MH batteries. The positive electrode of lithium batteries generally comprises an active compound called ion intercalation compound, such as TiS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.3, V.sub.2O.sub.5, LiCoO.sub.2, LiNiO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 and LiV.sub.3O.sub.8. In lithium-ion batteries, the intercalation compound LiCoO.sub.2 presents very good electrochemical properties. However, the limited quantity and the price of cobalt are an obstacle to such lithium-ion batteries in applications requiring high storage capacities becoming generalized. Moreover, replacing the cobalt by nickel or manganese is not satisfactory. LiNiO.sub.2 is in fact chemically unstable in the de-intercalated state, i.e. in the charged state for the battery. LiNiO.sub.2 can then form active oxygen by disproportionation and the active oxygen formed is liable to react with the organic solvents of the electrolyte causing the battery to explode. The LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 compound, stable at room temperature, is liable to be attacked by small quantities of HF contained in the electrolyte, above a temperature of about 55.degree. C. This attack then causes dissolution of the manganese and a rapid and irreversible drop in the battery capacity. For example, in the article "Low temperature synthesis characterization and evaluation of LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4 for lithium ion battery (Canadian metallurgical quarterly, vol 43, pages 89 to 93), S. Sengupta and al. obtain a manganese and lithium oxide by means of a low-temperature method, which oxide presents a higher discharge behaviour than that of a material available on the market. S. Sengupta and al. attribute this improved efficiency to the sub-micron size of the crystallite of the synthesized powder. It has been proposed to replace lithium and transition metal oxides by materials having a isotype structure of olivine, more particularly of LiMPO.sub.4 type, where M is a metal such as iron. For example, the reversible insertion and de-insertion reaction of lithium in LiFePO.sub.4 is as follows: LiFe.sup.IIPO.sub.4Fe.sup.IIIPO.sub.4+Li.sup.+e.sup.Thus, when this reaction takes place, the iron goes reversibly from a +II oxidation state to a +III oxidation state, a cation Li.sup.+ and an electron then being released. However the insertion and de-insertion potential of the LiFePO.sub.4 compound, i.e. the electrochemical potential of the FePO.sub.4/LiFePO.sub.4 couple, is 3.43V with respect to the electrochemical potential of the Li.sup.+/Li couple. Furthermore, the specific capacity of LiFePO.sub.4 is 170 mAh/g. These two values enable a theoretical specific energy density of 580 Wh/Kg to be obtained, whereas the practical specific energy density of LiCoO.sub.2 is about 530 Wh/kg. It is however difficult to implement a practical specific energy close to the theoretical value of LiFePO.sub.4. Indeed, LiFePO.sub.4 not having a mixed valency and the nature of the path which the electron has to take in the olivine structure give to the LiFePO.sub.4 compound an electronic insulator nature. Substitutions have been attempted to generate a mixed valency iron compound but they did not provide any real progress from an electrochemical point of view. To remedy this drawback and to obtain a positive electrode that is sufficiently electron-conducting, it is common practice to add carbon to the LiFePO.sub.4 compound in proportions varying between 10% and 15% in weight. Thus, in the article "Conductivity improvements to spray-produced LiFePO.sub.4 by addition of a carbon source (Materials letters 58 (2004) pages 1788 to 1791), S. L. Bewlay and al. propose to achieve a composite material of LiFePO.sub.4/C type for a positive electrode of a lithium-ion battery by pyrolitic spraying, adding sucrose designed to form the carbon to the LiFePO.sub.4 precursors. But as carbon is a reducer, it can lead to formation of the phosphide compound, at the surface of the LiFePO.sub.4 grains, which is liable to destroy a part of the intercalation material. Furthermore, as the density of the composite material obtained is not sufficient, the active volume does not enable such a composite material to be used in any type of application. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION It is one object of the invention to provide a method for production of an electrode for a lithium battery that is easy to implement and enables a good electronic conductivity and a high efficiency of the lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction to be obtained. According to the invention, this object is achieved by the appended claims. More particularly, this object is achieved by the fact that the method comprises at least the following steps: formation of a homogeneous mixture of at least one precursor of the lithium intercalation compound with a specific additional compound that is chemically stable with respect to crystallites and designed to limit the growth of crystallites during formation thereof, thermal treatment of the homogeneous mixture so as to synthesize the lithium intercalation compound in the form of crystallites and to obtain a composite material comprising at least two phases respectively formed by the lithium intercalation compound and by the additional compound, and shaping of the composite material so as to obtain said electrode. It is a further object of the invention to provide an electrode for a lithium battery obtained by such a method for production and remedying the shortcomings of the prior art. More particularly, the object of the invention is to provide an electrode having an improved lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction efficiency. According to the invention, this object is achieved by the fact that the electrode comprises at least one composite material comprising at least two phases respectively formed by a lithium intercalation compound made up of crystallites and by an additional compound that is chemically stable with respect to the crystallites and designed to limit the growth of crystallites during formation thereof. It is a further object of the invention to provide a lithium battery comprising one such electrode and presenting a high efficiency. According to the invention, this object is achieved by the fact that the lithium battery comprises at least a first electrode according to the invention, an electrolyte and a second electrode, the second electrode comprising at least one material chosen from metallic lithium, a lithium alloy, a nanometric mixture of a lithium alloy and of a lithium oxide, a material of spinel structure comprising lithium and titanium, a lithium and transition metal nitride, carbon and a lithium intercalation compound. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING Other advantages and features will become more clearly apparent from the following description of particular embodiments of the invention given as non-restrictive examples only. A voltage/specific energy capacity curve of a particular embodiment of a lithium battery according to the invention is represented in the accompanying FIG. 1. DESCRIPTION OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS A lithium battery comprises at least first and second electrodes, respectively positive and negative, and an electrolyte. In the lithium secondary battery, the positive electrode comprises at least a active compound generally called lithium insertion compound or lithium intercalation compound. The intercalation compound is formed by crystallites also called crystallized solid particles. The lithium intercalation compound can for example comprise an oxide chosen from titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum and niobium oxides and combinations thereof. Such an oxide can also be substituted or combined with lithium oxide, sulphides or selenides of one or more elements chosen from iron, molybdenum, niobium and titanium. It can also be combined with mixed phosphates, silicates or borates of lithium and of an element chosen from titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum and niobium or with metals or aluminium-based, silicon-based, germanium-based and/or tin-based alloys. Such an active compound presents the property of successively inserting and de-inserting Li.sup.+ cations, when the lithium battery is operating, during the charging and discharging operations. According to the invention, the lithium intercalation compound is associated in the electrode with a specific additional compound designed to improve the kinetics of the lithium intercalation and de-intercalation reaction, while limiting the growth of crystallites constituting the lithium intercalation compound during formation thereof. What is meant by limiting the growth of crystallites during formation thereof is that the growth of crystallites, and if applicable that of lithium intercalation compound precursors, are limited during synthesis of the lithium intercalation compound or during a subsequent re-crystallization should this be the case. Adding an additional compound in the electrode, which compound limits the growth of crystallites and is chemically stable with respect to crystallites and preferably refractory, in fact enables the mean distance of the path covered by the electrons in the lithium intercalation compound to be shortened. It enables the efficiency of the lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction to be increased, in particular for reaction kinetics compatible with operating regimes comprised between 0.5 and 2 C. The weight ratio between the proportion of additional compound and the proportion of lithium intercalation compound is preferably lower than or equal to 0.2. More particularly, improvement of the efficiency of the lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction is obtained by formation of a stable composite material comprising two distinct phases. A first phase is in fact formed by crystallites and is designed to react according to the lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction. The second phase consists of the additional compound having the function of limiting the growth of the crystallites during formation thereof. The second phase is also chemically stable with respect to crystallites, i.e. it does not react chemically with the crystallites in the conditions of synthesis of the latter, of recrystallization or subsequently. The composite material thus formed can also be associated with a further compound chosen from carbon and metals which, due to their intrinsic electronic conductivity, improve the electronic conductivity of the composite material. The presence of a specific additional compound in the electrode thus enables crystallites of small sizes to be obtained thereby reducing the diffusion length of the electrons in the electrode. The additional compound in fact forms a physical shield against diffusion, in solid phase, of the crystallites constituting the intercalation compound, and this shield limits crystalline growth. Moreover, even the crystallites located at the heart of the electrode, due to their small size, can react in accordance with the reversible lithium insertion and de-insertion reaction. The additional compound is preferably chosen from the group comprising oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides and silicides of at least one chemical element chosen from manganese, calcium, yttrium, lanthanum, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, aluminium, cerium, iron, boron and silicon. More particularly, it is chosen from the group comprising Y.sub.2O.sub.3, Al.sub.2O.sub.3, TiO.sub.2, ZrO.sub.2, CeO.sub.2, HfO.sub.2, Cr.sub.2O.sub.3, La.sub.2O.sub.3, Fe.sub.2O.sub.3, FeAl.sub.2O.sub.4, CaO, MgO, MgAl.sub.2O.sub.4, MgCr.sub.2O.sub.4 and Y.sub.2TiO.sub.5, TiC, B.sub.4C, SiC, ZrC, WC, NbC and TaC, TiN, BN, Si.sub.3N.sub.4 and AlN, TiB.sub.2 and VB.sub.2 and MoSi.sub.2. Such compounds are particularly suitable to be additional compounds designed to reduce the size of the crystallites. In addition, they are chemically stable and electrochemically stable when the lithium secondary battery is in operation. Moreover, for equal growth limiting and chemical and electrochemical stability performances, the choice of the additional compound is preferably determined by the highest electronic conduction capacity. Moreover, the additional compound is preferably chosen such as to limit the size of the crystallites to a value less than or equal to 2 .mu.m and more particularly less than or equal to 200 nm. This limiting of the size of the crystallites is obtained by limiting the growth of the crystallites, in particular during synthesis of the lithium intercalation compound or during recrystallization thereof after mechanical damage. The additional compound can be in the form of a film having a thickness less than or equal to 200 nm, and preferably less than or equal to 20 nm. The composite material is then in the form of crystallites of the lithium intercalation compound dispersed in a film formed by the additional compound. As this film has to let the Li.sup.+ ions pass, it is therefore either discontinuous or continuous but porous to Li.sup.+ ions. The additional compound can also be in the form of solid particles having a diameter less than or equal to 200 nm and preferably less than or equal to 20 nm, and the crystallites are arranged between said particles. In this case, the composite material preferably comprises support elements designed to maintain the cohesion between the different particles. Such a support element can be formed by an organic binder or by any other means. An electrode for a lithium battery is preferably produced by homogeneously mixing at least one precursor of the lithium intercalation compound with the additional compound. Then thermal treatment of the homogeneous mixture is performed so as to synthesize the lithium intercalation compound in the form of crystallites and to obtain a composite material comprising at least two phases respectively formed by the lithium intercalation compound and by the additional compound. Then the material composite is shaped as an electrode by any type of known means. It can for example be applied on a metal support. For example, 0.1 mole of dihydrate ferric (II) oxalate (FeC.sub.2O.sub.4, 2H.sub.2O) and 0.1 mole of monobasic lithium phosphate (LiH.sub.2PO.sub.4) with 0.00245 mole of yttrium oxide (Y.sub.2O.sub.3) are inserted in a planetary mill in an argon atmosphere. FeC.sub.2O.sub.4 and LiH.sub.2PO.sub.4 are in powder form and form the precursors of the lithium intercalation compound LiFePO.sub.4 whereas Y.sub.2O.sub.3, in the form of particles having a diameter of 23 nm, forms the additional compound limiting the formation of LiFePO.sub.4 crystallites. The powders are then mixed homogeneously for 48 hours in the planetary mill. The mixture collected then undergoes thermal treatment for one hour at 600.degree. C. in an argon atmosphere so as to synthesize the lithium intercalation compound LiFePO.sub.4. A composite material in powder form is then obtained and qualitative and quantitative analysis by X-ray diffraction shows the presence of the LiFePO.sub.4 phase in the composite material and indicates that it comprises 96.5% weight of LiFePO.sub.4, 3.5% weight of Y.sub.2O.sub.3 and traces of carbonaceous residues. 85.5% weight of the composite material are then mixed with 6.0% weight of polyvinylidene fluoride, 5.67% weight of graphite, and 2.83% weight of acetylene black. This mixture is then stirred with anhydrous n-methylpyrrolidine so as to obtain a homogeneous fluid ink. The ink is then applied to an aluminium foil strip by means of a micrometric doctor blade, and the strip and ink assembly is then dried at 120.degree. C. to form an electrode of a lithium battery. Such an electrode is then inserted in a lithium secondary battery of button cell type comprising a negative electrode made of metallic lithium and a microporous separator made of polypropylene imbibed with an electrolyte comprising a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), LiPF.sub.6. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the voltage/specific capacity curve of the lithium battery thus formed shows that the theoretical capacity achieved, at a charging/discharging rate of C/2, is compatible with the operating conditions necessary for portable applications for which the charging operation is performed in a maximum of one or two hours whereas the discharging operation has to be slow, taking place in about 10 hours. The invention is not limited to the embodiments described above. Thus it also relates to a lithium battery comprising a first electrode according to the invention, a second electrode and an electrolyte. The second electrode can be formed by any type of material known to be used in lithium batteries. It can for example be constituted by a material forming a Li.sup.+ cation source for the positive electrode. The lithium source constituting the negative electrode is for example chosen from metallic lithium, a lithium alloy, a nanometric mixture of a lithium alloy and a lithium oxide, a lithium and transition metal nitride. In the case where the negative electrode is not formed by a lithium source for the positive electrode, it is formed by a lithium intercalation or insertion material such as carbon in graphite form or a material of spinel structure containing lithium and titanium. In this case, the lithium is never present in metallic form in the lithium battery, the Li.sup.+ cations then going backwards and forwards between the two lithium insertion materials of the negative and positive electrodes, on each charging and discharging of the battery. In this case, the negative electrode can also comprise an additional compound designed to limit the size of the crystallites constituting the lithium insertion material, and possibly also carbon and an organic binder. Furthermore, the electrolyte of the lithium battery can be formed by any type of known material. It can for example be formed by a salt comprising at least the Li.sup.+ cation. The salt is for example chosen from LiClO.sub.4, LiAsF.sub.6, LiPF.sub.4, LiR.sub.FSO.sub.3, LiCH.sub.3SO.sub.3, LiN(R.sub.FSO.sub.2).sub.2, LiN(R.sub.FSO.sub.2).sub.3, R.sub.F being chosen from a fluorine atom and a perfluoroalkyl group comprising between 1 and 8 carbon atom. The salt is preferably dissolved in an aprotic polar solvent and can be supported by a separating element arranged between the first and second electrodes, the separating element then being imbibed with electrolyte. The salt can also be mixed with a molten salt such as imidazolium salts and derivatives thereof, pyridinium salts and derivatives thereof and quaternary ammonium salts. It has already been proposed to add an additional compound to the lithium intercalation compound of an electrode, without the added additional compound however enabling the size of the crystallites forming the intercalation compound to be limited, when formation thereof takes place. For example, the Patent Application EP-A-1403944 describes a positive electrode made of "boronized" graphitic material and the method for producing same. The "borated" graphitic material is a compound of a solid solution in which the carbon atoms are partially substituted by boron atoms or by a boron compound such as boron carbide, cobalt boride or hafnium boride. However, unlike the invention, the boron atom or the boron compound in the Patent Application EP-A-1403944 is not chemically stable with respect to the graphitic material constituting the lithium intercalation compound and it is not designed to limit the growth of crystallites during formation thereof. Consequently, the "boronized" graphitic material does not form a stable composite material with two distinct phases. Adding boron or a boron compound, in the Patent Application EP-A-1403944, is on the contrary designed to stabilize the crystalline structure of the graphitic material by introducing partial defects, so as to modify the crystallographic structure of the graphitic material. 6 7,883,644 Stoichiometric lithium cobalt oxide and method for preparation of the same Abstract A LiCoO.sub.2-containing powder. and a method for preparing a LiCoO.sub.2-containing powder, includes LiCoO.sub.2 having a stoichiometric composition via heat treatment of a lithium cobalt oxide and a lithium buffer material to make an equilibrium of a lithium chemical potential therebetween; the lithium buffer material which acts as a Li acceptor or a Li donor to remove or supplement a Li-excess or a Li-deficiency, the lithium buffer material coexisting with the stoichiometric lithium metal oxide. Also an electrode includes the LiCoO.sub.2-containing powder as an active material, and a rechargeable battery includes the electrode. 7 7,867,657 Electrolyte for non-aqueous cell and non-aqueous secondary cell Abstract In a rechargeable non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery using positive electrodes, negative electrodes and a non-aqueous electrolytic solution, additives to the electrolytic solution are used in combination, preferably in combination of at least two compounds selected from o-terphenyl, triphenylene, cyclohexylbenzene and biphenyl, and thus there are provided batteries excellent in safety and storage characteristics. 8 7,867,471 Process for preparing advanced ceramic powders using onium dicarboxylates Abstract A process of producing a ceramic powder including providing a plurality of precursor materials in solution, wherein each of the plurality of precursor materials in solution further comprises at least one constituent ionic species of a ceramic powder, combining the plurality of precursor materials in solution with an onium dicarboxylate precipitant solution to cause co-precipitation of the ceramic powder precursor in a combined solution; and separating the ceramic powder precursor from the combined solution. The process may further include calcining the ceramic powder precursor. 9 7,864,507 Capacitors with low equivalent series resistance Abstract An electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) in a coin or button cell configuration having low equivalent series resistance (ESR). The capacitor comprises mesh or other porous metal that is attached via conducting adhesive to one or both the current collectors. The mesh is embedded into the surface of the adjacent electrode, thereby reducing the interfacial resistance between the electrode and the current collector, thus reducing the ESR of the capacitor. 10 7,862,927 Thin film battery and manufacturing method Abstract In a method of fabricating a battery, a substrate is annealed to reduce surface contaminants or even water of crystallization from the substrate. A series of battery component films are deposited on a substrate, including an adhesion film, electrode films, and an electrolyte film. An adhesion film is deposited on the substrate and regions of the adhesion film are exposed to oxygen. An overlying stack of cathode films is deposited in successive deposition and annealing steps. 11 7,862,627 Thin film battery substrate cutting and fabrication process Abstract A method of fabricating a battery comprises selecting a battery substrate having cleavage planes, and cutting the battery substrate with pulsed laser bursts from a pulsed laser beam to control or limit fracture along the cleavage planes. The pulsed laser beam was also found to work well on thin substrates which are sized less than 100 microns. Before or after the cutting step, a plurality of battery component films can be deposited on the battery substrate. The battery component films include at least a pair of electrodes about an electrolyte which cooperate to form a battery. 12 7,851,078 Secondary battery with a shock absorbing portion Abstract A secondary battery includes an electrode assembly, a can receiving the electrode assembly, and a cap assembly coupled to the open upper part of the can. In addition, a vent including an opening, which is thinner than the can is formed on a wide side of the can, and a shock absorbing portion, which is thinner than the can and thicker than the opening, is formed near the vent. Accordingly, the vent can be protected from damage from external shocks, which are absorbed by the shock absorbing portion. 13 7,846,579 Thin film battery with protective packaging Abstract A battery comprises a substrate comprising an electrolyte between a pair of conductors, at least one conductor having a non-contact surface. A cap is spaced apart from the non-contact surface of the conductor by a gap having a gap distance d.sub.g of from about 1 .mu.m to about 120 .mu.m. The gap allows the conductor to expand into the gap. The gap is further bounded by side faces about a surrounding perimeter that may be sealed with a seal. In one version, the ratio of the surface area of the non-contact surfaces on the conductor to the total surface area of the side faces is greater than about 10:1. A pliable dielectric can also be provided in the gap. 14 7,791,317 Battery pack and method of calculating deterioration level thereof Abstract A battery pack is disclosed. The battery pack includes at least one battery, a switch section, a measurement section, and a deterioration level calculation section. The switch section turns on and off charging to the battery. The measurement section measures an open circuit voltage of the battery. The deterioration level calculation section calculates the deterioration level of the battery based on the open circuit voltage measured by the measurement section after the switch section has repeatedly turned on and off the charging 10 times or more. 15 7,776,776 Method for preparing catalyst platinum supported on lithium cobalt oxide Abstract The present invention relates to a method for preparing catalyst platinum supported on lithium cobalt oxide for sodium borohydride hydrolysis. The catalyst with crystalline platinum is produced by mixing dihydrogen hexachloroplatinumate and black lithium-cobalt-oxide powder with the impregnation method, and then by a two-step sintering. Platinum is the major catalytic activity site, and lithium cobalt oxide is the support thereof. The manufacturing process of the present invention is simple, and can be applied to catalytic reactions or electrocatalytic reactions in fuel cells. Thereby, the present method is very practical to industry. 16 7,776,478 Thin-film batteries with polymer and LiPON electrolyte layers and method Abstract A method and apparatus for making thin-film batteries having composite multi-layered electrolytes with soft electrolyte between hard electrolyte covering the negative and/or positive electrode, and the resulting batteries. In some embodiments, foil-core cathode sheets each having a cathode material (e.g., LiCoO.sub.2) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, and foil-core anode sheets having an anode material (e.g., lithium metal) covered by a hard electrolyte on both sides, are laminated using a soft (e.g., polymer gel) electrolyte sandwiched between alternating cathode and anode sheets. A hard glass-like electrolyte layer obtains a smooth hard positive-electrode lithium-metal layer upon charging, but when very thin, have randomly spaced pinholes/defects. When the hard layers are formed on both the positive and negative electrodes, one electrode's dendrite-short-causing defects on are not aligned with the other electrode's defects. The soft electrolyte layer both conducts ions across the gap between hard electrolyte layers and fills pinholes. 17 7,776,476 Battery Abstract A battery capable of improving cycle characteristics is provided. A spirally wound electrode body in which a cathode and an anode are wound with a separator in between is included. An electrolytic solution in which an electrolyte salt is dissolved in a solvent is impregnated in the separator. The electrolytic solution contains a cyclic ester carbonate derivative having halogen atom such as 4-fluoro-1,3-dioxolan-2-one and a light metal salt such as difluoro[oxolate-O,O']lithium borate, tetrafluoro[oxolate-O,O']lithium phosphate, and difluoro bis[oxolate-O,O']lithium phosphate. 18 7,745,054 Non-aqueous electrolyte and lithium secondary battery comprising same Abstract An electrolyte for a lithium secondary battery includes lithium salts, a non-aqueous organic solvent, and additive compounds, which initiates decomposition at 4V to 5V and show a constant current maintenance plateau region of more than or equal to 0.5V at measurement of LSV (linear sweep voltammetry). The additive compounds added to the electrolyte of the present invention decompose earlier than the organic solvent to form a conductive polymer layer on the surface of a positive electrode by increased electrochemical energy and heat at overcharge. The conductive polymer layer prevents decomposition of the organic solvent. Accordingly, the electrolyte inhibits gas generation caused by decomposition of the organic solvent during high temperature storage, and also improves safety of the battery during overcharge. 19 7,732,096 Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium batteries Abstract An uncycled preconditioned electrode for a non-aqueous lithium electrochemical cell including a lithium metal oxide having the formula xLi.sub.2-yH.sub.yO.xM'O.sub.2.(1-x)Li.sub.1-zH.sub.zMO.sub.2 in which 0<x<1, 0<y<1 and 0<z<1, M is anon-lithium metal ion with an average trivalent oxidation state selected from two or more of the first row transition metals or lighter metal elements in the periodic table, and M' is one or more ions with an average tetravalent oxidation state selected from the first and second row transition metal elements and Sn. The xLi.sub.2-yH.sub.y.xM'O.sub.2.(1-x)Li.sub.1-zH.sub.zMO.sub.2 material is prepared by preconditioning a precursor lithium metal oxide (i.e., xLi.sub.2M'O.sub.3.(1-x)LiMO.sub.2) with a proton-containing medium with a pH<7.0 containing an inorganic acid. Methods of preparing the electrodes are disclosed, as are electrochemical cells and batteries containing the electrodes. 20 7,731,765 Air battery and manufacturing method Abstract A battery (10) is disclosed having a lithium foil anode (11) embedded within a liquid electrolyte (12) which is positioned between two similarly constructed battery cathode halves (13) and (14). Each cathode half has a first glass barrier (16) coupled to a first porous metal substrate (17), a second glass barrier (18) coupled to a second porous metal substrate (19), a third glass barrier (20) coupled to a third porous metal substrate (21), and a lithium air cathode (22). A peripheral layer of edge sealant (25) surrounds the peripheral edge of the electrolyte and bonds the two halves together. The battery also includes an anode terminal (27) coupled to the anode and a cathode terminal (28) coupled to the cathode. 21 7,721,936 Interlock and surgical instrument including same 22 7,721,931 Prevention of cartridge reuse in a surgical instrument 23 7,713,660 Method for manufacturing manganese oxide nanotube or nanorod by anodic aluminum oxide template 24 7,709,151 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery, positive electrode active material and method of manufacturing the same 25 7,695,649 Lithium transition metal oxide with gradient of metal composition 26 7,692,411 System for energy harvesting and/or generation, storage, and delivery 27 7,682,735 Pouch type lithium secondary battery and method of fabricating the same 28 7,678,503 Surface and bulk modified high capacity layered oxide cathodes with low irreversible capacity loss 29 7,678,498 Nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 30 7,662,515 Nonaqueous electrolyte battery, battery pack and vehicle 31 7,648,794 Lithium secondary battery and a cap assembly therefor 32 7,579,117 Electrochemical cell energy device based on novel electrolyte 33 7,566,479 Method for the synthesis of surface-modified materials 34 7,563,540 Cathode active material and lithium secondary battery using the same 35 7,547,493 Lithium cobalt oxide, method for manufacturing the same, and nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 36 7,547,492 Lithium cobalt oxide, method for manufacturing the same, and nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 37 7,541,715 Electrochemical methods, devices, and structures 38 7,540,886 Method of manufacturing lithium battery 39 7,524,393 Gel electrolyte battery 40 7,510,582 Method of fabricating thin film battery with annealed substrate 41 7,507,501 Positive active material composition for rechargeable lithium batteries 42 7,459,236 Battery 43 7,410,730 Thin film battery and electrolyte therefor 44 7,393,476 Positive electrode active material for lithium secondary cell and lithium secondary cell 45 7,381,395 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery and method of manufacturing the same 46 7,364,793 Powdered lithium transition metal oxide having doped interface layer and outer layer and method for preparation of the same 47 7,338,734 Conductive lithium storage electrode 48 7,314,682 Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium batteries 49 7,295,878 Implantable devices using rechargeable zero-volt technology lithium-ion batteries 50 7,267,907 Negative electrode for rechargeable lithium battery and rechargeable lithium battery comprising same 51 7,258,821 Nickel-rich quaternary metal oxide materials as cathodes for lithium-ion and lithium-ion polymer batteries 52 7,253,494 Battery mounted integrated circuit device having diffusion layers that prevent cations serving to charge and discharge battery from diffusing into the integrated circuit region 53 7,248,929 Implantable devices using rechargeable zero-volt technology lithium-ion batteries 54 7,241,533 Electrode for rechargeable lithium battery and rechargeable lithium battery 55 7,238,450 High voltage laminar cathode materials for lithium rechargeable batteries, and process for making the same 56 7,211,237 Solid state synthesis of lithium ion battery cathode material 57 7,204,862 Packaged thin film batteries and methods of packaging thin film batteries 58 7,186,479 Thin film battery and method of manufacture 59 7,184,836 Implantable devices using rechargeable zero-volt technology lithium-ion batteries 60 7,177,691 Implantable pulse generators using rechargeable zero-volt technology lithium-ion batteries 61 7,166,387 Thin battery with an electrode having a higher strength base portion than a tip portion 62 7,160,415 Gel electrolyte battery 63 7,150,940 Lithium ion secondary battery 64 7,105,203 Intermittent coating apparatus and intermittent coating method 65 7,056,622 Nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 66 7,041,336 Intermittent coating apparatus and intermittent coating method 67 7,033,705 Polymer electrolyte, rechargeable lithium battery and method of preparing rechargeable lithium battery 68 6,982,132 Rechargeable thin film battery and method for making the same 69 6,962,613 Low-temperature fabrication of thin-film energy-storage devices 70 6,932,922 Lithium cobalt oxides and methods of making same 71 6,902,745 Method of manufacturing nano-sized lithium-cobalt oxides by flame spraying pyrolysis 72 6,886,240 Apparatus for producing thin-film electrolyte 73 6,882,130 Battery-driven electronic device and mobile communication apparatus 74 6,878,490 Positive electrode active materials for secondary batteries and methods of preparing same 75 6,869,724 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery and positive electrode for the same 76 6,866,965 Polymeric electrolyte and lithium battery employing the same 77 6,852,139 System and method of producing thin-film electrolyte 78 6,841,303 High ionic conductivity gel polymer electrolyte for rechargeable polymer batteries 79 6,835,493 Thin film battery 80 6,821,679 Fabrication method of LiCoO2 nano powder by surface modification of precursor 81 6,819,084 Method of fabricating rechargeable lithium battery and rechargeable lithium battery fabricated by same 82 6,818,356 Thin film battery and electrolyte therefor 83 6,806,685 Accumulator power supply unit 84 6,805,991 Nonaqueous electrolyte solution secondary battery 85 6,758,404 Media cipher smart card 86 6,755,873 Gel electrolyte battery 87 6,737,196 Method of making a lithium polymer battery and battery made by the method 88 6,733,927 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery and method for manufacturing the same 89 6,713,987 Rechargeable battery having permeable anode current collector 90 6,682,849 Ion battery using high aspect ratio electrodes 91 6,667,132 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries 92 6,653,019 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary cell 93 6,652,605 Process for preparation of a lithiated or overlithiated transition metal oxide, active positive electrode materials containing this oxide, and a battery 94 6,623,886 Nickel-rich quaternary metal oxide materials as cathodes for lithium-ion and lithium-ion polymer batteries 95 6,613,479 Positive electrode material and battery for nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 96 6,613,478 Positive electrode material and cell for nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery 97 6,596,439 Lithium ion battery capable of being discharged to zero volts 98 6,582,481 Method of producing lithium base cathodes 99 6,562,518 Fabrication of highly textured lithium cobalt oxide films by rapid thermal annealing 100 6,562,218 Method for forming a thin film 101 6,555,270 Fabrication of highly textured lithium cobalt oxide films by rapid thermal annealing 102 6,553,263 Implantable pulse generators using rechargeable zero-volt technology lithium-ion batteries 103 6,528,204 Lithium secondary battery comprising individual cells with one another, as well as watches, computers and communication equipment provided with a battery 104 6,527,955 Heat-activatable microporous membrane and its uses in batteries 105 6,511,516 Method and apparatus for producing lithium based cathodes 106 6,503,432 Process for forming multilayer articles by melt extrusion 107 6,461,762 Rechargeable battery structure having a stacked structure of sequentially folded cells 108 6,428,933 Lithium ion batteries with improved resistance to sustained self-heating 109 6,423,453 Solid electrolyte battery 110 6,423,106 Method of producing a thin film battery anode 111 6,402,796 Method of producing a thin film battery 112 6,399,246 Latex binder for non-aqueous battery electrodes 113 6,398,824 Method for manufacturing a thin-film lithium battery by direct deposition of battery components on opposite sides of a current collector 114 6,395,426 Non-aqueous electrolyte cell having a positive electrode with Ti-attached LiCoO2 115 6,387,563 Method of producing a thin film battery having a protective packaging 116 6,350,543 Manganese-rich quaternary metal oxide materials as cathodes for lithium-ion and lithium-ion polymer batteries 117 6,348,282 Non-Aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries 118 6,344,366 Fabrication of highly textured lithium cobalt oxide films by rapid thermal annealing 119 6,291,097 Grid placement in lithium ion bi-cell counter electrodes 120 6,287,722 Continuous melt process for fabricating ionically conductive articles 121 6,280,883 Bis (perfluoralkanesulfonyl)imide surfactant salts in electrochemical systems 122 6,280,873 Wound battery and method for making it 123 6,242,129 Thin lithium film battery 124 6,114,062 Electrode for lithium secondary battery and method for manufacturing electrode for lithium secondary battery 125 6,103,213 Process for producing lithium-cobalt oxide 126 6,094,292 Electrochromic window with high reflectivity modulation 127 6,090,505 Negative electrode materials for non-aqueous electrolyte secondary batteries and said batteries employing the same materials 128 6,063,519 Grid placement in lithium ion bi-cell counter electrodes 129 5,914,094 Process for preparing cathode active material by a sol-gel method 130 5,849,433 Polymer blend electrolyte system and electrochemical cell using same 131 5,837,015 Method of making a multilayered gel electrolyte bonded rechargeable electrochemical cell 132 5,834,135 Multilayered gel electrolyte bonded rechargeable electrochemical cell 133 5,716,421 Multilayered gel electrolyte bonded rechargeable electrochemical cell and method of making same 134 5,709,968 Non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery 135 5,688,293 Method of making a gel electrolyte bonded rechargeable electrochemical cell 136 5,681,357 Gel electrolyte bonded rechargeable electrochemical cell and method of making same 137 5,639,573 Polymer gel electrolyte 138 5,591,544 Current collector device 139 5,588,971 Current collector device and method of manufacturing same 140 5,578,396 Current collector device 141 5,573,554 Current collector device and method of manufacturing same 142 5,567,548 Lithium ion battery with lithium vanadium pentoxide positive electrode 143 5,508,122 Battery with a spiral electrode unit 144 5,396,177 Battery with electrochemical tester 145 5,339,024 Battery with electrochemical tester 146 5,308,720 Non-aqueous battery having a lithium-nickel-oxygen cathode 147 5,015,547 Lithium secondary cell
